:Multicellular organism

Multicellularity has evolved independently at least 25 times in eukaryotes,{{cite journal | last1 = Grosberg | first1 = RK | last2 = Strathmann | first2 = RR | year = 2007 | title = The evolution of multicellularity: A minor major transition? | journal = Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst | volume = 38 | pages = 621–654 | doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102403.114735 | url = https://grosberglab.faculty.ucdavis.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/453/2017/05/2007-Grosberg-R.-K.-and-R.-R.-Strathmann.pdf}}{{cite journal |last1=Parfrey |first1=L.W. |last2=Lahr |first2=D.J.G. |year=2013 |title=Multicellularity arose several times in the evolution of eukaryotes |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140725235332/http://www.producao.usp.br/bitstream/handle/BDPI/45022/339_ftp.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |journal=BioEssays |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=339–347 |doi=10.1002/bies.201200143 |pmid=23315654 |s2cid=13872783}} and also in some prokaryotes, like cyanobacteria, myxobacteria, actinomycetes, Magnetoglobus multicellularis or Methanosarcina. However, complex multicellular organisms evolved only in six eukaryotic groups: animals, symbiomycotan fungi, brown algae, red algae, green algae, and land plants.{{cite journal |last1=Popper |first1=Zoë A. |last2=Michel |first2=Gurvan |last3=Hervé |first3=Cécile |last4=Domozych |first4=David S. |last5=Willats |first5=William G.T. |last6=Tuohy |first6=Maria G. |last7=Kloareg |first7=Bernard |last8=Stengel |first8=Dagmar B. |year=2011 |title=Evolution and diversity of plant cell walls: From algae to flowering plants |journal=Annual Review of Plant Biology |volume=62 |pages=567–590 |pmid=21351878 |hdl=10379/6762 |hdl-access=free |s2cid=11961888 |doi=10.1146/annurev-arplant-042110-103809}} It evolved repeatedly for Chloroplastida (green algae and land plants), once for animals, once for brown algae, three times in the fungi (chytrids, ascomycetes, and basidiomycetes){{Cite journal |last=Niklas |first=K.J. |year=2014 |title=The evolutionary-developmental origins of multicellularity |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=101 |issue=1 |pages=6–25 |doi=10.3732/ajb.1300314 |doi-access=free |pmid=24363320}} and perhaps several times for slime molds and red algae.{{cite journal |last=Bonner |first=John Tyler |author-link=John Tyler Bonner |year=1998 |title=The origins of multicellularity |journal=Integrative Biology |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=27–36 |issn=1093-4391 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0.CO;2-6 |url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=7527a480b9385dc5c5ea6c6be5f982bd20d57352}} The first evidence of multicellular organization, which is when unicellular organisms coordinate behaviors and may be an evolutionary precursor to true multicellularity, is from cyanobacteria-like organisms that lived 3.0–3.5 billion years ago. To reproduce, true multicellular organisms must solve the problem of regenerating a whole organism from germ cells (i.e., sperm and egg cells), an issue that is studied in evolutionary developmental biology. Animals have evolved a considerable diversity of cell types in a multicellular body (100–150 different cell types), compared with 10–20 in plants and fungi.{{cite book |last1=Margulis |first1=L. |author1-link=Lynn Margulis |last2=Chapman |first2=M.J. |year=2009 |title=Kingdoms and Domains: An illustrated guide to the phyla of life on Earth |edition=4th |chapter=2. Kingdom Protoctista |chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780123736215000027 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-373621-5.00002-7 |isbn=978-0-12-373621-5 |oclc=990541741 |publisher=Academic Press / Elsevier |page=116}}

Loss of multicellularity occurred in some groups.{{Cite journal |last=Seravin |first=L.N. |year=2001 |title=The principle of counter-directional morphological evolution and its significance for constructing the megasystem of protists and other eukaryotes |url=http://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/the-principle-of-counter-directional-morphological-evolution-and-its-significance-for-construction-the-megasystem-of-protists-and-other |journal=Protistology |volume=2 |pages=6–14}} Fungi are predominantly multicellular, though early diverging lineages are largely unicellular (e.g., Microsporidia) and there have been numerous reversions to unicellularity across fungi (e.g., Saccharomycotina, Cryptococcus, and other yeasts).{{harvnb|Parfrey|Lahr|2013|p=344}}{{cite journal | last1 = Medina | first1 = M. | last2 = Collins | first2 = A.G. | last3 = Taylor | first3 = J.W. | last4 = Valentine | first4 = J.W. | last5 = Lipps | first5 = J.H. | last6 = Zettler | first6 = L.A. Amaral | last7 = Sogin | first7 = M.L. | year = 2003 | title = Phylogeny of Opisthokonta and the evolution of multicellularity and complexity in Fungi and Metazoa | journal = International Journal of Astrobiology | volume = 2 | issue = 3| pages = 203–211 | doi=10.1017/s1473550403001551| bibcode = 2003IJAsB...2..203M | doi-access = free }} It may also have occurred in some red algae (e.g., Porphyridium), but they may be primitively unicellular.{{cite book |editor-last=Seckbach |editor-first=Joseph |editor2-last=Chapman |editor2-first=David J. |chapter=5 Porphyridiophyceae |chapter-url={{GBurl|fegCa9G-c90C|p=252}} |title=Red algae in the genomic age |series=Cellular Origin, Life in Extreme Habitats and Astrobiology |publisher=Springer |date=2010 |volume=13 |isbn=978-90-481-3795-4 |doi=10.1007/978-90-481-3795-4 |pages=252 }} Loss of multicellularity is also considered probable in some green algae (e.g., Chlorella vulgaris and some Ulvophyceae).{{cite journal|last1=Cocquyt|first1=E.|last2=Verbruggen|first2=H.|last3=Leliaert|first3=F.|last4=De Clerck|first4=O.|title=Evolution and Cytological Diversification of the Green Seaweeds (Ulvophyceae)|journal=Mol. Biol. Evol.|volume=27|issue=9|year=2010|pages=2052–61|issn=0737-4038|doi=10.1093/molbev/msq091|pmid=20368268|doi-access=free}}{{cite thesis |last=Richter |first=Daniel Joseph |url=http://escholarship.org/uc/item/7xc2p94p |title=The gene content of diverse choanoflagellates illuminates animal origins |type=PhD |publisher=University of California, Berkeley |oclc=1464736521 |id=ark:/13030/m5wd44q5 |date=2013}} In other groups, generally parasites, a reduction of multicellularity occurred, in the number or types of cells (e.g., the myxozoans, multicellular organisms, earlier thought to be unicellular, are probably extremely reduced cnidarians).{{cite web|url=http://tolweb.org/Myxozoa/2460|title=Myxozoa|website=tolweb.org|access-date=14 April 2018}}

Multicellular organisms, especially long-living animals, face the challenge of cancer, which occurs when cells fail to regulate their growth within the normal program of development. Changes in tissue morphology can be observed during this process. Cancer in animals (metazoans) has often been described as a loss of multicellularity and an atavistic reversion towards a unicellular-like state.{{cite journal | last1 = Davies | first1 = P.C.W. | last2 = Lineweaver | first2 = C.H. | year = 2011 | title = Cancer tumors as Metazoa 1.0: tapping genes of ancient ancestors | journal = Physical Biology | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | page = 015001 | doi=10.1088/1478-3975/8/1/015001 | pmid=21301065 | pmc=3148211| bibcode = 2011PhBio...8a5001D }} Many genes responsible for the establishment of multicellularity that originated around the appearance of metazoans are deregulated in cancer cells, including genes that control cell differentiation, adhesion and cell-to-cell communication.{{cite journal | last1 = Domazet-Loso | first1 = T. | last2 = Tautz | first2 = D. | year = 2010 | title = Phylostratigraphic tracking of cancer genes suggests a link to the emergence of multicellularity in metazoa | journal = BMC Biology | volume = 8 | issue = 66 | page = 66 | doi=10.1186/1741-7007-8-66| doi-access = free | pmid=20492640 | pmc=2880965 }}{{cite journal | first1=F. | last1=Jacques | first2=E. | last2=Baratchart | first3=K. | last3=Pienta | first4=E. | last4=Hammarlund | year = 2022 | title= Origin and evolution of animal multicellularity in the light of phylogenomics and cancer genetics | journal = Medical Oncology | volume=39 | issue =160 | doi=10.1007/s12032-022-01740-w | pmid=35972622 | pmc=9381480 | pages = 1–14}}. There is a discussion about the possibility of existence of cancer in other multicellular organisms{{harvnb|Richter|2013|p=11}}{{cite journal | last1 = Gaspar | first1 = T. | last2 = Hagege | first2 = D. | last3 = Kevers | first3 = C. | last4 = Penel | first4 = C. | last5 = Crèvecoeur | first5 = M. | last6 = Engelmann | first6 = I. | last7 = Greppin | first7 = H. | last8 = Foidart | first8 = J.M. | year = 1991 | title = When plant teratomas turn into cancers in the absence of pathogens | journal = Physiologia Plantarum | volume = 83 | issue = 4| pages = 696–701 | doi=10.1111/j.1399-3054.1991.tb02489.x| bibcode = 1991PPlan..83..696G }} or even in protozoa.Lauckner, G. (1980). Diseases of protozoa. In: Diseases of Marine Animals. Kinne, O. (ed.). [https://www.int-res.com/archive/doma_books/DOMA_Vol_I_(general_aspects,_protozoa_to%20gastropoda).pdf Vol. 1, p. 84], John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, UK. For example, plant galls have been characterized as tumors,{{cite journal | last1 = Riker | first1 = A.J. | year = 1958 | title = Plant tumors: Introduction | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 44 | issue = 4| pages = 338–9 | doi=10.1073/pnas.44.4.338| pmid = 16590201 | pmc = 335422| bibcode = 1958PNAS...44..338R | doi-access = free }} but some authors argue that plants do not develop cancer.{{cite journal | last1 = Doonan | first1 = J. | last2 = Hunt | first2 = T. | year = 1996 | title = Cell cycle. Why don't plants get cancer? | journal = Nature | volume = 380 | issue = 6574| pages = 481–2 | doi=10.1038/380481a0 | pmid=8606760| s2cid = 4318184 | doi-access = free }}

In some multicellular groups, which are called Weismannists, a separation between a sterile somatic cell line and a germ cell line evolved. However, Weismannist development is relatively rare (e.g., vertebrates, arthropods, Volvox), as a great part of species have the capacity for somatic embryogenesis (e.g., land plants, most algae, many invertebrates).Ridley M (2004) Evolution, 3rd edition. Blackwell Publishing, p. 295–297.

File:The-Simplest-Integrated-Multicellular-Organism-Unveiled-pone.0081641.s003.ogv consists of four cells.]]

One hypothesis for the origin of multicellularity is that a group of function-specific cells aggregated into a slug-like mass called a grex, which moved as a multicellular unit. This is essentially what slime molds do. Another hypothesis is that a primitive cell underwent nucleus division, thereby becoming a coenocyte. A membrane would then form around each nucleus (and the cellular space and organelles occupied in the space), thereby resulting in a group of connected cells in one organism (this mechanism is observable in Drosophila). A third hypothesis is that as a unicellular organism divided, the daughter cells failed to separate, resulting in a conglomeration of identical cells in one organism, which could later develop specialized tissues. This is what plant and animal embryos do as well as colonial choanoflagellates.{{cite journal|url= |title=Multicellular development in a choanoflagellate|first1=Stephen R.|last1=Fairclough|first2=Mark J.|last2=Dayel|first3=Nicole|last3=King|date=26 October 2010|journal=Current Biology|volume=20|issue=20|pages=R875–R876|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2010.09.014|pmid=20971426|pmc=2978077|bibcode=2010CBio...20.R875F }}{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/14/science/14creatures.html|title=In a Single-Cell Predator, Clues to the Animal Kingdom's Birth|first=Sean B.|last=Carroll|newspaper=The New York Times |date=December 14, 2010}}

Because the first multicellular organisms were simple, soft organisms lacking bone, shell, or other hard body parts, they are not well preserved in the fossil record.A H Knoll, 2003. Life on a Young Planet. Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|0-691-00978-3}} (hardcover), {{ISBN|0-691-12029-3}} (paperback). An excellent book on the early history of life, very accessible to the non-specialist; includes extensive discussions of early signatures, fossilization, and organization of life. One exception may be the demosponge, which may have left a chemical signature in ancient rocks. The earliest fossils of multicellular organisms include the contested Grypania spiralis and the fossils of the black shales of the Palaeoproterozoic Francevillian Group Fossil B Formation in Gabon (Gabonionta).

{{cite journal

| author = El Albani, Abderrazak

| date = 1 July 2010

| title = Large colonial organisms with coordinated growth in oxygenated environments 2.1 Gyr ago

| journal = Nature

| volume = 466

| issue = 7302

| pages = 100–4

| issn = 0028-0836

| doi = 10.1038/nature09166

| pmid = 20596019

|display-authors=etal| bibcode = 2010Natur.466..100A

| s2cid = 4331375

}} The Doushantuo Formation has yielded 600 million year old microfossils with evidence of multicellular traits.{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1038/nature13766| pmid = 25252979| title = Cell differentiation and germ–soma separation in Ediacaran animal embryo-like fossils| journal = Nature| year = 2014| last1 = Chen | first1 = L. | last2 = Xiao | first2 = S. | last3 = Pang | first3 = K. | last4 = Zhou | first4 = C. | last5 = Yuan | first5 = X. | volume=516 | issue = 7530| pages=238–241| bibcode = 2014Natur.516..238C| s2cid = 4448316}}

Until recently, phylogenetic reconstruction has been through anatomical (particularly embryological) similarities. This is inexact, as living multicellular organisms such as animals and plants are more than 500 million years removed from their single-cell ancestors. Such a passage of time allows both divergent and convergent evolution time to mimic similarities and accumulate differences between groups of modern and extinct ancestral species. Modern phylogenetics uses sophisticated techniques such as alloenzymes, satellite DNA and other molecular markers to describe traits that are shared between distantly related lineages.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}}

The evolution of multicellularity could have occurred in several different ways, some of which are described below:

This theory suggests that the first multicellular organisms occurred from symbiosis (cooperation) of different species of single-cell organisms, each with different roles. Over time these organisms would become so dependent on each other that they would not be able to survive independently, eventually leading to the incorporation of their genomes into one multicellular organism.{{cite book

| last = Margulis |first=Lynn

| author-link = Lynn Margulis

| year = 1998

| title = Symbiotic Planet: A New Look at Evolution

| page = 160

| publisher = Basic Books

| isbn = 978-0-465-07272-9

| url = https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=96971657

| access-date = 2017-09-05

| archive-date = 2010-04-20

| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100420055859/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o

| url-status = dead

}} Each respective organism would become a separate lineage of differentiated cells within the newly created species.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

This kind of severely co-dependent symbiosis can be seen frequently, such as in the relationship between clown fish and Riterri sea anemones. In these cases, it is extremely doubtful whether either species would survive very long if the other became extinct. However, the problem with this theory is that it is still not known how each organism's DNA could be incorporated into one single genome to constitute them as a single species. Although such symbiosis is theorized to have occurred (e.g., mitochondria and chloroplasts in animal and plant cells—endosymbiosis), it has happened only extremely rarely and, even then, the genomes of the endosymbionts have retained an element of distinction, separately replicating their DNA during mitosis of the host species. For instance, the two or three symbiotic organisms forming the composite lichen, although dependent on each other for survival, have to separately reproduce and then re-form to create one individual organism once more.{{citation needed|date=May 2022}}

This theory states that a single unicellular organism, with multiple nuclei, could have developed internal membrane partitions around each of its nuclei.

{{cite book

|vauthors=Hickman CP, Hickman FM | date = 8 July 1974

| title = Integrated Principles of Zoology

| edition = 5th

| publisher = Mosby

| isbn = 978-0-8016-2184-0

| page = 112

}} Many protists such as the ciliates or slime molds can have several nuclei, lending support to this hypothesis. However, the simple presence of multiple nuclei is not enough to support the theory. Multiple nuclei of ciliates are dissimilar and have clear differentiated functions. The macronucleus serves the organism's needs, whereas the micronucleus is used for sexual reproduction with exchange of genetic material. Slime molds syncitia form from individual amoeboid cells, like syncitial tissues of some multicellular organisms, not the other way round. To be deemed valid, this theory needs a demonstrable example and mechanism of generation of a multicellular organism from a pre-existing syncytium.{{citation needed|date=May 2022}}

The colonial theory of Haeckel, 1874, proposes that the symbiosis of many organisms of the same species (unlike the symbiotic theory, which suggests the symbiosis of different species) led to a multicellular organism. At least some - it is presumed land-evolved - multicellularity occurs by cells separating and then rejoining (e.g., cellular slime molds) whereas for the majority of multicellular types (those that evolved within aquatic environments), multicellularity occurs as a consequence of cells failing to separate following division.{{Cite journal

| doi = 10.1038/420745a

| title = Multicellularity: Evolution and the egg

| year = 2002

| last1 = Wolpert | first1 = L.

| last2 = Szathmáry | first2 = E.

| journal = Nature

| volume = 420

| pages = 745

| pmid = 12490925

| issue = 6917

| bibcode = 2002Natur.420..745W

| s2cid = 4385008

| doi-access = free

}} The mechanism of this latter colony formation can be as simple as incomplete cytokinesis, though multicellularity is also typically considered to involve cellular differentiation.{{Cite journal

| doi = 10.1002/bies.20197

| title = A twelve-step program for evolving multicellularity and a division of labor

| year = 2005

| last1 = Kirk | first1 = D.L.

| journal = BioEssays

| volume = 27

| pages = 299–310

| pmid = 15714559

| issue = 3

}}

File:ColonialFlagellateHypothesis.png

The advantage of the Colonial Theory hypothesis is that it has been seen to occur independently in 16 different protoctistan phyla. For instance, during food shortages the amoeba Dictyostelium groups together in a colony that moves as one to a new location. Some of these amoeba then slightly differentiate from each other. Other examples of colonial organisation in protista are Volvocaceae, such as Eudorina and Volvox, the latter of which consists of up to 500–50,000 cells (depending on the species), only a fraction of which reproduce.AlgaeBase. [http://www.algaebase.org/search/genus/detail/?genus_id=43497 Volvox Linnaeus, 1758: 820.] For example, in one species 25–35 cells reproduce, 8 asexually and around 15–25 sexually. However, it can often be hard to separate colonial protists from true multicellular organisms, as the two concepts are not distinct; colonial protists have been dubbed "pluricellular" rather than "multicellular".

Some authors suggest that the origin of multicellularity, at least in Metazoa, occurred due to a transition from temporal to spatial cell differentiation, rather than through a gradual evolution of cell differentiation, as affirmed in Haeckel's gastraea theory.{{Cite journal |url=http://www.kumarlab.net/pdf_new/MikhailovAleoshin09.pdf |doi=10.1002/bies.200800214 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305132401/http://www.kumarlab.net/pdf_new/MikhailovAleoshin09.pdf |archive-date=2016-03-05|title=The origin of Metazoa: A transition from temporal to spatial cell differentiation |year=2009 |last1=Mikhailov |first1=Kirill V. |last2=Konstantinova |first2=Anastasiya V. |last3=Nikitin |first3=Mikhail A. |last4=Troshin |first4=Peter V. |last5=Rusin |first5=Leonid Yu. |last6=Lyubetsky |first6=Vassily A. |last7=Panchin |first7=Yuri V. |last8=Mylnikov |first8=Alexander P. |last9=Moroz |first9=Leonid L. |last10=Kumar |first10=Sudhir |last11=Aleoshin |first11=Vladimir V. |journal=BioEssays |volume=31 |issue=7 |pages=758–768 |pmid=19472368 |s2cid=12795095 }}

About 800 million years ago,{{cite journal |last1=Erwin |first1=Douglas H. |title=Early metazoan life: divergence, environment and ecology |journal=Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B |date=9 November 2015 |volume=370 |issue=20150036|pages=20150036 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2015.0036 |pmid=26554036 |pmc=4650120 |bibcode=2015RSPTB.37050036E }} a minor genetic change in a single molecule called guanylate kinase protein-interaction domain (GK-PID) may have allowed organisms to go from a single cell organism to one of many cells.{{cite news |last=Zimmer |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Zimmer |title=Genetic Flip Helped Organisms Go From One Cell to Many |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/12/science/genetic-flip-helped-organisms-go-from-one-cell-to-many.html |date=7 January 2016 |work=New York Times |access-date=7 January 2016 }}

Genes borrowed from viruses and mobile genetic elements (MGEs) have recently been identified as playing a crucial role in the differentiation of multicellular tissues and organs and even in sexual reproduction, in the fusion of egg cells and sperm.{{Cite web |last=Letzter |first=Rafi |date=2018-02-02 |title=An Ancient Virus May Be Responsible for Human Consciousness |url=https://www.livescience.com/61627-ancient-virus-brain.html |access-date=2022-09-05 |website=Live Science |language=en}}

Such fused cells are also involved in metazoan membranes such as those that prevent chemicals from crossing the placenta and the brain body separation.{{Cite journal |last=Koonin |first=E.V. |year=2016 |title=Viruses and mobile elements as drivers of evolutionary transitions |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences |volume=371 |issue=1701 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2015.0442 |pmc=4958936 |pmid=27431520 |doi-access=free}} Two viral components have been identified. The first is syncytin, which came from a virus.{{cite journal | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10693809 | pmid=10693809 | year=2000 | last1=Mi | first1=S. | last2=Lee | first2=X. | last3=Li | first3=X. | last4=Veldman | first4=G.M. | last5=Finnerty | first5=H. | last6=Racie | first6=L. | last7=Lavallie | first7=E. | last8=Tang | first8=X.Y. | last9=Edouard | first9=P. | last10=Howes | first10=S. | last11=Keith Jr | first11=J.C. | last12=McCoy | first12=J.M. | title=Syncytin is a captive retroviral envelope protein involved in human placental morphogenesis | journal=Nature | volume=403 | issue=6771 | pages=785–9 | doi=10.1038/35001608 | bibcode=2000Natur.403..785M | s2cid=4367889 }}

The second identified in 2002 is called EFF-1,{{Cite journal |last1=Mohler |first1=William A. |last2=Shemer |first2=Gidi |last3=del Campo |first3=Jacob J. |last4=Valansi |first4=Clari |last5=Opoku-Serebuoh |first5=Eugene |last6=Scranton |first6=Victoria |last7=Assaf |first7=Nirit |last8=White |first8=John G. |last9=Podbilewicz |first9=Benjamin |date=March 2002 |title=The Type I Membrane Protein EFF-1 Is Essential for Developmental Cell Fusion |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/S1534-5807(02)00129-6 |journal=Developmental Cell |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=355–362 |doi=10.1016/s1534-5807(02)00129-6 |pmid=11879640 |issn=1534-5807}} which helps form the skin of Caenorhabditis elegans, part of a whole family of FF proteins. Felix Rey, of the Pasteur Institute in Paris, has constructed the 3D structure of the EFF-1 protein{{Cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2014.02.020 |doi-access=free|title=Structural Basis of Eukaryotic Cell-Cell Fusion |year=2014 |last1=Pérez-Vargas |first1=Jimena |last2=Krey |first2=Thomas |last3=Valansi |first3=Clari |last4=Avinoam |first4=Ori |last5=Haouz |first5=Ahmed |last6=Jamin |first6=Marc |last7=Raveh-Barak |first7=Hadas |last8=Podbilewicz |first8=Benjamin |last9=Rey |first9=Félix A. |journal=Cell |volume=157 |issue=2 |pages=407–419 |pmid=24725407 }} and shown it does the work of linking one cell to another, in viral infections.

The fact that all known cell fusion molecules are viral in origin suggests that they have been vitally important to the inter-cellular communication systems that enabled multicellularity. Without the ability of cellular fusion, colonies could have formed, but anything even as complex as a sponge would not have been possible.Slezak, Michael (2016), "No Viruses? No skin or bones either" (New Scientist, No. 2958, 1 March 2014) p.16

This theory suggests that the oxygen available in the atmosphere of early Earth could have been the limiting factor for the emergence of multicellular life.{{Cite journal|last=Nursall|first=J.R.|date=April 1959|title=Oxygen as a Prerequisite to the Origin of the Metazoa|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/1831170b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=183|issue=4669|pages=1170–2|doi=10.1038/1831170b0|bibcode=1959Natur.183.1170N|s2cid=4200584|issn=1476-4687}} This hypothesis is based on the correlation between the emergence of multicellular life and the increase of oxygen levels during this time. This would have taken place after the Great Oxidation Event but before the most recent rise in oxygen. Mills{{Cite journal|last1=Mills|first1=D.B.|last2=Ward|first2=L.M.|last3=Jones|first3=C.|last4=Sweeten|first4=B.|last5=Forth|first5=M.|last6=Treusch|first6=A.H.|last7=Canfield|first7=D.E.|date=2014-02-18|title=Oxygen requirements of the earliest animals|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=111|issue=11|pages=4168–72|doi=10.1073/pnas.1400547111|pmid=24550467|pmc=3964089|bibcode=2014PNAS..111.4168M|issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free}} concludes that the amount of oxygen present during the Ediacaran is not necessary for complex life and therefore is unlikely to have been the driving factor for the origin of multicellularity.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

A snowball Earth is a geological event where the entire surface of the Earth is covered in snow and ice. The term can either refer to individual events (of which there were at least two) or to the larger geologic period during which all the known total glaciations occurred.

The most recent snowball Earth took place during the Cryogenian period and consisted of two global glaciation events known as the Sturtian and Marinoan glaciations. Xiao et al.{{cite journal |last1=Lyons |first1=Timothy W. |last2=Droser |first2=Mary L.|last3=Lau |first3=Kimberly V. |last4=Porter|first4=Susannah M. |last5=Xiao |first5=Shuhai |last6=Tang |first6=Qing |date=2018-09-28 |title=After the boring billion and before the freezing millions: Evolutionary patterns and innovations in the Tonian Period |journal=Emerging Topics in Life Sciences |language=en |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=161–171 |doi=10.1042/ETLS20170165 |pmid=32412616|bibcode=2018ETLS....2..161X |issn=2397-8554 |hdl=10919/86820 |hdl-access=free |s2cid=90374085 |url=https://portlandpress.com/emergtoplifesci/article/2/2/161/77199/After-the-boring-billion-and-before-the-freezing}} suggest that between the period of time known as the "Boring Billion" and the snowball Earth, simple life could have had time to innovate and evolve, which could later lead to the evolution of multicellularity.

The snowball Earth hypothesis in regards to multicellularity proposes that the Cryogenian period in Earth's history could have been the catalyst for the evolution of complex multicellular life. Brocks{{cite journal |last1=Brocks |first1=Jochen J. |last2=Jarrett |first2=Amber J.M. |last3=Sirantoine |first3=Eva |last4=Hallmann |first4=Christian |last5=Hoshino |first5=Yosuke |last6=Liyanage |first6=Tharika |date=August 2017 |title=The rise of algae in Cryogenian oceans and the emergence of animals |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=548 |issue=7669 |pages=578–581 |doi=10.1038/nature23457 |pmid=28813409 |bibcode=2017Natur.548..578B |s2cid=205258987 |issn=1476-4687 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature23457}} suggests that the time between the Sturtian Glacian and the more recent Marinoan Glacian allowed for planktonic algae to dominate the seas making way for rapid diversity of life for both plant and animal lineages. Complex life quickly emerged and diversified in what is known as the Cambrian explosion shortly after the Marinoan.{{citation needed|date=May 2022}}

The predation hypothesis suggests that to avoid being eaten by predators, simple single-celled organisms evolved multicellularity to make it harder to be consumed as prey. Herron et al.{{Cite journal|last1=Herron|first1=Matthew D.|last2=Borin|first2=Joshua M.|last3=Boswell|first3=Jacob C.|last4=Walker|first4=Jillian|last5=Chen|first5=I.-Chen Kimberly|last6=Knox|first6=Charles A.|last7=Boyd|first7=Margrethe|last8=Rosenzweig|first8=Frank|last9=Ratcliff|first9=William C.|date=2019-02-20|title=De novo origins of multicellularity in response to predation|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=9|issue=1|page=2328|doi=10.1038/s41598-019-39558-8|pmid=30787483|pmc=6382799|bibcode=2019NatSR...9.2328H|issn=2045-2322|doi-access=free}} performed laboratory evolution experiments on the single-celled green alga, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, using paramecium as a predator. They found that in the presence of this predator, C. reinhardtii does indeed evolve simple multicellular features.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

It is impossible to know what happened when single cells evolved into multicellular organisms hundreds of millions of years ago. However, we can identify mutations that can turn single-celled organisms into multicellular ones. This would demonstrate the possibility of such an event. Unicellular species can relatively easily acquire mutations that make them attach to each other—the first step towards multicellularity. Multiple normally unicellular species have been evolved to exhibit such early steps:

• yeast are long known to exhibit flocculation. One of the first yeast genes found to cause this phenotype is FLO1.{{Cite journal |last1=Smukalla |first1=Scott |last2=Caldara |first2=Marina |last3=Pochet |first3=Nathalie |last4=Beauvais |first4=Anne |last5=Guadagnini |first5=Stephanie |last6=Yan |first6=Chen |last7=Vinces |first7=Marcelo D. |last8=Jansen |first8=An |last9=Prevost |first9=Marie Christine |last10=Latgé |first10=Jean-Paul |last11=Fink |first11=Gerald R. |last12=Foster |first12=Kevin R. |last13=Verstrepen |first13=Kevin J. |date=2008-11-14 |title=FLO1 is a variable green beard gene that drives biofilm-like cooperation in budding yeast |journal=Cell |volume=135 |issue=4 |pages=726–737 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2008.09.037 |issn=1097-4172 |pmc=2703716 |pmid=19013280}} A more strikingly clumped phenotype is called "snowflake", caused by the loss of a single transcription factor Ace2. "Snowflake" yeast grow into multicellular clusters that sediment quickly; they were identified by directed evolution.{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.1305949110 |title=Genome duplication and mutations in ACE2 cause multicellular, fast-sedimenting phenotypes in evolved Saccharomyces cerevisiae |date=2013 |last1=Oud |first1=Bart |last2=Guadalupe-Medina |first2=Victor |last3=Nijkamp |first3=Jurgen F. |last4=De Ridder |first4=Dick |last5=Pronk |first5=Jack T. |last6=Van Maris |first6=Antonius J.A. |last7=Daran |first7=Jean-Marc |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=110 |issue=45 |pages=E4223-31 |doi-access=free |pmid=24145419 |bibcode=2013PNAS..110E4223O |pmc=3831460 }} More recently (2024), snowflake yeast were subject to over 3,000 generations of further directed evolution, forming macroscopic assemblies on the scale of millimeters. Changes in multiple genes were identified. In addition, the authors reported that only anaerobic cultures of snowflake yeast evolved this trait, while the aerobic ones did not.{{Cite journal |last1=Bozdag |first1=G. Ozan |last2=Zamani-Dahaj |first2=Seyed Alireza |last3=Day |first3=Thomas C. |last4=Kahn |first4=Penelope C. |last5=Burnetti |first5=Anthony J. |last6=Lac |first6=Dung T. |last7=Tong |first7=Kai |last8=Conlin |first8=Peter L. |last9=Balwani |first9=Aishwarya H. |last10=Dyer |first10=Eva L. |last11=Yunker |first11=Peter J. |last12=Ratcliff |first12=William C. |date=2023-05-25 |title=De novo evolution of macroscopic multicellularity |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=617 |issue=7962 |pages=747–754 |doi=10.1038/s41586-023-06052-1 |pmid=37165189 |pmc=10425966 |bibcode=2023Natur.617..747B |s2cid=236953093 |issn=0028-0836 }}
• A range of green algae species have been experimentally evolved to form larger clumps. When Chlorella vulgaris is grown with a predator Ochromonas vallescia, it starts forming small colonies, which are harder to ingest due to the larger size. The same is true for Chlamydomonas reinhardtii under predation by Brachionus calyciflorus and Paramecium tetraurelia.

C. reinhartii normally starts as a motile single-celled propagule; this single cell asexually reproduces by undergoing 2–5 rounds of mitosis as a small clump of non-motile cells, then all cells become single-celled propagules and the clump dissolves. With a few generations under Paramecium predation, the "clump" becomes a persistent structure: only some cells become propagules. Some populations go further and evolved multi-celled propagules: instead of peeling off single cells from the clump, the clump now reproduces by peeling off smaller clumps.

Multicellularity allows an organism to exceed the size limits normally imposed by diffusion: single cells with increased size have a decreased surface-to-volume ratio and have difficulty absorbing sufficient nutrients and transporting them throughout the cell. Multicellular organisms thus have the competitive advantages of an increase in size without its limitations. They can have longer lifespans as they can continue living when individual cells die. Multicellularity also permits increasing complexity by allowing differentiation of cell types within one organism.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

Whether all of these can be seen as advantages however is debatable: The vast majority of living organisms are single celled, and even in terms of biomass, single celled organisms are far more successful than animals, although not plants.

{{cite journal

| last1 = Bar-On | first1 = Yinon M.

| last2 = Phillips | first2 = Rob

| last3 = Milo | first3 = Ron

| date = 2018-06-19

| title = The biomass distribution on Earth

| journal = PNAS

| volume = 115 | issue = 25 | pages = 6506–11

| doi = 10.1073/pnas.1711842115 | doi-access = free

| pmid = 29784790 | pmc = 6016768

| bibcode = 2018PNAS..115.6506B

}}

Rather than seeing traits such as longer lifespans and greater size as an advantage, many biologists see these only as examples of diversity, with associated tradeoffs.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

During the evolutionary transition from unicellular organisms to multicellular organisms, the expression of genes associated with reproduction and survival likely changed.{{cite journal |vauthors=Grochau-Wright ZI, Nedelcu AM, Michod RE |title=The Genetics of Fitness Reorganization during the Transition to Multicellularity: The Volvocine regA-like Family as a Model |journal=Genes (Basel) |volume=14 |issue=4 |date=April 2023 |page=941 |pmid=37107699 |pmc=10137558 |doi=10.3390/genes14040941 |doi-access=free}} In the unicellular state, genes associated with reproduction and survival are expressed in a way that enhances the fitness of individual cells, but after the transition to multicellularity, the pattern of expression of these genes must have substantially changed so that individual cells become more specialized in their function relative to reproduction and survival. As the multicellular organism emerged, gene expression patterns became compartmentalized between cells that specialized in reproduction (germline cells) and those that specialized in survival (somatic cells). As the transition progressed, cells that specialized tended to lose their own individuality and would no longer be able to both survive and reproduce outside the context of the group.

• Bacterial colony
• Embryogenesis
• Organogenesis
• Unicellular organism

{{Reflist|30em}}

• [http://tolweb.org/Eukaryotes/3 Tree of Life Eukaryotes]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120129074456/http://tolweb.org/Eukaryotes/3 |date=2012-01-29 }}.

{{Evolution}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Multicellular Organism}}

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