:Immigration

The term immigration was coined in the 17th century, referring to non-warlike population movements between the emerging nation states. When people cross national borders during their migration, they are called migrants or immigrants (from Latin: migrare, 'wanderer') from the perspective of the destination country. In contrast, from the perspective of the country from which they leave, they are called emigrants or outmigrants.{{cite web|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/outmigrant|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120718140923/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/outmigrant|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 July 2012|title=outmigrant|website=OxfordDictionaries.com|publisher=Oxford University Press|access-date=11 May 2016}}

{{Excerpt|History of human migration}}

{{See also|List of sovereign states by immigrant and emigrant population|List of sovereign states by net migration rate}}

File:UN Stats.jpg

File:Migrant-share-2020.png (2020)]]

{{As of|2015}}, the number of international migrants has reached 244 million worldwide, which reflects a 41% increase since 2000. The largest number of international migrants live in the United States, with 19% of the world's total. One third of the world's international migrants are living in just 20 countries. Germany and Russia host 12 million migrants each, taking the second and third place in countries with the most migrants worldwide. Saudi Arabia hosts 10 million migrants, followed by the United Kingdom (9 million) and the United Arab Emirates (8 million).{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/publications/populationfacts/docs/MigrationPopFacts20154.pdf|title=Trends in international migration, 2015 |date=December 2015|website=UN.org|publisher=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division|access-date=16 May 2016}}

In most parts of the world, migration occurs between countries that are located within the same major area. Between 2000 and 2015, Asia added more international migrants than any other major area in the world, gaining 26 million. Europe added the second largest with about 20 million.

In 2015, the number of international migrants below the age of 20 reached 37 million, while 177 million are between the ages of 20 and 64. International migrants living in Africa were the youngest, with a median age of 29, followed by Asia (35 years), and Latin America/Caribbean (36 years), while migrants were older in Northern America (42 years), Europe (43 years), and Oceania (44 years).

File:Migrants in the world 2015-en.svg in 2015]]

Nearly half (43%) of all international migrants originate in Asia, and Europe was the birthplace of the second largest number of migrants (25%), followed by Latin America (15%). India has the largest diaspora in the world (16 million people), followed by Mexico (12 million) and Russia (11 million).

A 2012 survey by Gallup found that given the opportunity, 640 million adults would migrate to another country, with 23% of these would-be immigrant choosing the United States as their desired future residence, while 7% of respondents, representing 45 million people, would choose the United Kingdom. Canada, France, Saudi Arabia, Australia, Germany, Spain, Italy, and the United Arab Emirates made up the rest of the top ten desired destination countries.{{cite web|url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/153992/150-Million-Adults-Worldwide-Migrate.aspx |title=150 Million Adults Worldwide Would Migrate to the U.S |publisher=Gallup.com |date=20 April 2012 |access-date=14 May 2014}}

File:1990- Growth in share of population that is foreign-born - by country.svg

In USA there were in 2023 1,197,254 immigration applications initial receipts, 523,477 immigration cases completed, and 2,464,021 immigration cases pending according to the U.S. Department of Justice.[https://www.justice.gov/d9/pages/attachments/2020/01/31/1_pending_new_receipts_and_total_completions.pdf Pending Cases, New Cases and Total Completions, Executive Office For Immigration Review, Adjuction Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice]

File:Multilingual Pisnice 1858.JPG market in Prague, also known as "Little Hanoi". In 2009, there were about 70,000 Vietnamese in the Czech Republic.{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/05/world/europe/05iht-viet.html?pagewanted=2&_r=1 |title=Crisis Strands Vietnamese Workers in a Czech Limbo|work=The New York Times|date= 5 June 2009|access-date= 11 May 2016|last1=Bilefsky|first1=Dan}}]]

File:Ridley road market dalston 1.jpg has become multiethnic as a result of immigration."[http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/4bd95562-4379-11e2-a48c-00144feabdc0.html#axzz2K2fk6vxN White ethnic Britons in minority in London]". Financial Times. 11 December 2012.

In London in 2008, Black British and British Asian children outnumbered white British children by about 3 to 2 in government-run schools.{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1564365/One-fifth-of-children-from-ethnic-minorities.html |title=One fifth of children from ethnic minorities |author=Graeme Paton |date=1 October 2007 |work=The Daily Telegraph |access-date=7 June 2008 |location=London |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206094854/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1564365/One-fifth-of-children-from-ethnic-minorities.html |archive-date=6 December 2008 |url-status=live }}]]

One theory of immigration distinguishes between push and pull factors, referring to the economic, political, and social influences by which people migrate from or to specific countries. Immigrants are motivated to leave their former countries of citizenship, or habitual residence, for a variety of reasons, including: a lack of local access to resources, a desire for economic prosperity, to find or engage in paid work, to better their standard of living, family reunification, retirement, climate or environmentally induced migration, exile, escape from prejudice, conflict or natural disaster, or simply the wish to change one's quality of life. Commuters, tourists, and other short-term stays in a destination country do not fall under the definition of immigration or migration; seasonal labour immigration is sometimes included, however.

Push factors (or determinant factors) refer primarily to the motive for leaving one's country of origin (either voluntarily or involuntarily), whereas pull factors (or attraction factors) refer to one's motivations behind or the encouragement towards immigrating to a particular country.

In the case of economic migration (usually labor migration), differentials in wage rates are common. If the value of wages in the new country surpasses the value of wages in one's native country, he or she may choose to migrate, as long as the costs are not too high. Particularly in the 19th century, economic expansion of the US increased immigrant flow, and nearly 15% of the population was foreign-born,{{cite web|url = https://immigrationlawnj.com/how-many-people-are-immigrants/|title = How Many People are Immigrants?|date = 4 July 2015|access-date = 30 July 2015|website = Harlan York and Associates|last1 = York|first1 = Harlan|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150909231007/https://immigrationlawnj.com/how-many-people-are-immigrants/|archive-date = 9 September 2015|url-status = dead}} thus making up a significant amount of the labor force.

As transportation technology improved, travel time, and costs decreased dramatically between the 18th and early 20th century. Travel across the Atlantic used to take up to 5 weeks in the 18th century, but around the time of the 20th century it took a mere 8 days. When the opportunity cost is lower, the immigration rates tend to be higher. Escape from poverty (personal or for relatives staying behind) is a traditional push factor, and the availability of jobs is the related pull factor. Natural disasters can amplify poverty-driven migration flows. Research shows that for middle-income countries, higher temperatures increase emigration rates to urban areas and to other countries. For low-income countries, higher temperatures reduce emigration.{{Cite journal|title = The Migration Response to Increasing Temperatures | first1 = Cristina | last1 = Cattaneo|first2 = Giovanni|last2 = Peri |year=2016 |journal=Journal of Development Economics |volume=122 |issue=C |pages=127–146 |doi=10.1016/j.jdeveco.2016.05.004 | bibcode = 2016JDevE.122..127C |hdl = 10419/130264| url = http://www.nber.org/papers/w21622.pdf }}

Emigration and immigration are sometimes mandatory in a contract of employment: religious missionaries and employees of transnational corporations, international non-governmental organizations, and the diplomatic service expect, by definition, to work "overseas". They are often referred to as "expatriates", and their conditions of employment are typically equal to or better than those applying in the host country (for similar work).{{citation needed|date=August 2017}}

Non-economic push factors include persecution (religious and otherwise), frequent abuse, bullying, oppression, ethnic cleansing, genocide, risks to civilians during war, and social marginalization.{{cite journal|ssrn=224241|title=The Earnings of Male Hispanic Immigrants in the United States | last1 = Chiswick | first1 = Barry|date=March 2000|website=Social Science Research Network|publisher=University of Illinois at Chicago Institute for the Study of Labor|type=Working paper}} Political motives traditionally motivate refugee flows; for instance, people may emigrate in order to escape a dictatorship.{{Cite journal | last1 = Borjas | first1 = George J.|date=1 April 1982|title=The Earnings of Male Hispanic Immigrants in the United States |journal=Industrial & Labor Relations Review|language=en|volume=35|issue=3|pages=343–353|doi=10.1177/001979398203500304| s2cid = 36445207|issn=0019-7939}}

Some migration is for personal reasons, based on a relationship (e.g. to be with family or a partner), such as in family reunification or transnational marriage (especially in the instance of a gender imbalance). Recent research has found gender, age, and cross-cultural differences in the ownership of the idea to immigrate.{{cite journal |last1= Rubin|first1=Mark|title="It Wasn't My Idea to Come Here!": Young Women Lack Ownership of the Idea to Immigrate – Mark Rubin's Social Psychology Research|journal=International Journal of Intercultural Relations|date=July 2013|volume=37|issue=4|pages=497–501|issn=0147-1767|doi=10.1016/j.ijintrel.2013.02.001 |hdl=1959.13/940579 |url=https://sites.google.com/site/markrubinsocialpsychresearch/-it-wasn-t-my-idea-to-come-here-young-women-lack-ownership-of-the-idea-to-immigrate |access-date=3 October 2018 |ref=Rubin2013}} In a few cases, an individual may wish to immigrate to a new country in a form of transferred patriotism. Evasion of criminal justice (e.g., avoiding arrest) is a personal motivation. This type of emigration and immigration is not normally legal, if a crime is internationally recognized, although criminals may disguise their identities or find other loopholes to evade detection. For example, there have been reports of war criminals disguising themselves as victims of war or conflict and then pursuing asylum in a different country.{{cite web|url=https://euobserver.com/opinion/125664|title=EU asylum and war criminals: No place to hide | last1 = Haskell | first1 = Leslie|date=18 September 2014|website=EUobserver.com|publisher=EUobserver|access-date=13 May 2016}}{{cite web|url=http://www.dw.com/en/refugees-in-germany-reporting-dozens-of-war-crimes/a-19179291|title=Refugees in Germany reporting dozens of war crimes | last1 = Knight | first1 = Ben|date=11 April 2016|website=Deutsche Welle|access-date=13 May 2016}}{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/sweden-syrian-asylum-seeker-suspected-war-crimes-under-assad-regime-arrested-stockholm-1546149|title=Sweden: Syrian asylum seeker suspected of war crimes under Assad regime arrested in Stockholm | last1 = Porter | first1 = Tom|date=26 February 2016|work=International Business Times|access-date=13 May 2016}}

Barriers to immigration come not only in legal form or political form; natural and social barriers to immigration can also be very powerful. Immigrants when leaving their country also leave everything familiar: their family, friends, support network, and culture. They also need to liquidate their assets, and they incur the expense of moving. When they arrive in a new country, this is often with many uncertainties including finding work,{{Cite news|url=https://www.smh.com.au/national/lack-of-network-hurting-migrant-workers-20120603-1zq3u.html|title=Lack of network hurting migrant workers | last1 = May | first1 = Julia|newspaper=The Sydney Morning Herald|language=en-US|access-date=2 January 2017}} where to live, new laws, new cultural norms, language or accent issues, possible racism, and other exclusionary behavior towards them and their family.{{cite web|url=https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/the-7-biggest-challenges-facing-refugees-and-immig/|title=The 7 biggest challenges facing refugees and immigrants in the US | last1 = Nunez | first1 = Christina|date=12 December 2014|website=Global Citizen|publisher=Global Poverty Project|access-date=16 May 2016}}{{cite journal |last1=Charles Rodriguez |first1=U. |last2=Venegas de la Torre |first2=M. D. L. P. |last3=Hecker |first3=V. |last4=Laing |first4=R. A. |last5=Larouche |first5=R. |date=2022 |title=The Relationship Between Nature and Immigrants' Integration, Wellbeing and Physical Activity: A Scoping Review |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-022-01339-3 |journal=Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health |volume= 25|issue=1 |pages=190–218 | pmid=35201532 | doi=10.1007/s10903-022-01339-3|s2cid=247060104 }}{{Cite journal | last1 = Djajić | first1 = Slobodan|date=1 September 2013|title=Barriers to immigration and the dynamics of emigration |journal=Journal of Macroeconomics|volume=37|pages=41–52|doi=10.1016/j.jmacro.2013.06.001}}

File:Čížov (Zaisa) - preserved part of Iron curtain.JPG in Europe was designed as a means of preventing emigration. "It is one of the ironies of post-war European history that, once the freedom to travel for Europeans living under communist regimes, which had long been demanded by the West, was finally granted in 1989/90, travel was very soon afterwards made much more difficult by the West itself, and new barriers were erected to replace the Iron Curtain." —Anita BöckerAnita Böcker (1998) [https://books.google.com/books?id=ejOg0L5pbHUC Regulation of migration: international experiences]. Het Spinhuis. p. 218. {{ISBN|90-5589-095-2}}]]

The politics of immigration have become increasingly associated with other issues, such as national security and terrorism, especially in western Europe, with the presence of Islam as a new major religion. Those with security concerns cite the 2005 French riots and point to the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy as examples of the value conflicts arising from immigration of Muslims in Western Europe. Because of all these associations, immigration has become an emotional political issue in many European nations.{{cite web|url=http://euranetplus-inside.eu/migration-refugees-europe-waves-of-emotion/|title=Migration, refugees, Europe – waves of emotion |date=7 May 2015|website=Euranet Plus inside|publisher=Euranet Plus Network|language=en-GB|access-date=16 May 2016}}{{cite web|url=https://www.azcentral.com/news/articles/global-immigration-germany-integration.html|title=Europe learns integration can become emotional|last1=Nowicki|first1=Dan|website=AZCentral.com|access-date=16 May 2016}}{{Dead link|date=April 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}

Studies have suggested that some special interest groups lobby for less immigration for their own group and more immigration for other groups since they see effects of immigration, such as increased labor competition, as detrimental when affecting their own group but beneficial when affecting other groups. A 2010 European study suggested that "employers are more likely to be pro-immigration than employees, provided that immigrants are thought to compete with employees who are already in the country. Or else, when immigrants are thought to compete with employers rather than employees, employers are more likely to be anti-immigration than employees." A 2011 study examining the voting of US representatives on migration policy suggests that "representatives from more skilled labor abundant districts are more likely to support an open immigration policy towards the unskilled, whereas the opposite is true for representatives from more unskilled labor abundant districts."

Another contributing factor may be lobbying by earlier immigrants. The chairman for the US Irish Lobby for Immigration Reform{{snd}}which lobby for more permissive rules for immigrants, as well as special arrangements just for Irish people{{snd}}has stated that "the Irish Lobby will push for any special arrangement it can get{{snd}}'as will every other ethnic group in the country.{{'"}}

Several countries have been accused of encouraging immigration to other countries in order to create divisions.[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-35706238 Migrant crisis: Russia and Syria 'weaponising' migration, BBC, 2016]

File:Indo-Bangladeshi Barrier.JPG in 2007. India is building a separation barrier along the {{convert|4,000|km|adj=on}} border with Bangladesh to prevent illegal immigration.]]

The term economic migrant refers to someone who has travelled from one region to another region for the purposes of seeking employment and an improvement in quality of life and access to resources. An economic migrant is distinct from someone who is a refugee fleeing persecution.

Many countries have immigration and visa restrictions that prohibit a person entering the country for the purposes of gaining work without a valid work visa. As a violation of a State's immigration laws a person who is declared to be an economic migrant can be refused entry into a country.

The World Bank estimates that remittances totaled $420 billion in 2009, of which $317 billion went to developing countries.

{{main|Economic effects of immigration}}

Research suggests that immigration can be beneficial both to the receiving and sending countries.{{Citation|last1=Koczan|first1=Zsoka|chapter=Migration|date=2021|title=How to Achieve Inclusive Growth|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-284693-8|last2=Peri|first2=Giovanni|last3=Pinat|first3=Magali|last4=Rozhkov|first4=Dmitriy |editor=Valerie Cerra |editor2=Barry Eichengreen |editor3=Asmaa El-Ganainy |editor4=Martin Schindler |doi=10.1093/oso/9780192846938.003.0009|chapter-url=https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/oso/9780192846938.001.0001/oso-9780192846938-chapter-9|doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal | last1 = di Giovanni | first1 = Julian|last2=Levchenko|first2=Andrei A.|last3=Ortega|first3=Francesc|date=1 February 2015|title=A Global View of Cross-Border Migration|journal=Journal of the European Economic Association|volume=13|issue=1|pages=168–202|doi=10.1111/jeea.12110|issn=1542-4774|hdl=10230/22196| s2cid = 3465938| url = https://econ-papers.upf.edu/papers/1414.pdf}} Immigration can have on average positive economic effects on the native population, or in some cases mixed effects where low-skilled immigration adversely affects underprivileged natives,{{Cite journal | last1 = Card | first1 = David|last2=Dustmann|first2=Christian|last3=Preston|first3=Ian|date=1 February 2012|title=Immigration, Wages, and Compositional Amenities|journal=Journal of the European Economic Association|volume=10|issue=1|pages=78–119|doi=10.1111/j.1542-4774.2011.01051.x| s2cid = 154303869|issn=1542-4774| url = http://www.nber.org/papers/w15521.pdf}}{{Cite book|title=The economics of immigration: theory and policy | last1 = Bodvarsson | first1 = Örn B|last2=Van den Berg|first2=Hendrik|year=2013|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4614-2115-3|location=New York; Heidelberg [u.a.]|page=157|oclc = 852632755}}{{cite web|url=http://www.igmchicago.org/surveys/migration-within-europe|title=Migration Within Europe {{!}} IGM Forum|website=www.igmchicago.org|access-date=7 December 2016}}{{cite web|url=http://www.igmchicago.org/igm-economic-experts-panel/poll-results?SurveyID=SV_0JtSLKwzqNSfrAF|title=Poll Results {{!}} IGM Forum|website=www.igmchicago.org|access-date=19 September 2015}}{{cite web|url=http://www.igmchicago.org/igm-economic-experts-panel/poll-results?SurveyID=SV_5vuNnqkBeAMAfHv|title=Poll Results {{!}} IGM Forum|website=www.igmchicago.org|access-date=19 September 2015}} or negative projected economic life-cycle impacts.{{cite book | title=Projecting the net fiscal impact of immigration in the EU. | publisher=Publications Office | doi=10.2760/582639 | url=https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2760/582639 | access-date=3 May 2025 | page=}} Studies suggest that the elimination of barriers to migration would have profound effects on world GDP, with estimates of gains ranging between 67 and 147 percent for the scenarios in which 37 to 53 percent of the developing countries' workers migrate to the developed countries.{{Cite journal | last1 = Iregui | first1 = Ana Maria|date=1 January 2003|title=Efficiency Gains from the Elimination of Global Restrictions on Labour Mobility: An Analysis using a Multiregional CGE Model |journal=Wider Working Paper Series |url=https://ideas.repec.org/p/unu/wpaper/dp2003-27.html}}{{Cite journal | last1 = Clemens | first1 = Michael A|date=1 August 2011|title=Economics and Emigration: Trillion-Dollar Bills on the Sidewalk?|journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives|volume=25|issue=3|pages=83–106|doi=10.1257/jep.25.3.83| s2cid = 59507836|issn=0895-3309}}{{Cite journal | last1 = Hamilton | first1 = B.|last2=Whalley|first2=J.|date=1 February 1984|title=Efficiency and distributional implications of global restrictions on labour mobility: calculations and policy implications|journal=Journal of Development Economics|volume=14|issue=1–2|pages=61–75|doi=10.1016/0304-3878(84)90043-9|issn=0304-3878|pmid=12266702}}{{Cite journal|last1=Dustmann|first1=Christian|last2=Preston|first2=Ian P.|date=2019-08-02|title=Free Movement, Open Borders, and the Global Gains from Labor Mobility|journal=Annual Review of Economics|language=en|volume=11|issue=1|pages=783–808|doi=10.1146/annurev-economics-080218-025843|issn=1941-1383|doi-access=free}} Some development economists argue that reducing barriers to labor mobility or trade between developing countries and developed countries would be one of the most efficient tools of poverty reduction.{{Cite journal | last1 = Milanovic | first1 = Branko|date=7 January 2014|title=Global Inequality of Opportunity: How Much of Our Income Is Determined by Where We Live?|journal=Review of Economics and Statistics|volume=97|issue=2|pages=452–460|doi=10.1162/REST_a_00432|issn=0034-6535| hdl = 10986/21484| s2cid = 11046799|hdl-access=free}}{{Cite book |last1=Mishra|first1=Prachi |chapter=Emigration and wages in source countries: A survey of the empirical literature |title= International Handbook on Migration and Economic Development |pages=241–266|doi=10.4337/9781782548072.00013 |isbn=978-1-78254-807-2|date=2014|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing|s2cid=143429722}}{{cite journal|last1=Clemens|first1=Michael A.|last2=Pritchett|first2=Lant|date=2019|title=The New Economic Case for Migration Restrictions: An Assessment|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0304387818306382|journal=Journal of Development Economics|volume=138|language=en|issue=9730|pages=153–164|doi=10.1016/j.jdeveco.2018.12.003|s2cid=204418677| issn = 0304-3878}}{{cite book|last1=Pritchett|first1=Lant|last2=Hani|first2=Farah|date=2020-07-30|title=The Economics of International Wage Differentials and Migration|url=https://oxfordre.com/economics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190625979.001.0001/acrefore-9780190625979-e-353|access-date=2020-08-11|series=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Economics and Finance|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190625979.013.353|isbn=978-0-19-062597-9}}

File:South Africa-Xenophobia-001.jpg in South Africa, 2008]]

{{Main|Immigration law}}

Legislation regarding immigrations differs per nation. International law includes rights, such as due process, suitable conditions, protection from unreasonable punishment and detention. However, nations are sovereign, and the protocols of international law cannot be enforced upon them. Nations have the freedom to handle immigrants as they choose, and to structure how any legal aid is distributed. Some human rights organizations strongly criticize individual nation-states for their immigration policies and practices.{{Cite journal |last=Lindley |first=Anna |date=2022-04-05 |title='Hit and Miss'? Access to Legal Assistance in Immigration Detention |url=https://academic.oup.com/jhrp/article/13/3/629/6546238 |journal=Journal of Human Rights Practice |language=en |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=629–653 |doi=10.1093/jhuman/huab045 |issn=1757-9627|doi-access=free }}{{multiple image|direction=vertical|footer=Entry (top) and Exit (bottom) passport stamps issued to a citizen of Germany by Indian immigration authorities at New Delhi airport.| width=220|image1=India passport entry stamp.jpg|alt1=Entry stamp|image2=India passport stamp.jpg|alt2=Exit stamp }}

Treatment of migrants in host countries, both by governments, employers, and original population, is a topic of continual debate and criticism, and the violation of migrant human rights is ongoing.{{cite web|url=http://www.amnestyusa.org/research/reports/amnesty-international-state-of-the-world-2015-2016|title=Amnesty International State of the World 2015–2016|date=23 February 2016|website=AmnestyUSA.org|publisher=Amnesty International USA|access-date=11 May 2016}} The United Nations Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, has been ratified by 48 states, most of which are heavy exporters of cheap labor. Major migrant-receiving countries and regions{{snd}}including Western Europe, North America, Pacific Asia, Australia, and the Gulf States{{snd}}have not ratified the convention, even though they are host to the majority of international migrant workers.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MeueEY0uO6EC|title=Transnational Migration and Human Security: The Migration-Development-Security Nexus | last1 = Truong | first1 = Thanh-Dam|last2=Gasper|first2=Des|year=2011|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-642-12757-1|language=en}}{{cite web|url=https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=IND&mtdsg_no=IV-13&chapter=4&lang=en|title=International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families|date=18 December 1990|website=Treaties.UN.org|publisher=United Nations|location=New York|access-date=11 May 2016|archive-date=28 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528064049/https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=IND&mtdsg_no=IV-13&chapter=4&lang=en|url-status=dead}} Although freedom of movement is often recognized as a civil right in many documents such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966), the freedom only applies to movement within national borders and the ability to return to one's home state.{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/|title=The Universal Declaration of Human Rights|date=10 December 1948|website=UN.org|publisher=United Nations|location=Paris|access-date=11 May 2016}}{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/ccpr.aspx|title=International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights|date=16 December 1966|website=OHCHR.org|publisher=Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|access-date=11 May 2016}} Some argue that free migration is a right, and that the restrictive immigration policies, typical of nation-states, violate this right. Such arguments are common among libertarian perspectives on immigration.{{cite web |title=Anarchism and Immigration |date=1 January 2005 |work=theanarchistlibrary |url=http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/scott-of-the-insurgency-culture-collective-anarchism-and-immigration |access-date=26 May 2015 |archive-date=27 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527004746/http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/scott-of-the-insurgency-culture-collective-anarchism-and-immigration |url-status=dead }}{{cite encyclopedia |last=Griswold |first= Dan|title= Nozick, Robert (1938–2002)|author-link=Dan Griswold|editor-first=Ronald |editor-last=Hamowy |editor-link=Ronald Hamowy |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |chapter= Immigration |chapter-url= https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/libertarianism/n145.xml |year=2008 |publisher= SAGE Publications, Cato Institute |location= Thousand Oaks, CA |doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n220 |isbn= 978-1-4129-6580-4 |oclc=750831024| lccn = 2008009151 |pages=235–257}} Open borders activist Jacob Appel has written, "Treating human beings differently, simply because they were born on the opposite side of a national boundary, is hard to justify under any mainstream philosophical, religious or ethical theory."{{Citation needed|date=February 2022}}

Where immigration is permitted, it is typically selective. {{as of|2003}}, family reunification accounted for approximately two-thirds of legal immigration to the US every year. Ethnic selection, such as the White Australia policy, has generally disappeared, but priority is usually given to the wealthy, educated or skilled worker migration. Exploitation of migrant labour, human trafficking and migrant sex work has been critized.

Immigration policies which selectively grant freedom of movement to targeted individuals are intended to produce a net economic gain for the host country. They can also mean net loss for a poor donor country through brain drain. This can exacerbate the global inequality in standards of living that provided the motivation for the individual to migrate in the first place. One example of competition for skilled labour is active recruitment of health workers from developing countries by developed countries.{{cite web|url=https://thewalrus.ca/poaching-foreign-doctors/|title=Poaching Foreign Doctors | last1 = Krotz | first1 = Larry|date=12 September 2012|website=The Walrus|access-date=16 May 2016}}{{Cite journal | last1 = Stilwell | first1 = Barbara|last2=Diallo|first2=Khassoum|last3=Zurn|first3=Pascal|last4=Vujicic|first4=Marko|last5=Adams|first5=Orvill|last6=Dal Poz|first6=Mario|date=2004|title=Migration of health-care workers from developing countries: strategic approaches to its management|url=https://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/82/8/595arabic.pdf|journal=Bulletin of the World Health Organization|issue=82|pages=595–600|access-date=16 May 2016}} There may however also be a "brain gain" to emigration, as migration opportunities lead to greater investments in education in developing countries.{{Cite journal | last1 = Shrestha | first1 = Slesh A.|date=1 April 2016|title=No Man Left Behind: Effects of Emigration Prospects on Educational and Labour Outcomes of Non-migrants |journal=The Economic Journal|volume=127|issue=600|language=en|pages=495–521|doi=10.1111/ecoj.12306| s2cid = 154362034|issn=1468-0297}}{{Cite journal | last1 = Beine | first1 = Michel|last2=Docquier|first2=Fréderic|last3=Rapoport|first3=Hillel|date=1 April 2008|title=Brain Drain and Human Capital Formation in Developing Countries: Winners and Losers |journal=The Economic Journal|language=en|volume=118|issue=528|pages=631–652|doi=10.1111/j.1468-0297.2008.02135.x|issn=1468-0297|hdl=2078.1/5768| s2cid = 28988486| url = http://sites.uclouvain.be/econ/DP/IRES/2006-23.pdf}}{{Cite journal | last1 = Dinkelman | first1 = Taryn|last2=Mariotti|first2=Martine|date=2016|title=The Long Run Effects of Labor Migration on Human Capital Formation in Communities of Origin |journal=American Economic Journal: Applied Economics |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=1–35 |doi=10.1257/app.20150405 | s2cid = 5140105| url = http://www.nber.org/papers/w22049.pdf}}{{Cite journal | last1 = Batista | first1 = Catia|last2=Lacuesta|first2=Aitor|last3=Vicente|first3=Pedro C.|date=1 January 2012|title=Testing the 'brain gain' hypothesis: Micro evidence from Cape Verde |journal=Journal of Development Economics |volume=97|issue=1|pages=32–45|doi=10.1016/j.jdeveco.2011.01.005|hdl=10419/44193| s2cid = 4489444| url = https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:iza:izadps:dp5048|hdl-access=free}} Overall, research suggests that migration can be beneficial both to the receiving and sending countries.

A 2015 study finds "some evidence that larger immigrant population shares (or inflows) yield positive impacts on institutional quality. At a minimum, our results indicate that no negative impact on economic freedom is associated with more immigration."{{cite journal |last2=Lawson|first2=Robert|last3=Nowrasteh|first3=Alex|last4=Powell|first4=Benjamin|last5=Murphy|first5=Ryan|date=June 2015|title=Does immigration impact institutions? |journal=Public Choice|volume=163|issue=3|pages=321–335|doi=10.1007/s11127-015-0254-y|last1=Clark|first1=J.R.|s2cid=55968273|url=https://issuelab.org/resources/31059/31059.pdf }} Another study, looking at the increase in Israel's population in the 1990s due to the unrestricted immigration of Jews from the Soviet Union, finds that the mass immigration did not undermine political institutions, and substantially increased the quality of economic institutions.{{Cite journal|date=2017-09-01|title=Does mass immigration destroy institutions? 1990s Israel as a natural experiment|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S016726811730166X|journal=Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization|language=en|volume=141|pages=83–95|doi=10.1016/j.jebo.2017.06.008|issn=0167-2681|last1=Powell|first1=Benjamin|last2=Clark|first2=J.R.|last3=Nowrasteh|first3=Alex}} A 2017 study in the British Journal of Political Science argued that the British American colonies without slavery adopted better democratic institutions in order to attract migrant workers to their colonies.{{Cite journal | last1 = Nikolova | first1 = Elena|date=1 January 2017|title=Destined for Democracy? Labour Markets and Political Change in Colonial British America |journal=British Journal of Political Science|volume=47|issue=1|pages=19–45|doi=10.1017/S0007123415000101| s2cid = 17112994|issn=0007-1234| url = http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1573632/}}{{Cite journal | last1 = Nikolova | first1 = Elena|last2=Nikolova|first2=Milena|date=1 September 2017|title=Suffrage, labour markets and coalitions in colonial Virginia |journal=European Journal of Political Economy|volume=49|pages=108–122|doi=10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2017.01.002|hdl=10419/147912| s2cid = 157369080| url = http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1573630/}} A 2018 study fails to find evidence that immigration to the United States weakens economic freedom.{{Cite journal | last1 = Padilla | first1 = Alexandre|last2=Cachanosky|first2=Nicolás|date=5 February 2018|title=The Grecian horse: does immigration lead to the deterioration of American institutions? |journal=Public Choice|volume=174|issue=3–4|language=en|pages=351–405|doi=10.1007/s11127-018-0509-5| s2cid = 157264613|issn=0048-5829}} A 2019 study of Jordan found that the massive influx of refugees into Jordan during the Gulf War had long-lasting positive effects on Jordanian economic institutions.{{Cite journal|last1=Blondin|first1=Cole|last2=Forrester|first2=Andrew C.|last3=Nowrasteh|first3=Alex|title=How Mass Immigration Affects Countries with Weak Economic Institutions: A Natural Experiment in Jordan|journal=The World Bank Economic Review|language=en|doi=10.1093/wber/lhy032|year=2019|volume=34|issue=2|pages=533–549|hdl=10986/31559|url=http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/944551555006432470/pdf/How-Mass-Immigration-Affects-Countries-with-Weak-Economic-Institutions-A-Natural-Experiment-in-Jordan.pdf}}

Some research has found that as immigration and ethnic heterogeneity increase, government funding of welfare and public support for welfare decrease.{{Cite book|title = Fighting Poverty in the US and Europe: A World of Difference|url = http://scholar.harvard.edu/alesina/publications/fighting-poverty-us-and-europe-world-difference|access-date = 14 January 2016|year = 2004|publisher = Oxford University Press|archive-date = 4 October 2018|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181004104052/https://scholar.harvard.edu/alesina/publications/fighting-poverty-us-and-europe-world-difference|url-status = dead}}{{Cite journal | last1 = Schmidt-Catran | first1 = Alexander W.|last2=Spies|first2=Dennis C.|date=4 March 2016|title=Immigration and Welfare Support in Germany |journal=American Sociological Review|language=en|page=0003122416633140|doi=10.1177/0003122416633140|issn=0003-1224|volume=81|issue=2| s2cid = 155433506|doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal | last1 = Lee | first1 = Woojin|last2=Roemer|first2=John E.|date=1 August 2006|title=Racism and redistribution in the United States: A solution to the problem of American exceptionalism |journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=90|issue=6|pages=1027–1052|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2005.08.008| s2cid = 10965659| url = http://cowles.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/pub/d14/d1462.pdf}}{{Cite book|title=Fighting Poverty in the US and Europe: A World of Difference |publisher= Oxford Scholarship|language=en|doi=10.1093/0199267669.001.0001|year=2004 | last1 = Alesina | first1 = Alberto | last2 = Glaeser | first2 = Edward|isbn=978-0-19-926766-8|s2cid=156474870}}{{Cite journal|last1=Habyarimana|first1=James|last2=Humphreys|first2=Macartan|last3=Posner|first3=Daniel N.|last4=Weinstein|first4=Jeremy M.|date=2007|title=Why Does Ethnic Diversity Undermine Public Goods Provision?|journal=American Political Science Review|language=en|volume=101|issue=4|pages=709–725|doi=10.1017/S0003055407070499|s2cid=4498060|issn=1537-5943|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2km4r4dn}}{{Cite book|url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/nations-states-and-violence-9780199228232?cc=us&lang=en&|title=Nations, States and Violence|last=Laitin|first=David|date=2007|website=Oxford University Press|publisher=OUP Oxford |access-date=10 November 2019|isbn=978-0-19-922823-2}} Ethnic nepotism may be an explanation for this phenomenon. Other possible explanations include theories regarding in-group and out-group effects and reciprocal altruism.

Research however also challenges the notion that ethnic heterogeneity reduces public goods provision.{{Cite journal|title = Is Diversity Detrimental? Ethnic Fractionalization, Public Goods Provision, and the Historical Legacies of Stateness |journal = Comparative Political Studies|volume = 49|issue = 11|date = 28 July 2015|issn = 0010-4140|pages = 1407–1445|doi = 10.1177/0010414015592645 | first1 = Andreas | last1 = Wimmer|s2cid = 7998506}}{{Cite journal|last1=Pardelli|first1=Giuliana|last2=Kustov|first2=Alexander|date=2022|title=When Coethnicity Fails|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/world-politics/article/abs/when-coethnicity-fails/25AD2DFBB59F9EADA448C46AE2934B0C|journal=World Politics|volume=74|issue=2|pages=249–284|language=en|doi=10.1017/S0043887121000241|s2cid=246855942|issn=0043-8871}}{{Cite journal|title = Immigration, Multiculturalism, and the Welfare State |journal = Ethics & International Affairs|date = 1 September 2006|issn = 1747-7093|pages = 281–304|volume = 20|issue = 3|doi = 10.1111/j.1747-7093.2006.00027.x | first1 = Will | last1 = Kymlicka|first2 = Keith|last2 = Banting|s2cid = 154547573}}{{Cite journal|last=Gisselquist|first=Rachel M.|date=29 July 2014|title=Ethnic divisions and public goods provision, revisited|journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies|language=en|volume=37|issue=9|pages=1605–1627|doi=10.1080/01419870.2012.762106|s2cid=145381859|issn=0141-9870|doi-access=free}} Studies that find a negative relationship between ethnic diversity and public goods provision often fail to take into account that strong states were better at assimilating minorities, thus decreasing diversity in the long run. Ethnically diverse states today consequently tend to be weaker states. Because most of the evidence on fractionalization comes from sub-Saharan Africa and the United States, the generalizability of the findings is questionable. A 2018 study in the American Political Science Review cast doubts on findings that ethnoracial homogeneity led to greater public goods provision.{{Cite journal | last1 = Kustov | first1 = Alexander|last2=Pardelli|first2=Giuliana|date=2018|title=Ethnoracial Homogeneity and Public Outcomes: The (Non)effects of Diversity|journal=American Political Science Review|language=en|volume=112| issue = 4|pages=1096–1103|doi=10.1017/S0003055418000308| s2cid = 149495272|issn=0003-0554}}

Research finds that Americans' attitudes towards immigration influence their attitudes towards welfare spending.{{Cite journal|title = Immigration Attitudes and Support for the Welfare State in the American Mass Public |journal = American Journal of Political Science|volume = 61|date = 1 December 2015|issn = 1540-5907|pages = 146–162|doi = 10.1111/ajps.12233 | first1 = James C. | last1 = Garand|first2 = Ping|last2 = Xu|first3 = Belinda C.|last3 = Davis|url = https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/psc_facpubs/10}}

A 2016 study found that immigration in the period 1940–2010 in the United States increased the high school completion of natives: "An increase of one percentage point in the share of immigrants in the population aged 11–64 increases the probability that natives aged 11–17 eventually complete 12 years of schooling by 0.3 percentage point."{{Cite journal | last1 = Hunt | first1 = Jennifer|date=2 September 2016|title=The Impact of Immigration on the Educational Attainment of Natives|url=http://jhr.uwpress.org/content/early/2016/08/31/jhr.52.4.0115-6913R1|journal=Journal of Human Resources|language=en|pages=0115–6913R1|doi=10.3368/jhr.52.4.0115-6913R1|issn=0022-166X|volume=52|issue=4|hdl=10419/67241}} A 2019 NBER paper found little evidence that exposure to foreign-born students had an effect on US-born students.{{Cite report |last1=Fletcher|first1=Jason|last2=Kim|first2=Jinho|last3=Nobles|first3=Jenna|last4=Ross|first4=Stephen|last5=Shaorshadze|first5=Irina|date=2019|title=The Effects of Foreign-Born Peers in US High Schools and Middle Schools |website=National Bureau of Economic Research |doi=10.3386/w26491 |doi-access=free |s2cid=213323363}}

Studies have found that non-native speakers of English in the UK have no causal effect on the performance of other pupils,{{Cite journal|title = Non-native Speakers of English in the Classroom: What Are the Effects on Pupil Performance?|journal = The Economic Journal|date = 1 August 2013|issn = 1468-0297|pages = F281–F307|volume = 123|issue = 570|doi = 10.1111/ecoj.12054|first1 = Charlotte|last1 = Geay|first2 = Sandra|last2 = McNally|first3 = Shqiponja|last3 = Telhaj|s2cid = 14306752|url = http://cee.lse.ac.uk/ceedps/ceedp137.pdf|access-date = 23 July 2019|archive-date = 17 October 2019|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191017194205/http://cee.lse.ac.uk/ceedps/ceedp137.pdf|url-status = dead}} immigrant children have no significant effect on the test scores of Dutch children,{{Cite journal|title = How Immigrant Children Affect the Academic Achievement of Native Dutch Children |journal = The Economic Journal|date = 1 August 2013|issn = 1468-0297|pages = F308–F331|volume = 123|issue = 570|doi = 10.1111/ecoj.12052|language = en | first1 = Asako | last1 = Ohinata|first2 = Jan C.|last2 = van Ours|s2cid = 29570106|url = http://www.norface-migration.org/publ_uploads/NDP_12_12.pdf}} no effect on grade repetition among native students exposed to migrant students in Austrian schools,{{Cite journal|title = Immigrant concentration in schools: Consequences for native and migrant students |journal = Labour Economics|date = 1 August 2015|pages = 63–76|volume = 35|doi = 10.1016/j.labeco.2015.03.004 | first1 = Nicole | last1 = Schneeweis|hdl = 10419/115095|s2cid = 74494602|url = http://www.econ.jku.at/papers/2013/wp1303.pdf|hdl-access = free}} that the presence of Latin American children in schools had no significant negative effects on peers, but that students with limited English skills had slight negative effects on peers,{{cite journal |last1=Diette |first1=Timothy M. |last2=Uwaifo Oyelere |first2=Ruth|title=Gender and Racial Differences in Peer Effects of Limited English Students: A Story of Language or Ethnicity?|journal=IZA Discussion Papers |date=January 2016 |issue=9661|url=http://www.iza.org/en/webcontent/publications/papers/viewAbstract?dp_id=9661 |access-date= 21 January 2016|language=en }} and that the influx of Haitians to Florida public schools after the 2010 Haiti earthquake had no effects on the educational outcomes of incumbent students.{{Cite journal|title=Unwelcome Guests? The Effects of Refugees on the Educational Outcomes of Incumbent Students|journal = Journal of Labor Economics|volume = 37|issue = 4|pages = 1061–1096|date=2019|doi=10.1086/703116|last1 = Figlio|first1 = David|last2 = Özek|first2 = Umut|s2cid = 158575753|url = http://www.nber.org/papers/w23661.pdf}}

A 2018 study found that the "presence of immigrant students who have been in the country for some time is found to have no effect on natives. However, a small negative effect of recent immigrants on natives' language scores is reported."{{Cite journal | last1 = Bossavie | first1 = Laurent|date=5 September 2018|title=The Effect of Immigration on Natives' School Performance: Does Length of Stay in the Host Country Matter?|url=http://jhr.uwpress.org/content/early/2018/09/04/jhr.55.3.1017-9151R2|journal=Journal of Human Resources|language=en|pages=1017–9151R2|doi=10.3368/jhr.55.3.1017-9151R2| s2cid = 159010723|issn=0022-166X}} Another 2018 study found that the presence of immigrant students to Italy was associated with "small negative average effects on maths test scores that are larger for low ability native students, strongly non-linear and only observable in classes with a high (top 20%) immigrant concentration. These outcomes are driven by classes with a high average linguistic distance between immigrants and natives, with no apparent additional role played by ethnic diversity."{{Cite journal|date=25 December 2018|title=The effect of immigrant peers in vocational schools#|url=http://dagliano.unimi.it/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/WP2017_430.pdf|journal=European Economic Review|volume=113|pages=1–22|language=en|doi=10.1016/j.euroecorev.2018.12.005|issn=0014-2921|last1=Frattini|first1=Tommaso|last2=Meschi|first2=Elena|hdl=2434/608118|s2cid=85504429}}

After immigrant children's scores were included in Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 15-year-old school pupils' educational evaluations in Sweden the Swedish PISA scores significantly decreased.{{Cite web|url=https://www.expressen.se/nyheter/qs/sveriges-pisa-framgang-bygger-pa-falska-siffror/|title=Sveriges PISA-framgång bygger på falska siffror|date=2 June 2020 }}

There is some research that suggests that immigration adversely affects social capital.{{Cite journal | last1 = Algan | first1 = Yann|last2=Hémet|first2=Camille|last3=Laitin|first3=David D.|date=4 May 2016|title=The Social Effects of Ethnic Diversity at the Local Level: A Natural Experiment with Exogenous Residential Allocation |journal=Journal of Political Economy|page=000|doi=10.1086/686010|issn=0022-3808|volume=124|issue=3| s2cid = 15590490| url = http://spire.sciencespo.fr/hdl:/2441/30a25e1csn8pqrmbq8oije0o6j}} One study, for instance, found that "larger increases in US states' Mexican population shares correspond to larger decreases in social capital over the period" 1986–2004.{{Cite journal|title = The Effect of Immigration from Mexico on Social Capital in the United States |journal = International Migration Review|volume = 51|issue = 3|date = 1 December 2015|issn = 1747-7379|pages = 757–788|doi = 10.1111/imre.12231 | first1 = Morris | last1 = Levy|s2cid = 155253270}} A 2017 study in the Journal of Comparative Economics found that "individuals whose ancestors migrated from countries with higher autocracy levels are less likely to trust others and to vote in presidential elections in the U.S. The impact of autocratic culture on trust can last for at least three generations while the impact on voting disappears after one generation. These impacts on trust and voting are also significant across Europe."{{Cite journal |title=The autocratic roots of social distrust| doi=10.1016/j.jce.2017.12.002|year=2018|journal=Journal of Comparative Economics |volume=46|issue=1 |pages=362–380 | last1 = Xu | first1 = Xu | last2 = Jin | first2 = Xin| s2cid=157751513|issn=0147-5967}} A 2019 study found that "humans are inclined to react negatively to threats to homogeneity... in the short term. However, these negative outcomes are compensated in the long term by the beneficial influence of intergroup contact, which alleviates initial negative influences."{{Cite journal|last1=Hewstone|first1=Miles|last2=Massey|first2=Douglas S.|last3=Bennett|first3=Matthew R.|last4=Ramos|first4=Miguel R.|date=9 May 2019|title=Humans adapt to social diversity over time|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=116|issue=25|language=en|pages=12244–12249|doi=10.1073/pnas.1818884116|issn=0027-8424|pmid=31072924|pmc=6589669|bibcode=2019PNAS..11612244R |doi-access=free}}

{{See also|Mental health and immigration detention}}

Research suggests that immigration has positive effects on native workers' health.{{Cite journal|last1=Giuntella|first1=Osea|last2=Mazzonna|first2=Fabrizio|last3=Nicodemo|first3=Catia|last4=Vargas-Silva|first4=Carlos|date=1 July 2019|title=Immigration and the reallocation of work health risks|journal=Journal of Population Economics|language=en|volume=32|issue=3|pages=1009–1042|doi=10.1007/s00148-018-0710-3|issn=1432-1475|doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal|last=Gunadi|first=Christian|title=Immigration and the Health of U.S. Natives|journal=Southern Economic Journal|year=2020|volume=86|issue=4|language=en|pages=1278–1306|doi=10.1002/soej.12425|s2cid=214313284|issn=2325-8012}} As immigration rises, native workers are pushed into less demanding jobs, which improves native workers' health outcomes.

A 2018 study found that immigration to the United Kingdom "reduced waiting times for outpatient referrals and did not have significant effects on waiting times in accident and emergency departments (A&E) and elective care."{{Cite journal|date=1 March 2018|title=The effects of immigration on NHS waiting times|journal=Journal of Health Economics|language=en|volume=58|pages=123–143|doi=10.1016/j.jhealeco.2018.02.001|pmid=29477952|issn=0167-6296|last1=Giuntella|first1=Osea|last2=Nicodemo|first2=Catia|last3=Vargas-Silva|first3=Carlos|doi-access=free}} The study also found "evidence that immigration increased waiting times for outpatient referrals in more deprived areas outside of London" but that this increase disappears after 3 to 4 years.

A 2018 systemic review and meta-analysis in The Lancet found that migrants generally have better health than the general population.{{Cite journal|last1=Abubakar|first1=Ibrahim|last2=Friedland|first2=Jon S.|last3=Tollman|first3=Stephen|last4=Miranda|first4=J. Jaime|last5=Hargreaves|first5=Sally|last6=Burns|first6=Rachel|last7=Patel|first7=Parth|last8=Barr|first8=Anna Louise|last9=Bartlett|first9=Sean|date=5 December 2018|title=Global patterns of mortality in international migrants: a systematic review and meta-analysis|url= |journal=The Lancet|volume=392|language=en|issue=10164|pages=2553–2566|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(18)32781-8|pmid=30528484|pmc=6294735|issn=1474-547X}}

In the EU, the use of personal health records for migrants is being tested in the new REHEALTH 2 project.{{Cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/news/personal-health-records-migrants|title=PHR for migrants}}

High immigration can cause higher stress on highly regulated sectors such as healthcare, education, and housing, leading to negative effects.[https://clef.uwaterloo.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/CLEF-058-2023.pdf Doyle, Matthew, Mikal Skuterud, and Christopher Worswick. The economics of Canadian immigration levels. No. 58. Working Paper Series, 2023.]

Immigration tends to increase both local rents and house prices, but this dependency varies depending on factors including price elasticity of new housing supply,{{cite book | chapter-url=https://repec.its.waikato.ac.nz/wai/econwp/1907.pdf | doi=10.1007/978-3-030-48291-6_12 | chapter=Effects of Immigration on Local Housing Markets | title=The Economic Geography of Cross-Border Migration | series=Footprints of Regional Science | date=2021 | last1=Cochrane | first1=William | last2=Poot | first2=Jacques | pages=269–292 | isbn=978-3-030-48290-9 }} socioeconomics of immigrants, and internal migration of natives.{{Cite journal | last1 = Sá | first1 = Filipa|date=1 September 2015|title=Immigration and House Prices in the UK |journal=The Economic Journal|language=en|volume=125|issue=587|pages=1393–1424|doi=10.1111/ecoj.12158|issn=1468-0297|hdl=10419/51818| s2cid = 11283393| url = https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:iza:izadps:dp5893|hdl-access=free}}

{{excerpt|Immigration and crime}}

Bogus recruitment agencies and rogue recruitment agencies make fake promises of better opportunities, education, income, some of the abuses and crimes experienced by immigrants are the followed:

• Employees are forced to work in activities that were not included in their contracts, where workplace harassment is openly allowed, tolerated and even promoted.
• Workers are forced to work more than 20 hours a day with low wages or no payment,
• Slavery,
• human trafficking,
• Sexual harassment, sexual abuse, sexual assault, sexual exploitation.
• Offering fake immigrant visas in order to make it impossible for employees to return to their countries.

In many countries there is a lack of prosecution of this crimes, since these countries obtain benefits and taxes paid by these companies that benefit the economies and also because of the current shortage of workers.{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilo.org/global/topics/forced-labour/lang--en/index.htm|title=Forced labour, modern slavery and human trafficking (Forced labour, modern slavery and human trafficking)|website=www.ilo.org|date=28 January 2024 }}Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211205/SZpyul9JRTE Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20161119181931/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SZpyul9JRTE Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web| url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SZpyul9JRTE| title = Landmark Forced Labour Protocol enters into force | website=YouTube| date = 10 November 2016 }}{{cbignore}}{{cite thesis |last1=Hill |first1=Angela |title="This Modern Day Slavery": Sex Trafficking and Moral Panic in the United Kingdom |date=2011 |type=PhD dissertation |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2d8113tb |publisher=University of California, Berkeley |language=en}}[https://www.law.berkeley.edu/files/hiddenslaves_report.pdf Hidden Slaves: Forced Labor in the United States] University of California Berkeley, September 2004

Return migration from countries with liberal gender norms has been associated with the transfer of liberal gender norms to the home country.{{Cite journal |last1=Tuccio |first1=Michele |last2=Wahba |first2=Jackline |date=2018 |title=Return migration and the transfer of gender norms: Evidence from the Middle East |url=https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/422707/1/JCEC_final.pdf |journal=Journal of Comparative Economics |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=1006–1029 |doi=10.1016/j.jce.2018.07.015 |issn=0147-5967 |s2cid=158958516}}

Iran faces a mass exodus of youth and skilled labor out of the country in recent years.{{cite web | url=https://www.asriran.com/fa/news/868624/20-%D9%86%DA%A9%D8%AA%D9%87-%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%80-%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D8%AA%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%AF%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%80-%D9%85%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%AA-%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86-%DA%86%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85-%DA%A9%D9%88 | title=20 نکته دربارۀ آمار تکان‌دهندۀ مهاجرت ایرانیان/ چمدان‌هایم کو؟! }} In June 2023 Iranian parliament illegalized immigration ads online.{{Cite web |date=2023-06-12 |title=مرکز پژوهش‌های مجلس خواهان «ممنوعیت هرگونه تبلیغات درباره مهاجرت» شد! |url=https://mohabatnews.com/?p=53691 |access-date=2023-06-12 |website=محبت نیوز |language=fa-IR}}{{Cite web |date=2023-06-12 |title=جوان ایرانی هیچ دلیلی برای ماندن در کشور ندارد / مهاجرت پاشنه آشیل زیست‌بوم نوآوری – تجارت‌نیوز |url=https://tejaratnews.com/startup/%d9%85%d9%87%d8%a7%d8%ac%d8%b1%d8%aa-%d9%85%d9%86%d8%a7%d8%a8%d8%b9-%d8%a7%d9%86%d8%b3%d8%a7%d9%86%db%8c-1402 |access-date=2023-06-12 |website=tejaratnews.com |language=fa-IR}}

{{Cite web |date=2023-06-12 |title=روزنامه اعتماد: موج مهاجرت از ایران به دانش‌آموزان و کودکان رسیده است |url=https://www.iranintl.com/202306078932 |access-date=2023-06-12 |website=ایران اینترنشنال |language=fa}}{{Cite news |last=فردا |first=رادیو |date=2023-06-07 |title=«کاهش سن مهاجرت» در ایران؛ گزارش‌ها از مهاجرت دانش‌آموزان به کانادا و ترکیه |language=fa |work=رادیو فردا |url=https://www.radiofarda.com/a/immigration-iran/32448451.html |access-date=2023-06-12}}{{Cite web |last=گلمکانی |first=سپهر |date=2023-06-10 |title=قوانین جدید برای اینفلوئنسرها: تبلیغ مهاجرت ممنوع! |url=https://sakhtafzarmag.com/مرکز-پژوهش-های-مجلس-به-دنبال-اجرای-قوانین-برای-اینفلوئنسرها/ |access-date=2023-06-12 |website=سخت افزار مگ |language=fa-IR}}

{{Main|Integration of immigrants}}

A 2019 review of existing research in the Annual Review of Sociology on immigrant assimilation in the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Sweden, Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands and Spain concluded "we find an overall pattern of intergenerational assimilation in terms of socioeconomic attainment, social relations, and cultural beliefs."{{Cite journal |last1=Drouhot |first1=Lucas G. |last2=Nee |first2=Victor |date=2019 |title=Assimilation and the Second Generation in Europe and America: Blending and Segregating Social Dynamics Between Immigrants and Natives |journal=Annual Review of Sociology |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=177–199 |doi=10.1146/annurev-soc-073117-041335 |s2cid=150635159}}

A 2018 study in the American Sociological Review found that within racial groups, most immigrants to the United States had fully assimilated within a span of 20 years. Immigrants arriving in the United States after 1994 assimilate more rapidly than immigrants who arrived in previous periods. Measuring assimilation can be difficult due to "ethnic attrition", which refers to when descendants of migrants cease to self-identify with the nationality or ethnicity of their ancestors. This means that successful cases of assimilation will be underestimated. Research shows that ethnic attrition is sizable in Hispanic and Asian immigrant groups in the United States.{{Cite journal |last1=Duncan |first1=Brian |last2=Trejo |first2=Stephen J |year=2011 |title=Tracking Intergenerational Progress for Immigrant Groups: The Problem of Ethnic Attrition |journal=American Economic Review |volume=101 |issue=3 |pages=603–608 |doi=10.1257/aer.101.3.603 |s2cid=46552371}}{{Cite journal |last1=Alba |first1=Richard |last2=Islam |first2=Tariqul |date=1 January 2009 |title=The Case of the Disappearing Mexican Americans: An Ethnic-Identity Mystery |journal=Population Research and Policy Review |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=109–121 |doi=10.1007/s11113-008-9081-x |jstor=20616620 |s2cid=154929099}} By taking account of ethnic attrition, the assimilation rate of Hispanics in the United States improves significantly.{{Cite journal |last1=Duncan |first1=Brian |last2=Trejo |first2=Stephen |year=2017 |title=The Complexity of Immigrant Generations: Implications for Assessing the Socioeconomic Integration of Hispanics and Asians |journal=ILR Review |volume=70 |issue=5 |pages=1146–1175 |citeseerx=10.1.1.403.8151 |doi=10.1177/0019793916679613 |pmc=5602570 |pmid=28935997}} A 2016 paper challenges the view that cultural differences are necessarily an obstacle to long-run economic performance of migrants. It finds that "first generation migrants seem to be less likely to success the more culturally distant they are, but this effect vanishes as time spent in the US increases."{{cite web |title=Achieving the American Dream: Cultural Distance, Cultural Diversity and Economic Performance {{!}} Oxford Economic and Social History Working Papers {{!}} Working Papers |url=http://www.economics.ox.ac.uk/Oxford-Economic-and-Social-History-Working-Papers/achieving-the-american-dream-cultural-distance-cultural-diversity-and-economic-performance |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807014939/http://www.economics.ox.ac.uk/Oxford-Economic-and-Social-History-Working-Papers/achieving-the-american-dream-cultural-distance-cultural-diversity-and-economic-performance |archive-date=7 August 2016 |access-date=18 May 2016 |website=www.economics.ox.ac.uk}}

A 2018 study found that Chinese nationals in the United States who received permanent residency permits from the US government amid the Tiananmen Square protests (and subsequent Chinese government clampdown) experienced significant employment and earnings gains relative to similar immigrant groups who did not have the same residency rights.{{Cite journal |last1=Orrenius |first1=Pia |last2=Zavodny |first2=Madeline |last3=Kerr |first3=Emily |date=June 2012 |title=Chinese Immigrants in the U.S. Labor Market: Effects of Post-Tiananmen Immigration Policy |journal=International Migration Review |language=en |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=456–482 |doi=10.1111/j.1747-7379.2012.00893.x |issn=0197-9183 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10419/58772 |s2cid=145589806|url=https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:iza:izadps:dp6287 }}

During the Age of Mass Migration, infant arrivals to the United States had greater economic success over their lifetime than teenage arrivals.{{Cite journal |last1=Alexander |first1=Rohan |last2=Ward |first2=Zachary |date=2018 |title=Age at Arrival and Assimilation During the Age of Mass Migration |url=https://www.cbe.anu.edu.au/researchpapers/CEH/WP201803.pdf |journal=The Journal of Economic History |language=en |volume=78 |issue=3 |pages=904–937 |doi=10.1017/S0022050718000335 |issn=0022-0507 |s2cid=158352415}}

A 2015 report by the National Institute of Demographic Studies finds that an overwhelming majority of second-generation immigrants of all origins in France feel French, despite the persistent discrimination in education, housing and employment that many of the minorities face.{{Cite news |last1=Bohlen |first1=Celestine |date=25 January 2016 |title=Study Finds Children of Immigrants Embracing 'Frenchness' |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/26/world/europe/study-finds-children-of-immigrants-embracing-frenchness.html |access-date=19 April 2016 |issn=0362-4331}}

Research shows that country of origin matters for speed and depth of immigrant assimilation but that there is considerable assimilation overall. Research finds that first generation immigrants from countries with less egalitarian gender cultures adopt gender values more similar to natives over time.{{Cite journal |last1=Röder |first1=Antje |last2=Mühlau |first2=Peter |date=1 March 2014 |title=Are They Acculturating? Europe's Immigrants and Gender Egalitarianism |journal=Social Forces |volume=92 |issue=3 |pages=899–928 |doi=10.1093/sf/sot126 |issn=0037-7732 |s2cid=145434097}}{{Cite journal |last1=Spierings |first1=Niels |date=16 April 2015 |title=Gender Equality Attitudes among Turks in Western Europe and Turkey: The Interrelated Impact of Migration and Parents' Attitudes |journal=Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies |volume=41 |issue=5 |pages=749–771 |doi=10.1080/1369183X.2014.948394 |issn=1369-183X |s2cid=146326410|url=https://repository.ubn.ru.nl//bitstream/handle/2066/142448/142448.pdf }} According to one study, "this acculturation process is almost completed within one generational succession: The gender attitudes of second generation immigrants are difficult to distinguish from the attitudes of members of mainstream society. This holds also for children born to immigrants from very gender traditional cultures and for children born to less well integrated immigrant families." Similar results are found on a study of Turkish migrants to Western Europe. The assimilation on gender attitudes has been observed in education, as one study finds "that the female advantage in education observed among the majority population is usually present among second-generation immigrants."{{Cite journal |last1=Fleischmann |first1=Fenella |last2=Kristen |first2=Cornelia |last3=Contributions |first3=With |last4=Research |first4=Including the Provision of Data and Analyses Instrumental to The |last5=by |last6=Heath |first6=Anthony F. |last7=Brinbaum |first7=Yaël |last8=Deboosere |first8=Patrick |last9=Granato |first9=Nadia |date=1 July 2014 |title=Gender Inequalities in the Education of the Second Generation in Western Countries |journal=Sociology of Education |type=Submitted manuscript |volume=87 |issue=3 |pages=143–170 |doi=10.1177/0038040714537836 |issn=0038-0407 |hdl=1874/301991 |s2cid=59353417}}

A 2017 study of Switzerland found that naturalization strongly improves long-term social integration of immigrants: "The integration returns to naturalization are larger for more marginalized immigrant groups and when naturalization occurs earlier, rather than later in the residency period."{{Cite journal |last1=Hainmueller |first1=Jens |last2=Hangartner |first2=Dominik |last3=Pietrantuono |first3=Giuseppe |date=1 February 2017 |title=Catalyst or Crown: Does Naturalization Promote the Long-Term Social Integration of Immigrants? |url=https://zenodo.org/record/889671 |journal=American Political Science Review |volume=111 |issue=2 |pages=256–276 |doi=10.1017/S0003055416000745 |hdl=20.500.11850/235430 |issn=0003-0554 |s2cid=229169145}} A separate study of Switzerland found that naturalization improved the economic integration of immigrants: "winning Swiss citizenship in the referendum increased annual earnings by an average of approximately 5,000 U.S. dollars over the subsequent 15 years. This effect is concentrated among more marginalized immigrants."{{cite web |title=Citizenship Increases the Long-Term Earnings of Marginalized Immigrants |url=https://immigrationlab.org/working-paper-series/citizenship-increases-long-term-earnings-marginalized-immigrants/ |access-date=1 March 2019 |website=Immigration Policy Lab |language=en-US}}

First-generation immigrants tend to hold less accepting views of homosexuality but opposition weakens with longer stays.{{Cite journal |last1=Röder |first1=Antje |date=1 December 2015 |title=Immigrants' Attitudes toward Homosexuality: Socialization, Religion, and Acculturation in European Host Societies |journal=International Migration Review |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=1042–1070 |doi=10.1111/imre.12113 |issn=1747-7379 |s2cid=144531409}} Second-generation immigrants are overall more accepting of homosexuality, but the acculturation effect is weaker for Muslims and to some extent, Eastern Orthodox migrants.

A study of Bangladeshi migrants in East London found they shifted towards the thinking styles of the wider non-migrant population in just a single generation.{{Cite journal |last1=Mesoudi |first1=Alex |last2=Magid |first2=Kesson |last3=Hussain |first3=Delwar |date=13 January 2016 |title=How Do People Become W.E.I.R.D.? Migration Reveals the Cultural Transmission Mechanisms Underlying Variation in Psychological Processes |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=e0147162 |bibcode=2016PLoSO..1147162M |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0147162 |pmc=4711941 |pmid=26760972 |doi-access=free}}

A study on Germany found that foreign-born parents are more likely to integrate if their children are entitled to German citizenship at birth.{{Cite journal |last1=Avitabile |first1=Ciro |last2=Clots-Figueras |first2=Irma |last3=Masella |first3=Paolo |date=1 August 2013 |title=The Effect of Birthright Citizenship on Parental Integration Outcomes |journal=The Journal of Law and Economics |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=777–810 |doi=10.1086/673266 |issn=0022-2186 |hdl-access=free |hdl=1814/13410 |s2cid=19012438|url=http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/59330/1/__lse.ac.uk_storage_LIBRARY_Secondary_libfile_shared_repository_Content_Clots-Figueras%2C%20I_Effect%20of%20birthright_Clots-Figueras_Effect%20birthright_2014.pdf }} A 2017 study found that "faster access to citizenship improves the economic situation of immigrant women, especially their labour market attachment with higher employment rates, longer working hours and more stable jobs. Immigrants also invest more in host country-specific skills like language and vocational training. Faster access to citizenship seems a powerful policy instrument to boost economic integration in countries with traditionally restrictive citizenship policies."{{Cite journal |last1=Gathmann |first1=Christina |last2=Keller |first2=Nicolas |year=2017 |title=Access to Citizenship and the Economic Assimilation of Immigrants |journal=The Economic Journal |language=en |volume=128 |issue=616 |pages=3141–3181 |doi=10.1111/ecoj.12546 |issn=1468-0297 |s2cid=157082274}} Naturalization is associated with large and persistent wage gains for the naturalized citizens in most countries.{{Cite journal |last1=Gathmann |first1=Christina |date=1 February 2015 |title=Naturalization and citizenship: Who benefits? |url=http://wol.iza.org/articles/naturalization-and-citizenship-who-benefits |journal=IZA World of Labor |doi=10.15185/izawol.125 |doi-access=free}} One study of Denmark found that providing immigrants with voting rights reduced their crime rate.{{Cite SSRN |title=Democratic Involvement and Immigrants' Compliance with the Law |last1=Slotwinski |first1=Michaela |last2=Stutzer |first2=Alois |date=27 February 2017 |ssrn=2923633 |last3=Gorinas |first3=Cédric}}

Studies on programs that randomly allocate refugee immigrants across municipalities find that the assignment of neighborhood affects immigrant crime propensity, education, and earnings.{{Cite journal |last1=Damm |first1=Anna Piil |last2=Dustmann |first2=Christian |year=2014 |title=Does Growing Up in a High Crime Neighborhood Affect Youth Criminal Behavior? |url=http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/10038985/ |journal=American Economic Review |type=Submitted manuscript |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1806–1832 |doi=10.1257/aer.104.6.1806}}{{Cite journal |last1=Åslund |first1=Olof |last2=Edin |first2=Per-Anders |last3=Fredriksson |first3=Peter |last4=Grönqvist |first4=Hans |year=2011 |title=Peers, Neighborhoods, and Immigrant Student Achievement: Evidence from a Placement Policy |journal=American Economic Journal: Applied Economics |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=67–95 |doi=10.1257/app.3.2.67 |hdl-access=free |hdl=2445/116663 |s2cid=31236419|url=http://ieb.ub.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/2010-IEB-WorkingPaper-19.pdf }}{{Cite journal |last1=Damm |first1=Anna Piil |date=1 January 2014 |title=Neighborhood quality and labor market outcomes: Evidence from quasi-random neighborhood assignment of immigrants |url=https://pure.au.dk/ws/files/68523715/E_publication.pdf |journal=Journal of Urban Economics |series=Spatial Dimensions of Labor Markets |volume=79 |pages=139–166 |doi=10.1016/j.jue.2013.08.004}}{{Cite journal |last1=Damm |first1=Anna Piil |date=1 April 2009 |title=Ethnic Enclaves and Immigrant Labor Market Outcomes: Quasi-Experimental Evidence |journal=Journal of Labor Economics |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=281–314 |doi=10.1086/599336 |issn=0734-306X |s2cid=17521852}}{{Cite journal |last1=Edin |first1=Per-Anders |last2=Fredriksson |first2=Peter |last3=Åslund |first3=Olof |date=1 February 2003 |title=Ethnic Enclaves and the Economic Success of Immigrants{{snd}}Evidence from a Natural Experiment |journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics |language=en |volume=118 |issue=1 |pages=329–357 |doi=10.1162/00335530360535225 |issn=0033-5533 |hdl=10419/82170 |s2cid=16520774|hdl-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Will |last2=Teytelboym |first2=Alexander |year=2017 |title=The Local Refugee Match: Aligning Refugees' Preferences with the Capacities and Priorities of Localities |journal=Journal of Refugee Studies |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=152–178 |doi=10.1093/jrs/fex022 |s2cid=111381382}} A 2019 study found that refugees who resettled in areas with many conationals were more likely to be economically integrated.{{Cite journal |last1=Hangartner |first1=Dominik |last2=Hainmueller |first2=Jens |last3=Martén |first3=Linna |date=24 July 2019 |title=Ethnic networks can foster the economic integration of refugees |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=116 |issue=33 |pages=16280–16285 |bibcode=2019PNAS..11616280M |doi=10.1073/pnas.1820345116 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=6697878 |pmid=31358632 |doi-access=free}}

Research suggests that bilingual schooling reduces barriers between speakers from two different communities.{{cite journal |last1=Cappellari |first1=Lorenzo |last2=Di Paolo |first2=Antonio |date=October 2015 |title=Bilingual Schooling and Earnings: Evidence from a Language-in-Education Reform |url=http://www.iza.org/en/webcontent/publications/papers/viewAbstract?dp_id=9431 |journal=IZA Discussion Papers |language=en |issue=9431 |access-date=22 March 2016}}

Research suggests that a vicious cycle of bigotry and isolation could reduce assimilation and increase bigotry towards immigrants in the long-term. For instance, University of California, San Diego political scientist Claire Adida, Stanford University political scientist David Laitin and Sorbonne University economist Marie-Anne Valfort argue "fear-based policies that target groups of people according to their religion or region of origin are counter-productive. Our own research, which explains the failed integration of Muslim immigrants in France, suggests that such policies can feed into a vicious cycle that damages national security. French Islamophobia{{snd}}a response to cultural difference{{snd}}has encouraged Muslim immigrants to withdraw from French society, which then feeds back into French Islamophobia, thus further exacerbating Muslims' alienation, and so on. Indeed, the failure of French security in 2015 was likely due to police tactics that intimidated rather than welcomed the children of immigrants{{snd}}an approach that makes it hard to obtain crucial information from community members about potential threats."{{Cite journal |last1=Adida |first1=Claire L. |last2=Laitin |first2=David D. |last3=Valfort |first3=Marie-Anne |date=1 February 2017 |title=The Wrong Way to Stop Terrorism |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2017-02-01/wrong-way-stop-terrorism |journal=Foreign Affairs}}{{Cite news |title=AdidaLaitinValfort2017 ForeignAffairs.pdf |newspaper=Google Docs |url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B1XnDFa2nmdhSnJwSVRoSkJqYjQ/view |access-date=4 February 2017}}

A study which examined Catalan nationalism examined the Catalan Government's policy towards the integration of immigrants during the start of the 1990s. At this time the Spanish region of Catalonia was experiencing a large influx in the number of immigrants from Northern Africa, Latin America and Asia. The Spanish government paid little attention to this influx of immigrants. However, Catalan politicians began discussing how the increase in immigrants would effect Catalan identity. Members of the Catalan parliament petitioned for a plan to integrate these immigrants into Catalan society. Crucially, the plan did not include policies regarding naturalisation, which were key immigration policies of the Spanish government. The plan of the Catalan parliament aimed to create a shared Catalan identity which included both the native Catalan population and immigrant communities. This meant that immigrants were encouraged to relate as part of the Catalan community but also encouraged to retain their own culture and traditions. In this way assimilation of immigrant cultures in Catalonia was avoided.{{Cite journal |last1=Coversi |display-authors=etal |date=2017 |title=Despite the crisis: The resilience of intercultural nationalism in Catalonia |journal=International Migration |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=53–67 |doi=10.1111/imig.12323 |s2cid=151628467}}

A 2018 study in the British Journal of Political Science found that immigrants in Norway became more politically engaged the earlier that they were given voting rights.{{Cite journal |last1=Ferwerda |first1=Jeremy |last2=Finseraas |first2=Henning |last3=Bergh |first3=Johannes |date=2018 |title=Voting Rights and Immigrant Incorporation: Evidence from Norway |journal=British Journal of Political Science |language=en |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=713–730 |doi=10.1017/S0007123417000643 |issn=0007-1234 |s2cid=158137269}}

A 2019 study in the European Economic Review found that language training improved the economic assimilation of immigrants in France.{{cite journal |author=Alexia Lochmann |author2=Hillel Rapoport |author3=Biagio Speciale |date=April 2019 |title=The effect of language training on immigrants' economic integration: Empirical evidence from France |url=https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:iza:izadps:dp11331 |journal=European Economic Review |volume=113 |pages=265–296 |doi=10.1016/j.euroecorev.2019.01.008 |s2cid=149045384}}

• {{cite web |date=March 2019 |title=The effect of language training on immigrants' economic integration: Empirical evidence from France |url=https://www.parisschoolofeconomics.eu/en/economics-for-everyone/for-a-wider-audience/5-papers-in-5-minutes/march-2019/the-effect-of-language-training-on-immigrants-economic-integration-empirical-evidence-from-france/ |website=Paris School of Economics}}

A 2020 study using data from large-scale comparative surveys in Germany, France, and United Kingdom found that sampled households with a language barrier tend to have poor living conditions and are migrants. Inferences about their demographic, attitudinal, or behavioral traits cannot be made because the ability to speak the official language(s) of the country is one of the criteria for survey participation.{{Cite book |last1=Heck-Grossek |first1=Nicholas |url=https://www.rti.org/rti-press-publication/language-survey-research |title=Void of the voiceless: An analysis of residents with a language barrier in Germany, France, and the United Kingdom (Chapter 6) in The Essential Role of Language in Survey Research |last2=Dardha |first2=Sonia |date=2020-04-30 |publisher=RTI Press |isbn=978-1-934831-24-3 |editor-last=Sha |editor-first=Mandy |pages=117–126 |doi=10.3768/rtipress.bk.0023.2004}}

A 2020 paper on reforms of refugee policy in Denmark found that language training boosted the economic and social integration of refugees, whereas cuts to refugees' welfare benefits had no effect, except to temporarily increase property crimes.{{Cite report |title=Integrating Refugees: Language Training or Work-First Incentives? |last1=Arendt |first1=Jacob Nielsen |last2=Bolvig |first2=Iben |date=2020 |doi=10.3386/w26834 |last3=Foged |first3=Mette |last4=Hasager |first4=Linea |last5=Peri |first5=Giovanni |doi-access=free |website=National Bureau of Economic Research |s2cid=216251239}}

{{Main|Discrimination based on nationality}}

{{Distinguish|Racism}}

Research suggests that police practices, such as racial profiling, over-policing in areas populated by minorities and in-group bias may result in disproportionately high numbers of racial minorities among crime suspects in Sweden, Italy, and England and Wales.{{cite web|url=https://www.bra.se/bra/publikationer/arkiv/publikationer/2008-02-21-diskriminering-i-rattsprocessen.html|title=Diskriminering i rättsprocessen – Brå|website=www.bra.se|language=sv|access-date=26 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170317221242/http://bra.se/bra/publikationer/arkiv/publikationer/2008-02-21-diskriminering-i-rattsprocessen.html|archive-date=17 March 2017|url-status=dead}}{{Cite journal | last1 = Hällsten | first1 = Martin|last2=Szulkin|first2=Ryszard|last3=Sarnecki|first3=Jerzy|date=1 May 2013|title=Crime as a Price of Inequality? The Gap in Registered Crime between Childhood Immigrants, Children of Immigrants and Children of Native Swedes |journal=British Journal of Criminology|volume=53|issue=3|pages=456–481|doi=10.1093/bjc/azt005|issn=0007-0955}}{{Cite book |title=Immigration, Crime, and Criminalization in Italy |publisher=Oxford Handbooks | last1 = Crocitti | first1 = Stefania|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199859016.013.029|year=2013}}{{Cite journal | last1 = Colombo | first1 = Asher|date=1 November 2013|title=Foreigners and immigrants in Italy's penal and administrative detention systems |journal=European Journal of Criminology|language=en|volume=10|issue=6|pages=746–759|doi=10.1177/1477370813495128| s2cid = 145099179|issn=1477-3708}}{{Cite journal|url=http://oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199859016.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199859016-e-014|title=Ethnicities, Racism, and Crime in England and Wales – Oxford Handbooks|journal=The Oxford Handbook of Ethnicity, Crime, and Immigration|last1=Parmar|first1=Alpa|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199859016.013.014|year=2013|isbn=978-0-19-985901-6|access-date=5 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190618001511/https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199859016.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199859016-e-014|archive-date=18 June 2019|url-status=dead}} Research also suggests that there may be possible discrimination by the judicial system, which contributes to a higher number of convictions for racial minorities in Sweden, the Netherlands, Italy, Germany, Denmark and France.{{Cite journal | last1 = Holmberg | first1 = Lars|last2=Kyvsgaard|first2=Britta|title=Are Immigrants and Their Descendants Discriminated against in the Danish Criminal Justice System?|journal=Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention|volume=4|issue=2|pages=125–142|doi=10.1080/14043850310020027|year=2003| s2cid = 143646955}}{{Cite journal|url=http://oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199859016.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199859016-e-030|title=Case Study |publisher= Oxford Handbooks |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Ethnicity, Crime, and Immigration | last1 = Roché | first1 = Sebastian|last2=Gordon|first2=Mirta B.|last3=Depuiset|first3=Marie-Aude|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199859016.013.030|year=2013|isbn=978-0-19-985901-6 }}{{Cite journal | last1 = Light | first1 = Michael T.|date=1 March 2016|title=The Punishment Consequences of Lacking National Membership in Germany, 1998–2010 |journal=Social Forces|language=en|volume=94|issue=3|pages=1385–1408|doi=10.1093/sf/sov084| s2cid = 155814847|issn=0037-7732}}{{Cite journal | last1 = Wermink | first1 = Hilde|last2=Johnson|first2=Brian D.|last3=Nieuwbeerta|first3=Paul|last4=Keijser|first4=Jan W. de|date=1 November 2015|title=Expanding the scope of sentencing research: Determinants of juvenile and adult punishment in the Netherlands |journal=European Journal of Criminology|language=en|volume=12|issue=6|pages=739–768|doi=10.1177/1477370815597253| s2cid = 143366742|issn=1477-3708}} A 2018 study found that the Dutch are less likely to reciprocate in games played with immigrants than the native Dutch.{{Cite journal | last1 = Cettolin | first1 = Elena|last2=Suetens|first2=Sigrid|date=18 July 2018|title=Return on Trust is Lower for Immigrants|journal=The Economic Journal| volume = 129| issue = 621| pages = 1992–2009|language=en|doi=10.1111/ecoj.12629|issn=0013-0133|doi-access=free}}

Several meta-analyses find extensive evidence of ethnic and racial discrimination in hiring in the North-American and European labor markets.{{Cite journal | last1 = Riach | first1 = P. A.|last2=Rich|first2=J.|date=1 November 2002|title=Field Experiments of Discrimination in the Market Place |journal=The Economic Journal|language=en|volume=112|issue=483|pages=F480–F518|doi=10.1111/1468-0297.00080|issn=1468-0297|citeseerx=10.1.1.417.9100| s2cid = 19024888}} A 2016 meta-analysis of 738 correspondence tests in 43 separate studies conducted in OECD countries between 1990 and 2015 finds that there is extensive racial discrimination in hiring decisions in Europe and North-America. Equivalent minority candidates need to send around 50% more applications to be invited for an interview than majority candidates.

A 2014 meta-analysis found extensive evidence of racial and ethnic discrimination in the housing market of several European countries.

Since 2010, the United Kingdom's policies surrounding immigrant detention have come under fire for insufficiently protecting vulnerable groups. In the early 2000s, the United Kingdom adopted the Detention Duty Advice (DDA) scheme in order to provide free, government-funded, legal aid to immigrants. The DDA scheme at face value granted liberty on administrative grounds by considering immigrant merits, nature of their work, their financial means, and other factors that would then determine how much free legal aid detainees were granted. Recent research by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), demonstrates that marginalized groups have been barred from legal assistance in detention centers. The barriers immigrants face in order to access justice through the DDA disproportionately affected underrepresented groups of immigrants, and the language barrier and lack of interpreters led to further hurdles that detainees were unable to jump through.

In Canada immigrant detainees face barriers to justice due to a lack of international enforcement. Canada's immigration detention system has significant legal and normative problems, and the rubric of 'access to justice' that is presented by international law fails to identify these faults. There is a lack of access to legal aid for immigrants in detention, as well as inhumane treatment in detention centers. Research has demonstrated irreparable psychological, physical, and social damage to immigrants, and the international community ignores these injustices.{{Cite journal |last1=Silverman |first1=Stephanie J. |last2=Molnar |first2=Petra |date=2016-02-29 |title=Everyday Injustices: Barriers to Access to Justice for Immigration Detainees in Canada |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/rsq/hdv016 |journal=Refugee Survey Quarterly |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=109–127 |doi=10.1093/rsq/hdv016 |issn=1020-4067}}

A 2014 meta-analysis of racial discrimination in product markets found extensive evidence of minority applicants being quoted higher prices for products. A 1995 study found that car dealers "quoted significantly lower prices to white males than to black or female test buyers using identical, scripted bargaining strategies."{{Cite journal | last1 = Ayres | first1 = Ian|last2=Siegelman|first2=Peter|date=1 January 1995|title=Race and Gender Discrimination in Bargaining for a New Car|url=https://ideas.repec.org/a/aea/aecrev/v85y1995i3p304-21.html|journal=American Economic Review|volume=85|issue=3|pages=304–21}} A 2013 study found that eBay sellers of iPods received 21 percent more offers if a white hand held the iPod in the photo than a black hand.{{Cite journal | last1 = Doleac | first1 = Jennifer L.|last2=Stein|first2=Luke C.D.|date=1 November 2013|title=The Visible Hand: Race and Online Market Outcomes |journal=The Economic Journal|language=en|volume=123|issue=572|pages=F469–F492|doi=10.1111/ecoj.12082| s2cid = 154984687|issn=1468-0297}}

Research suggests that police practices, such as racial profiling, over-policing in areas populated by minorities and in-group bias may result in disproportionately high numbers of racial minorities among crime suspects.{{Cite journal | last1 = Warren | first1 = Patricia Y.|last2=Tomaskovic-Devey|first2=Donald|date=1 May 2009|title=Racial profiling and searches: Did the politics of racial profiling change police behavior? |journal=Criminology & Public Policy|language=en|volume=8|issue=2|pages=343–369|doi=10.1111/j.1745-9133.2009.00556.x|issn=1745-9133}}[https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/217822/stats-race-and-the-criminal-justice-system-2008-09c1.pdf Statistics on Race and the Criminal Justice System 2008/09], p. 8., 22{{cite web|url=https://www.mit.edu/~westj/articles/JeremyWest_RacialBiasPolice.pdf |title=Racial Bias in Police Investigations | last1 = West | first1 = Jeremy |date=November 2015 |website=MIT.edu |publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology |type=Working paper |access-date=13 May 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307202800/http://www.mit.edu/~westj/articles/JeremyWest_RacialBiasPolice.pdf |archive-date=7 March 2016 }}{{Cite journal | last1 = Donohue III | first1 = John J.|last2=Levitt|first2=Steven D.|date=1 January 2001|title=The Impact of Race on Policing and Arrests|jstor=10.1086/322810|journal=The Journal of Law & Economics|volume=44|issue=2|pages=367–394|doi=10.1086/322810| s2cid = 1547854| url = https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/fss_papers/37}} Research also suggests that there may be possible discrimination by the judicial system, which contributes to a higher number of convictions for racial minorities.{{Cite journal | last1 = Abrams | first1 = David S.|last2=Bertrand|first2=Marianne|last3=Mullainathan|first3=Sendhil|date=1 June 2012|title=Do Judges Vary in Their Treatment of Race? |journal=The Journal of Legal Studies|volume=41|issue=2|pages=347–383|doi=10.1086/666006| s2cid = 2338687|issn=0047-2530| url = https://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1354&context=faculty_scholarship}}{{Cite journal | last1 = Mustard | first1 = David B.|date=1 April 2001|title=Racial, Ethnic, and Gender Disparities in Sentencing: Evidence from the U.S. Federal Courts |journal=The Journal of Law and Economics|volume=44|issue=1|pages=285–314|doi=10.1086/320276| s2cid = 154533225|issn=0022-2186}}{{Cite journal | last1 = Anwar | first1 = Shamena|last2=Bayer|first2=Patrick|last3=Hjalmarsson|first3=Randi|date=1 May 2012|title=The Impact of Jury Race in Criminal Trials |journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|language=en|volume=127|issue=2|pages=1017–1055|doi=10.1093/qje/qjs014|issn=0033-5533|doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal | last1 = Daudistel | first1 = Howard C.|last2=Hosch|first2=Harmon M.|last3=Holmes|first3=Malcolm D.|last4=Graves|first4=Joseph B.|date=1 February 1999|title=Effects of Defendant Ethnicity on Juries' Dispositions of Felony Cases |journal=Journal of Applied Social Psychology|language=en|volume=29|issue=2|pages=317–336|doi=10.1111/j.1559-1816.1999.tb01389.x|issn=1559-1816}}{{Cite journal | last1 = Depew | first1 = Briggs|last2=Eren|first2=Ozkan|last3=Mocan|first3=Naci |year=2017 |title=Judges, Juveniles, and In-Group Bias |journal=Journal of Law and Economics |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=209–239 |doi=10.1086/693822 | s2cid = 147631237| url = http://www.nber.org/papers/w22003.pdf}} A 2012 study found that "(i) juries formed from all-white jury pools convict black defendants significantly (16 percentage points) more often than white defendants, and (ii) this gap in conviction rates is entirely eliminated when the jury pool includes at least one black member." Research has found evidence of in-group bias, where "black (white) juveniles who are randomly assigned to black (white) judges are more likely to get incarcerated (as opposed to being placed on probation), and they receive longer sentences." In-group bias has also been observed when it comes to traffic citations, as black and white cops are more likely to cite out-groups.

A 2015 study using correspondence tests "found that when considering requests from prospective students seeking mentoring in the future, faculty were significantly more responsive to White males than to all other categories of students, collectively, particularly in higher-paying disciplines and private institutions."{{Cite journal|last1=Milkman|first1=Katherine L.|author-link=Katy Milkman|last2=Akinola|first2=Modupe|author-link2=Modupe Akinola|last3=Chugh|first3=Dolly|date=1 November 2015|title=What happens before? A field experiment exploring how pay and representation differentially shape bias on the pathway into organizations|url=https://repository.upenn.edu/fnce_papers/61|journal=The Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=100|issue=6|pages=1678–1712|doi=10.1037/apl0000022|issn=1939-1854|pmid=25867167}}

According to an analysis of the National Study of College Experience, elite colleges may favor minority applicants due to affirmative action policies.{{Cite book|url=http://press.princeton.edu/titles/9072.html|title=Espenshade, T.J. and Radford, A.W.: No Longer Separate, Not Yet Equal: Race and Class in Elite College Admission and Campus Life. (eBook, Paperback and Hardcover)|access-date=24 April 2016|isbn=978-0-691-14160-2|year=2009|last1=Espenshade|first1=Thomas J.|last2=Radford|first2=Alexandria Walton|publisher=Princeton University Press }}

A 2018 National Bureau of Economic Research paper found that math teachers discriminate against the children of immigrants. When the teachers were informed about negative stereotypes towards the children of immigrants, they gave higher grades to the children of immigrants.{{Cite report |last1=Alesina|first1=Alberto|last2=Carlana|first2=Michela|last3=Ferrara|first3=Eliana La|last4=Pinotti|first4=Paolo|date=2018|title=Revealing Stereotypes: Evidence from Immigrants in Schools |website=National Bureau of Economic Research |doi=10.3386/w25333|s2cid=145030825|doi-access=free}}

As of 2020, 2 percent of all students enrolled in U.S. higher education. That comes out to about 454,000 students. Fewer than half of illegal immigrants are eligible for the DACA program.{{cite web|title=Report estimates that more than 450,000 undocumented immigrants are enrolled in higher ed|url=https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2020/04/17/report-estimates-more-450000-undocumented-immigrants-are-enrolled-higher-ed|access-date=2021-11-01|website=www.insidehighered.com|date=17 April 2020 |language=en}}

A 2014 meta-analysis found extensive evidence of racial discrimination in the American housing market. Minority applicants for housing needed to make many more enquiries to view properties. Geographical steering of African-Americans in US housing remained significant. A 2003 study finds "evidence that agents interpret an initial housing request as an indication of a customer's preferences, but also are more likely to withhold a house from all customers when it is in an integrated suburban neighborhood (redlining). Moreover, agents' marketing efforts increase with asking price for white, but not for black, customers; blacks are more likely than whites to see houses in suburban, integrated areas (steering); and the houses agents show are more likely to deviate from the initial request when the customer is black than when the customer is white. These three findings are consistent with the possibility that agents act upon the belief that some types of transactions are relatively unlikely for black customers (statistical discrimination)."{{Cite journal | last1 = Ondrich | first1 = Jan|last2=Ross|first2=Stephen|last3=Yinger|first3=John|date=1 November 2003|title=Now You See It, Now You Don't: Why Do Real Estate Agents Withhold Available Houses from Black Customers? |journal=Review of Economics and Statistics|volume=85|issue=4|pages=854–873|doi=10.1162/003465303772815772| s2cid = 8524510|issn=0034-6535| url = http://web2.uconn.edu/economics/working/2001-01.pdf}}

A report by the federal Department of Housing and Urban Development where the department sent African-Americans and whites to look at apartments found that African-Americans were shown fewer apartments to rent and houses for sale.{{cite web|url=http://www.urban.org/research/publication/housing-discrimination-against-racial-and-ethnic-minorities-2012-full-report|title=Housing Discrimination against Racial and Ethnic Minorities 2012: Full Report|website=www.urban.org|access-date=23 April 2016|date=4 June 2016}}

Several meta-analyses find extensive evidence of ethnic and racial discrimination in hiring in the American labor market. A 2016 meta-analysis of 738 correspondence tests{{snd}}tests where identical CVs for stereotypically black and white names were sent to employers{{snd}}in 43 separate studies conducted in OECD countries between 1990 and 2015 finds that there is extensive racial discrimination in hiring decisions in Europe and North-America. These correspondence tests showed that equivalent minority candidates need to send around 50% more applications to be invited for an interview than majority candidates.{{Cite journal | last1 = Bertrand | first1 = Marianne|last2=Mullainathan|first2=Sendhil|title=Are Emily and Greg More Employable Than Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination |journal=American Economic Review|volume=94|issue=4|pages=991–1013|doi=10.1257/0002828042002561|year=2004|citeseerx=10.1.1.321.8621}} A study that examine the job applications of actual people provided with identical résumés and similar interview training showed that African-American applicants with no criminal record were offered jobs at a rate as low as white applicants who had criminal records.{{Cite journal | last1 = Pager | first1 = Devah|last2=Western|first2=Bruce|last3=Bonikowski|first3=Bart|date=1 October 2009|title=Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market A Field Experiment |journal=American Sociological Review|language=en|volume=74|issue=5|pages=777–799|doi=10.1177/000312240907400505|issn=0003-1224|pmc=2915472|pmid=20689685}}

Public support for immigration by country in European Union according to Eurobarometer 2024:{{cite book | title=Public opinion in the European Union: annex : fieldwork : October November 2024. Section QB4.1, QB4.2 | date=2024 | publisher=Publications Office | doi=10.2775/6217228 | url=https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2775/6217228 | access-date=28 March 2025 | page= | author1=European Commission. Directorate General for Communication. | isbn=978-92-68-21830-3 }}

{{Sticky header}}

{{Columns-list|colwidth=20em|

• Immigration country
• Immigration reform
• Multiculturalism
• People smuggling
• Repatriation
• Replacement migration
• Non-citizen suffrage
• Non-resident citizen voting
• Skilled worker#Migration
• White genocide conspiracy theory
• Women migrant workers from developing countries
• Xenophobia

}}

{{reflist|30em|refs=

{{cite book |last1=Boustan |first1=Adain May |title=Fertility and Immigration |date=15 January 2009 |publisher=UCLA }}

{{cite book |last1=Hayter |first1=Theresa |title=Open Borders: The Case Against Immigration Controls |date=2000 |publisher=Pluto Press |location=London }}

{{Cite news|title=An Irish Face on the Cause of Citizenship | first1 = Nina | last1 = Bernstein| date=16 March 2006|work=The New York Times|access-date=11 May 2016|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/16/nyregion/16irish.html?_r=3&}}

{{Cite journal | last1 = Facchini | first1 = G. | last2 = Steinhardt | first2 = M. F. | title = What drives U.S. Immigration policy? Evidence from congressional roll call votes | doi = 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2011.02.008 | journal = Journal of Public Economics | volume = 95 | issue = 7–8 | page = 734 | year = 2011 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.585.3903 | s2cid = 6940099 }}

See the NIDI/Eurostat "push and pull study" for details and examples: [http://www.nidi.knaw.nl/web/html/pushpull/index.html] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061209161415/http://www.nidi.knaw.nl/web/html/pushpull/index.html |date=9 December 2006 }}

{{cite web |author1=National Council of La Raza |title=Action on Immigration Reform |url=http://www.nclr.org/index.php/issues_and_programs/immigration/immigration_reform/ |website=National Council of La Raza |access-date=29 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110413063634/http://www.nclr.org/index.php/issues_and_programs/immigration/immigration_reform/ |archive-date=13 April 2011 |language=en}}

{{Cite journal | last1 = Freeman | first1 = G. P. | doi = 10.2202/1540-8884.1317 | title = Immigration, Diversity, and Welfare Chauvinism | journal = The Forum | volume = 7 | issue = 3 | year = 2009 | s2cid = 144470028 }}

{{cite web |last1=McKay |first1=Ramah |title=Family Reunification |url=http://www.migrationinformation.org/usfocus/display.cfm?id=122 |website=migrationpolicy.org |publisher=Migration Policy Institute |language=en |date=1 May 2003}}

{{cite journal |last1=Tamura |first1=Yuji |title=Do Employers Support Immigration? |journal=Trinity Economics Papers |date=29 July 2010 |issue=1107 |doi=10.2139/ssrn.1021941 |s2cid=55485879 |url=http://ssrn.com/abstract=1021941 |access-date=29 October 2018 |issn=1556-5068}}

{{cite web|author=Remittance Prices Worldwide MAKING MARKETS MORE TRANSPARENT |url=http://remittanceprices.worldbank.org/ |title=Remittance Prices Worldwide |publisher=Remittanceprices.worldbank.org |date=28 April 2014 |access-date=14 May 2014}}

}}

{{Refbegin|30em}}

• {{cite book | last1 = Bartram | first1 = David | last2 = Poros | first2 = Maritsa | last3 = Monforte | first3 = Pierre | year = 2014 | title = Key Concepts in Migration | url = https://uk.sagepub.com/en-gb/eur/key-concepts-in-migration/book235105 | location = London | publisher = Sage | isbn = 978-0-85702-079-6 }}
• {{cite book | last=Bauder | first=H. | title=Labor Movement: How Migration Regulates Labor Markets | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2006 | isbn=978-0-19-020835-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lF5iAwAAQBAJ | access-date=20 May 2023 }}
• {{Cite book | last1 = Borjas | first1 = George J. |author-link= George J. Borjas |year= 2014 |title= Immigration Economics |location= Cambridge, MA |publisher= Harvard University Press |isbn= 978-0-674-04977-2 }}
• Borjas, George. [https://www.innovations.harvard.edu/increasing-supply-labor-through-immigration-measuring-impact-native-born-workers "Increasing the Supply of Labor Through Immigration"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201019215523/https://www.innovations.harvard.edu/increasing-supply-labor-through-immigration-measuring-impact-native-born-workers |date=19 October 2020 }}. Center for Immigration Studies, May 2004.
• {{cite web |last1=Burtless |first1=Gary |title=Impact of Immigration on the Distribution of American Well-Being |website=Center for Retirement Research at Boston College |date=1 December 2009 |url=http://crr.bc.edu/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/wp2009-34-508.pdf |access-date=15 October 2018 |language=en |ssrn=1553271 }}
• {{cite book | last=Torre | first=Miguel A. De La | title=Trails of Hope and Terror | publisher=Orbis Books | date=2009 | isbn=978-1-57075-798-3}}
• Esbenshade, Jill. Division and Dislocation: Regulating Immigration through Local Housing Ordinances. Immigration Policy Center, American Immigration Law Foundation, Summer 2007.
• Ewing, Walter A. Border Insecurity: U.S. Border-Enforcement Policies and National Security, Immigration Policy Center, American Immigration Law Foundation, Spring 2006.
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• Immigration Policy Center. Economic Growth & Immigration: Bridging the Demographic Divide. Immigration Policy Center, American Immigration Law Foundation, November 2005.
• {{cite web |title=Immigration: The Demographic and Economic Facts |url=http://www.cato.org/pubs/policy_report/pr-immig.html#contents |publisher=Cato Institute |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100701013631/http://www.cato.org/pubs/policy_report/pr-immig.html#contents |archive-date=1 July 2010 |date=1995 }}
• {{cite journal | last1 = Karakayali | first1 = Nedim | year = 2005 | title = Duality and Diversity in the Lives of Immigrant Children: Rethinking the 'Problem of Second Generation' in Light of Immigrant Autobiographies | journal = Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology | volume = 42 | issue = 3| pages = 325–344 | doi = 10.1111/j.1755-618X.2005.tb00843.x | hdl = 11693/38069 | hdl-access = free }}
• {{cite book |last1=Kolb |first1=Eva |title=The Evolution of New York City's Multiculturalism: Melting Pot or Salad Bowl: Immigrants in New York from the 19th Century until the End of the Gilded Age |date=2009 |publisher=Books on Demand |isbn=978-3-8370-9303-2 |edition=1. Aufl}}
• {{cite book |last1=Legrain |first1=Philippe |author-link1=Philippe Legrain |title=Immigrants: your country needs them |date=2007 |publisher=Little Brown |isbn=978-0-316-73248-2 |edition=First Princetonition}}
• Massey, Douglas S. Beyond the Border Buildup: Towards a New Approach to Mexico-U.S. Migration. Immigration Policy Center, American Immigration Law Foundation, September 2005.
• {{cite book |last1= Massey | first1 = Douglas S. |last2= Arango |first2= Joaquín |last3= Graeme |first3= Hugo |last4= Kouaouci |first4= Ali |last5=Adela |first5= Pellegrino |last6= Taylor |first6= J. Edward |title=Worlds in Motion: Understanding International Migration at the End of the Millennium |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-928276-0 |year=2005 }}
• {{cite book |last1=Meilander |first1=Peter C. |title=Toward a theory of immigration |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-312-24034-9 |edition=1st|year=2001 }}
• {{cite book | last=Molina | first=N. | title=Fit to Be Citizens?: Public Health and Race in Los Angeles, 1879–1939 | publisher=University of California Press | series=American Crossroads | year=2006 | isbn=978-0-520-24649-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7bEwDwAAQBAJ | access-date=20 May 2023 }}
• {{cite book | last1 = Myers | first1 = Dowell |author-link= Dowell Myers|title=Immigrants and Boomers: Forging a New Social Contract for the Future of America |publisher=Russell Sage Foundation |isbn=978-0-87154-636-4|title-link=Immigrants and Boomers: Forging a New Social Contract for the Future of America |year=2007 }}
• Passel, Jeffrey S. [http://pewhispanic.org/reports/report.php?ReportID=44 Estimates of the Size and Characteristics of the Undocumented Population] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071231192402/http://pewhispanic.org/reports/report.php?ReportID=44 |date=31 December 2007 }}. Pew Hispanic Center, March 2005.
• Passel, Jeffrey S. [http://pewhispanic.org/reports/report.php?ReportID=74 Growing Share of Immigrants Choosing Naturalization] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071228175822/http://pewhispanic.org/reports/report.php?ReportID=74 |date=28 December 2007 }}. Pew Hispanic Center, March 2007.
• Passel, Jeffrey S. and Roberto Suro. [http://pewhispanic.org/reports/report.php?ReportID=53 Rise, Peak and Decline: Trends in U.S. Immigration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071231192407/http://pewhispanic.org/reports/report.php?ReportID=53 |date=31 December 2007 }}. Pew Hispanic Center, September 2005.
• Pearce, Susan C. Immigrant Women in the United States: A Demographic Portrait. Immigration Policy Center, American Immigration Law Foundation, Summer 2006.
• {{cite journal |last1=Portes |first1=Alejandro |last2=Böröcz |first2=József |author2-link=József Böröcz |title=Contemporary Immigration: Theoretical Perspectives on Its Determinants and Modes of Incorporation |journal=The International Migration Review |date=1989 |volume=23 |issue=3 (Special Silver Anniversary Issue: International Migration an Assessment for the 90's ) |pages=606–630 |doi=10.2307/2546431 |url=http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~jborocz/apbjimr.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216013343/http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~jborocz/apbjimr.pdf |archive-date=February 16, 2008 |access-date=15 October 2018 |jstor=2546431 |pmid=12282796 }}
• Rumbaut, Ruben and Walter Ewing. "The Myth of Immigrant Criminality and the Paradox of Assimilation: Incarceration Rates among Native and Foreign-Born Men." The Immigration Policy Center, Spring 2007.
• Sintès Pierre, La raison du mouvement : territoires et réseaux de migrants albanais en Grèce, Karthala, Maison Méditerranéenne des sciences de l'homme, Ecole française d'Athènes, Paris – Aix-en-Provence – Athens, 2010.
• {{cite book |last1=Sirkeci |first1=Ibrahim |title=The Environment of Insecurity in Turkey and the Emigration of Turkish Kurds to Germany |date=2006 |publisher=Edwin Mellen Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7734-5739-3 |url=http://www.mellenpress.com/mellenpress.cfm?bookid=6794&pc=9 |access-date=15 October 2018 }}
• {{cite book |last1=Valle |first1=Isabel |title=Fields of Toil: A Migrant Family's Journey |publisher=Washington State University Press |isbn=978-0-87422-101-5 |date=1994 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/fieldsoftoilmigr00vall }}
• {{cite book |last1=Zolberg|first1=Aristide R. |title= A Nation by Design: Immigration Policy in the Fashioning of America |publisher= Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-02218-8 |year=2006}}

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Category:Population

Category:Majority–minority relations