:Squamous-cell carcinoma

Human papillomavirus infection has been associated with SCCs of the oropharynx, lung,{{cite journal | vauthors = Yu Y, Yang A, Hu S, Yan H | title = Correlation of HPV-16/18 infection of human papillomavirus with lung squamous cell carcinomas in Western China | journal = Oncology Reports | volume = 21 | issue = 6 | pages = 1627–32 | date = June 2009 | pmid = 19424646 | doi = 10.3892/or_00000397 | doi-access = free }} fingers,{{cite web|title=Recurrent Squamous Cell Carcinoma In Situ of the Finger| url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/458357|access-date=2010-09-22}} and anogenital region.

File:SquamousCellCarcinomaTongueCT.png

{{Main|Head and neck cancer}}

About 90%{{cite web|url=http://www.macmillan.org.uk/Cancerinformation/Cancertypes/Headneck/Aboutheadneckcancers/Typesofheadneckcancer.aspx|title=Types of head and neck cancer - Understanding - Macmillan Cancer Support|access-date=15 March 2017}} of cases of head and neck cancer (cancer of the mouth, nasal cavity, nasopharynx, throat and associated structures) are due to SCC.

Cutaneous squamous-cell carcinoma is the second most common skin cancer, accounting for over 1 million cases in the United States each year.{{Citation |last1=Howell |first1=Jesse Y. |title=Squamous Cell Skin Cancer |date=2022 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441939/ |work=StatPearls |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=28722968 |access-date=2022-03-09 |last2=Ramsey |first2=Michael L.}}

Primary squamous-cell carcinoma of the thyroid shows an aggressive biological phenotype resulting in poor prognosis for patients.{{cite journal | vauthors = Syed MI, Stewart M, Syed S, Dahill S, Adams C, McLellan DR, Clark LJ | title = Squamous cell carcinoma of the thyroid gland: primary or secondary disease? | journal = The Journal of Laryngology and Otology | volume = 125 | issue = 1 | pages = 3–9 | date = January 2011 | pmid = 20950510 | doi = 10.1017/S0022215110002070 | s2cid = 28225556 }}

Esophageal cancer may be due to either esophageal squamous-cell carcinoma (ESCC) or adenocarcinoma (EAC). SCCs tend to occur closer to the mouth, while adenocarcinomas occur closer to the stomach. Dysphagia (difficulty swallowing, solids worse than liquids) and painful swallowing are common initial symptoms. If the disease is localized, surgical removal of the affected esophagus may offer the possibility of a cure. If the disease has spread, chemotherapy and radiotherapy are commonly used.{{cite web |url= https://www.lecturio.com/concepts/esophageal-cancer/| title=Esophageal Cancer|website=The Lecturio Medical Concept Library | date=26 October 2020|access-date= 6 August 2021}}

{{Main|Squamous-cell carcinoma of the lung}}

File:Ca bronchus.jpg

When associated with the lung, it is typically a centrally located large-cell cancer (non-small-cell lung cancer). It often has a paraneoplastic syndrome causing ectopic production of parathyroid hormone-related protein, resulting in hypercalcemia, but paraneoplastic syndrome is more commonly associated with small-cell lung cancer. It is primarily due to smoking.{{cite book | first1 = Charlotte | last1 = Pooler | first2 = Ruth A | last2 = Hannon | first3 = Carol | last3 = Porth | first4 = Glenn | last4 = Matfin | name-list-style = vanc |title=Porth pathophysiology: concepts of altered health states |year=2010 |publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |location=Philadelphia, PA |isbn=978-1-60547-781-7 |pages=660 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2-MFXOEG0lcC&pg=PA660 |edition=1st Canadian}}

Human papillomavirus (HPV), primarily HPV 16 and 18, are strongly implicated in the development of SCC of the penis.

Three carcinomas in situ are associated with SCCs of the penis:{{citation needed|date=May 2021}}

1. Bowen's disease presents as leukoplakia on the shaft. Around a third of cases progress to SCC.
2. Erythroplasia of Queyrat, a variation of Bowen's disease, presents as erythroplakia on the glans.
3. Bowenoid papulosis, which histologically resembles Bowen disease, presents as reddish papules.{{cite book |last1=Robbins |first1=Stanley |last2=Kumar |first2=Vinay |last3=Abbas |first3=Abul |last4=Fausto |first4=Nelson | name-list-style = vanc |title=Robbins Basic Pathology |date=2007 |publisher=Saunders/Elsevier |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-1-4160-2973-1 |pages=688 |edition=8th}}

When associated with the prostate, squamous-cell carcinoma is very aggressive in nature.{{cite journal |vauthors=Hanna K, Lele SM, McCormick G, McMahon A, Hill B, Boyle SL |title=Primary prostatic squamous cell carcinoma |journal=Urology Case Reports |volume=34 |issue= |pages=101478 |date=January 2021 |pmid=33235827 |pmc=7670195 |doi=10.1016/j.eucr.2020.101478 |url=}} It is difficult to detect as no increase in prostate-specific antigen levels is seen, meaning that the cancer is often diagnosed at an advanced stage.{{cite journal |vauthors=Lee J |title=Transformation of adenocarcinoma of prostate to squamous cell carcinoma following hormonal treatment: A case report and review of the literature |journal=Radiology Case Reports |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=483–489 |date=April 2019 |pmid=30805072 |pmc=6374616 |doi=10.1016/j.radcr.2019.01.015 |url=}}

Squamous cell carcinoma of the vagina spreads slowly and usually stays near the vagina, but may spread to the lungs and liver. This is the most common type of vaginal cancer.{{Cite web|url=http://www.dynamed.com/topics/dmp~AN~T114827/Squamous-cell-carcinoma-of-vagina|title=Squamous-cell Carcinoma of the Vagina|website=www.dynamed.com|access-date=2018-02-20}}

Ovarian squamous cell carcinoma (oSCC) or squamous ovarian carcinoma (SOC) is a rare tumor that accounts for 1% of ovarian cancers.{{primary source inline|date=December 2023}} {{Cite journal |last1=Srivastava |first1=Himsweta |last2=Shree |first2=Sneha |last3=Guleria |first3=Kiran |last4=Singh |first4=Usha R |date=May 2017 |title=Pure Primary Squamous Cell Carcinoma of Ovary – A Rare Case Report |journal=Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=QD01–QD02 |doi=10.7860/JCDR/2017/16899.9771 |issn=2249-782X |pmc=5483757 |pmid=28658855 |type= Case report}}

Most bladder cancer is transitional cell, but bladder cancer associated with schistosomiasis is often SCC.{{citation needed|date=May 2021}}

Conjunctival squamous cell carcinoma and corneal intraepithelial neoplasia comprise ocular surface squamous neoplasia (OSSN).

File:Oral cancer (1) squamous cell carcinoma histopathology.jpg of a highly differentiated squamous-cell carcinoma of the mouth. Typical squamous-cell carcinoma cells are large with abundant eosinophilic cytoplasm and large, often vesicular, nuclei.{{cite web|url=https://dermnetnz.org/topics/squamous-cell-carcinoma-pathology/|title=Squamous cell carcinoma pathology|website=DermNetz|author=Dr Nicholas Turnbull, A/Prof Patrick Emanual|date=2014-05-03}} Haematoxylin & eosin stain]]

File:Cytopathology of keratinizing squamous cell carcinoma.png of squamous-cell carcinoma, keratinizing variant, with typical features.- Image annotated by Mikael Häggström
- Reference for entries: {{cite web|url=https://www.pathologyoutlines.com/topic/cervixSCC.html|title=Cervix - Squamous cell carcinoma and variants|author=Gulisa Turashvili, M.D., Ph.D.|website=Pathology Outlines}} Last author update: 24 September 2020. Last staff update: 4 April 2022.
- Source image from National Cancer Institute (Public Domain) Pap stain.]]

File:Cytopathology of nonkeratinizing squamous cell carcinoma.png as well (which, however, tends to have fine chromatin).{{cite web|url=https://www.pathologyoutlines.com/topic/lungtumoradenocarcinoma.html|title=Adenocarcinoma overview|website=Pathology Outlines|author=Authors: Caroline I.M. Underwood, M.D., Alexis Musick, B.S., Carolyn Glass, M.D., Ph.D.}} Last staff update: 19 July 2022]]

Medical history, physical examination and medical imaging may suggest a squamous-cell carcinoma, but a biopsy for histopathology generally establishes the diagnosis. TP63 staining is the main histological marker for squamous-cell carcinoma. In addition, TP63 is an essential transcription factor to establish identity of the squamous cells.{{cite journal | vauthors = Prieto-Garcia C, Hartmann O, Reissland M, Braun F, Fischer T, Walz S, Schülein-Völk C, Eilers U, Ade CP, Calzado MA, Orian A, Maric HM, Münch C, Rosenfeldt M, Eilers M, Diefenbacher ME | display-authors = 6 | title = Maintaining protein stability of ∆Np63 via USP28 is required by squamous cancer cells | journal = EMBO Molecular Medicine | volume = 12 | issue = 4 | pages = e11101 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32128997 | doi = 10.15252/emmm.201911101 | pmc = 7136964 | doi-access = free }}

File:Squamous Cell Carcinoma well differentiated Left upper paraspinal back with adjacent actinic keratosis.jpg|SCC well-differentiated, left upper paraspinal back marked for biopsy with adjacent actinic keratosis

File:Squamous Cell Carcinoma Left Lateral Canthus.jpg|SCC, left lateral canthus marked for biopsy

File:Squamous Cell Carcinoma Left Ventral Forearm.jpg|SCC, left ventral forearm

Cancer can be considered a very large and exceptionally heterogeneous family of malignant diseases, with squamous-cell carcinomas comprising one of the largest subsets.{{cite journal | vauthors = Berman JJ | title = Tumor taxonomy for the developmental lineage classification of neoplasms | journal = BMC Cancer | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | pages = 88 | date = November 2004 | pmid = 15571625 | pmc = 535937 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2407-4-88 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Berman JJ | title = Tumor classification: molecular analysis meets Aristotle | journal = BMC Cancer | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | pages = 10 | date = March 2004 | pmid = 15113444 | pmc = 415552 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2407-4-10 | doi-access = free }}{{cite book |title=Pathology and Genetics of Tumours of the Lung, Pleura, Thymus and Heart |editor1-last=Travis |editor1-first=William D |editor2-last=Brambilla |editor2-first=Elisabeth |editor3-last=Muller-Hermelink |editor3-first=H Konrad |editor4-last=Harris |editor4-first=Curtis C |name-list-style=vanc |publisher=IARC Press |location=Lyon |year=2004 |series=World Health Organization Classification of Tumours |isbn=978-92-832-2418-1 |url=http://www.iarc.fr/en/publications/pdfs-online/pat-gen/bb10/bb10-cover.pdf |access-date=27 March 2010 |archive-date=23 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090823210304/http://www.iarc.fr/en/publications/pdfs-online/pat-gen/bb10/bb10-cover.pdf |url-status=dead }} All SCC lesions are thought to begin via the repeated, uncontrolled division of cancer stem cells of epithelial lineage or characteristics.{{citation needed|date=September 2017}} SCCs arise from squamous cells, which are flat cells that line many areas of the body. Some of which are keratinocytes. Accumulation of these cancer cells causes a microscopic focus of abnormal cells that are, at least initially, locally confined within the specific tissue in which the progenitor cell resided. This condition is called squamous-cell carcinoma in situ, and it is diagnosed when the tumor has not yet penetrated the basement membrane or other delimiting structure to invade adjacent tissues. Once the lesion has grown and progressed to the point where it has breached, penetrated, and infiltrated adjacent structures, it is referred to as "invasive" squamous-cell carcinoma. Once a carcinoma becomes invasive, it is able to spread to other organs and cause the formation of a metastasis, or "secondary tumor".{{citation needed|date=May 2021}}

The International Classification of Diseases for Oncology (ICD-O) system lists a number of morphological subtypes and variants of malignant squamous-cell neoplasms, including:{{cite book |first=Valerie |last=Van Holten |author2=World Health Organization |editor-first=C.S. |editor-last=Muir |editor2-first=C.L. |editor2-last=Percy |editor3-first=V. |editor3-last=Van Holten |title=International Classification of Diseases for Oncology: ICD-0 |edition=2nd |location=Geneva, Switzerland |publisher=World Health Organization |year=1990 |isbn=9789241544146 }}

• papillary thyroid carcinoma (code 8050/3)
• verrucous squamous-cell carcinoma (code 8051/3)
• papillary squamous-cell carcinoma (code 8052/3)
• squamous-cell carcinoma (code 8070/3)
• large-cell keratinizing squamous-cell carcinoma (code 8071/3)
• large-cell nonkeratinizing squamous-cell carcinoma (code 8072/3)
• small-cell keratinizing squamous-cell carcinoma (code 8073/3)
• spindle-cell squamous-cell carcinoma (code 8074/3) It is also known as spindle-cell carcinoma,{{cite book | last1 = Rapini | first1 = Ronald P. | last2 = Bolognia | first2 = Jean L. | last3 = Jorizzo | first3 = Joseph L. | name-list-style = vanc |title=Dermatology: 2-Volume Set |publisher=Mosby |location=St. Louis |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4160-2999-1 }} and is a subtype characterized by spindle-shaped atypical cells.
• adenoid/pseudoglandular squamous-cell carcinoma (code 8075/3)
• intraepidermal squamous-cell carcinoma (code 8081/3)
• lymphoepithelial carcinoma (code 8082/3).

Other variants of SCCs are recognized under other systems, such as keratoacanthoma.

• Erythroplasia of Queyrat
• Marjolin's ulcer is a type of SCC that arises from a nonhealing ulcer or burn wound. More recent evidence, however, suggests that genetic differences exist between SCC and Marjolin's ulcer, which were previously underappreciated.{{cite journal | vauthors = Sinha S, Su S, Workentine M, Agabalyan N, Cheng M, Gabriel V, Biernaskie J | title = Transcriptional Analysis Reveals Evidence of Chronically Impeded ECM Turnover and Epithelium-to-Mesenchyme Transition in Scar Tissue Giving Rise to Marjolin's Ulcer | journal = Journal of Burn Care & Research | volume = 38 | issue = 1 | pages = e14–e22 | date = January 2017 | pmid = 27679957 | doi = 10.1097/BCR.0000000000000432 | s2cid = 3702018 }}

One method of classifying squamous-cell carcinomas is by their appearance under microscope. Subtypes may include:

• adenoid squamous-cell carcinoma (also known as pseudoglandular squamous-cell carcinoma) is characterized by a tubular microscopic pattern and keratinocyte acantholysis.{{cite book | editor-first1 = Thomas B | editor-last1 = Fitzpatrick | editor-first2 = Irwin M | editor-last2 = Freedberg | name-list-style = vanc |date=2003 |title=Fitzpatrick's dermatology in general medicine |edition=6th |location=New York, NY |publisher=McGraw-Hill |isbn=978-0-07-138076-8 |page=743}}
• basaloid squamous-cell carcinoma is mostly found in or near the tongue, tonsils, or larynx, but may also occur in the lung or elsewhere.{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dxyaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA68 |chapter=Basaloid Squamous Cell Carcinoma |first=Jasim |last=Radhi |page=68 |title=Squamous Cell Carcinoma |editor-first=Xiaoming |editor-last=Li |year=2012 |publisher=InTech |location=Rijeka, Croatia |isbn=978-953-51-0024-9}}
• clear-cell squamous-cell carcinoma (also known as clear-cell carcinoma of the skin) is characterized by keratinocytes that appear clear as a result of hydropic swelling.
• signet ring-cell squamous-cell carcinoma (occasionally rendered as signet ring-cell squamous-cell carcinoma) is a histological variant characterized by concentric rings composed of keratin and large vacuoles corresponding to markedly dilated endoplasmic reticulum. These vacuoles grow to such an extent that they radically displace the cell nucleus toward the cell membrane, giving the cell a distinctive superficial resemblance to a "signet ring" when viewed under a microscope.

File:SkinTumors-P6070232.JPG|Adenoid squamous-cell carcinoma

File:SkinTumors-P6020140.JPG|Basaloid squamous-cell carcinoma

File:SkinTumors-P5290109.JPG|Clear-cell squamous-cell carcinoma

File:SkinTumors-P5300131.JPG|Spindle-cell squamous-cell carcinoma

{{Clear}}

Studies have found evidences for an association between diet and skin cancers, including SCC. The consumption of high-fat dairy foods increases SCC tumor risk in people with previous skin cancer. Green leafy vegetables may help prevent development of subsequent SCC and multiple studies found that raw vegetables and fruits are significantly protective against SCC risk.{{cite journal | vauthors = De Stefani E, Deneo-Pellegrini H, Ronco AL, Boffetta P, Brennan P, Muñoz N, Castellsagué X, Correa P, Mendilaharsu M | title = Food groups and risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the oesophagus: a case-control study in Uruguay | journal = British Journal of Cancer | volume = 89 | issue = 7 | pages = 1209–14 | date = October 2003 | pmid = 14520448 | pmc = 2394307 | doi = 10.1038/sj.bjc.6601239 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Chen YK, Lee CH, Wu IC, Liu JS, Wu DC, Lee JM, Goan YG, Chou SH, Huang CT, Lee CY, Hung HC, Yang JF, Wu MT | title = Food intake and the occurrence of squamous cell carcinoma in different sections of the esophagus in Taiwanese men | journal = Nutrition | volume = 25 | issue = 7–8 | pages = 753–61 | date = July 2009 | pmid = 19394796 | doi = 10.1016/j.nut.2009.02.002 }} On the other hand, consumption of whole milk, yogurt, and cheese may increase SCC risk in susceptible people.{{cite journal | vauthors = Hughes MC, van der Pols JC, Marks GC, Green AC | title = Food intake and risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the skin in a community: the Nambour skin cancer cohort study | journal = International Journal of Cancer | volume = 119 | issue = 8 | pages = 1953–60 | date = October 2006 | pmid = 16721782 | doi = 10.1002/ijc.22061 | doi-access = free }} In addition, meat and fat dietary pattern can increase the risk of SCC in people without a history of SCC, but the association is again more prominent in people with a history of skin cancer.{{cite journal | vauthors = Ibiebele TI, van der Pols JC, Hughes MC, Marks GC, Williams GM, Green AC | title = Dietary pattern in association with squamous cell carcinoma of the skin: a prospective study | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 85 | issue = 5 | pages = 1401–8 | date = May 2007 | pmid = 17490979 | doi = 10.1093/ajcn/85.5.1401 | doi-access = free }} Tobacco smoking and a dietary pattern characterized by high beer and liquor intake also increase the risk of SCC significantly.{{cite journal | vauthors = Bahmanyar S, Ye W | title = Dietary patterns and risk of squamous-cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma of the esophagus and adenocarcinoma of the gastric cardia: a population-based case-control study in Sweden | journal = Nutrition and Cancer | volume = 54 | issue = 2 | pages = 171–8 | date = 2006 | pmid = 16898861 | doi = 10.1207/s15327914nc5402_3 | s2cid = 1959103 }}

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Category:Cancer

Category:Oncology

Category:Epithelium