:Staphylococcus pseudintermedius

Staphylococci spp. are a genus of gram positive cocci of 0.5 - 1 μm diameter.{{fact|date=January 2021}} Staphylococcus pseudintermedius is a non-motile and non-spore forming, facultatively anaerobic bacterium.{{fact|date=January 2021}} It appears primarily as grape-like clusters morphologically, but can also be seen as individual or paired cocci.{{cite book| vauthors = Strommenger B, Layer F, Werner G | chapter = Staphylococcus aureus and Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Workers in the Food Industry|date=2018 | title =Staphylococcus aureus |pages=163–188 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-809671-0 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-809671-0.00009-7|s2cid=90495265 | pmc = 7150186 }}{{fact|date=January 2021}} This clustered configuration, as well as the positive catalase test, differentiates Staphylococcus spp. from Streptococcus spp., which manifests in chains. Due to its ability to clot blood, S. pseudintermedius is subcategorized into a group of coagulase positive (CoPS) staphylococci.{{fact|date=January 2021}} CoPS strains typically express more virulence factors. This CoPS characteristic is a contributing factor to its biochemical similarities to S.aureus.{{cite journal | vauthors = Chanchaithong P, Prapasarakul N | title = Biochemical markers and protein pattern analysis for canine coagulase-positive staphylococci and their distribution on dog skin | journal = Journal of Microbiological Methods | volume = 86 | issue = 2 | pages = 175–81 | date = August 2011 | pmid = 21586304 | doi = 10.1016/j.mimet.2011.04.019 }}

Staphylococcal organisms belong to the Staphylococcaceae family. S. aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis are other notable species which fall into the same genus as S. pseudintermedius, under this taxonomic categorization. S. pseudintermedius, Staphylococcus intermedius, and Staphylococcus delphini are largely phenotypically indiscriminate and therefore comprise the 'Staphylococcus intermedius group' of organisms. Biochemical properties of these three organisms place them as an intermediate between S. aureus and S. epidermidis.{{cite journal | vauthors = Bond R, Loeffler A | title = What's happened to Staphylococcus intermedius? Taxonomic revision and emergence of multi-drug resistance | journal = The Journal of Small Animal Practice | volume = 53 | issue = 3 | pages = 147–54 | date = March 2012 | pmid = 22251285 | doi = 10.1111/j.1748-5827.2011.01165.x | url = http://researchonline.rvc.ac.uk/id/eprint/5764/ | doi-access = }}

Staphylococcus pseudintermedius was first identified as a novel species in 2005 using 16S rRNA gene sequencing of the tRNA intergenic length polymorphisms of the AJ780976 gene loci.{{cite journal | vauthors = Devriese LA, Vancanneyt M, Baele M, Vaneechoutte M, De Graef E, Snauwaert C, Cleenwerck I, Dawyndt P, Swings J, Decostere A, Haesebrouck F | display-authors = 6 | title = Staphylococcus pseudintermedius sp. nov., a coagulase-positive species from animals | journal = International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology | volume = 55 | issue = Pt 4 | pages = 1569–1573 | date = July 2005 | pmid = 16014483 | doi = 10.1099/ijs.0.63413-0 | doi-access = free }}{{cite web |date=2005-08-15 |title=Staphylococcus pseudintermedius 16S rRNA gene, type strain LMG 22219T |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/AJ780976.1 |language=en-US}}{{cite journal | vauthors = | title = Notification that new names and new combinations have appeared in volume 55, part 1, of the IJSEM | journal = International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology | volume = 55 | issue = Pt 3 | pages = 987–991 | date = May 2005 | pmid = 15879222 | doi = 10.1099/ijs.0.63740-0 | doi-access = free }} Differing strains of S. pseudintermedius, LMG 22219 - LMG 22222, have been identified in various species: cat, horse, dog, and parrot, respectively. These strains comprise a Staphylococcal species that is distinct from other species within the genus, as distinguished by DNA hybridizations of genome sequences. Previously, many S. pseudintermedius infections or isolates were identified as Staphylococcus intermedius, before its identification as a distinct species.

Isolation of S. pseudintermedius from the skin and mucosa of healthy canine can be between 20 and 90%, with these frequencies being reduced in healthy felines to 5-45%. It is the most commonly identified Staphylococcus spp. in these animal species. S. pseudintermedius is classified as a biocontainment risk level 2 organism due to its moderately pathogenic characteristics.{{Cite web|title=Species: Staphylococcus pseudintermedius|url=https://lpsn.dsmz.de/species/staphylococcus-pseudintermedius|access-date=2020-11-29|website=lpsn.dsmz.de|language=en}}

Using the Gram stain technique, staphylococci are easily identified by their clumped, gram-positive, coccus morphology. Slides can be prepared directly using a patient swab, which lends to convenience in the clinic or classroom. However, given that S. pseudintermedius is prevalent within the normal microbiota of numerous species, it is better identified as the agent of disease when a corresponding immune reaction is also observed. Where available, the need to identify immune reactors can be avoided by first inoculating the sample onto differential agar like Staphylococcus Medium 110,{{Cite web|title=Oxoid - Product Detail|url=http://www.oxoid.com/uk/blue/prod_detail/prod_detail.asp?pr=CM0145&org=153&c=uk&lang=en#:~:text=Description-,Staphylococcus%20Medium%20No.,mannitol%20fermentation,%20and%20gelatin%20liquefaction|access-date=2020-11-21|website=www.oxoid.com}} which inhibit the growth of non-staphylococcal bacteria. Cytology alone does not allow for the differentiation between different species in the Staphylococcus genus.

When plated on sheep or bovine blood agar, S. pseudintermedius displays incomplete ß-hemolysis.{{cite journal | vauthors = Bannoehr J, Guardabassi L | title = Staphylococcus pseudintermedius in the dog: taxonomy, diagnostics, ecology, epidemiology and pathogenicity | journal = Veterinary Dermatology | volume = 23 | issue = 4 | pages = 253–66, e51–2 | date = August 2012 | pmid = 22515504 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-3164.2012.01046.x }} Colonies of S. pseudintermedius on sheep agar are described as medium in size and non-pigmented or grey-white. This can be useful for differentiating S. pseudintermedius from coagulase-negative staphylococci, and from S. aureus which tends to be yellow and displays more variable hemolytic patterns on agar. S. pseudintermedius colonies are not hemolytic on equine blood agar. While plating may help differentiate species, biochemical or DNA testing may be necessary.{{cite web | title=Identifying Bacteria Through Look, Growth, Stain and Strain | website=ASM.org | date=2020-02-07 | url=https://asm.org/Articles/2020/February/Identifying-Bacteria-Through-Look,-Growth,-Stain | access-date=2023-02-15}}

Historically, biochemical tests have been an important tool used to discriminate between Staphylococcus species. Tests used to identify S. pseudintermedius specifically include DNase,{{cite journal | vauthors = Sasaki T, Kikuchi K, Tanaka Y, Takahashi N, Kamata S, Hiramatsu K | title = Reclassification of phenotypically identified staphylococcus intermedius strains | journal = Journal of Clinical Microbiology | volume = 45 | issue = 9 | pages = 2770–8 | date = September 2007 | pmid = 17596353 | pmc = 2045239 | doi = 10.1128/JCM.00360-07 }} hyaluronidase,{{cite journal | vauthors = Raus J, Love DN | title = Characterization of coagulase-positive Staphylococcus intermedius and Staphylococcus aureus isolated from veterinary clinical specimens | journal = Journal of Clinical Microbiology | volume = 18 | issue = 4 | pages = 789–92 | date = October 1983 | pmid = 6630462 | pmc = 270907 | doi = 10.1128/JCM.18.4.789-792.1983 }} coagulase, catalase, and acetoin production tests, amongst others. It can still be difficult to differentiate between members of the S. intermedius group using these methods alone; in veterinary medicine, such diagnoses have relied on the assumption that S. pseudintermedius is the only known member of this group to infect canine skin. More recently, studies using molecular identification methods have found that different S. pseudintermedius strains harbor more phenotypic diversity than previously thought. It has been speculated that these differences have led to underestimation of the importance of S. pseudintermedius in human skin infections.{{cite journal | vauthors = Börjesson S, Gómez-Sanz E, Ekström K, Torres C, Grönlund U | title = Staphylococcus pseudintermedius can be misdiagnosed as Staphylococcus aureus in humans with dog bite wounds | journal = European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases | volume = 34 | issue = 4 | pages = 839–44 | date = April 2015 | pmid = 25532507 | doi = 10.1007/s10096-014-2300-y | s2cid = 13173599 }} Further, for this reason, S. pseudintermedius is no longer considered to be reliably identifiable using commercially available biochemical tests alone. More sensitive methods like MALDI-TOF have therefore since become preferred.

Molecular methods, like MALDI-TOF {{cite journal | vauthors = Nisa S, Bercker C, Midwinter AC, Bruce I, Graham CF, Venter P, Bell A, French NP, Benschop J, Bailey KM, Wilkinson DA | display-authors = 6 | title = Combining MALDI-TOF and genomics in the study of methicillin resistant and multidrug resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius in New Zealand | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 9 | issue = 1 | pages = 1271 | date = February 2019 | pmid = 30718644 | pmc = 6361924 | doi = 10.1038/s41598-018-37503-9 | bibcode = 2019NatSR...9.1271N }} and qPCR primers,{{cite journal | vauthors = González-Domínguez MS, Carvajal HD, Calle-Echeverri DA, Chinchilla-Cárdenas D | title = Molecular Detection and Characterization of the mecA and nuc Genes From Staphylococcus Species (S. aureus, S. pseudintermedius, and S. schleiferi) Isolated From Dogs Suffering Superficial Pyoderma and Their Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles | journal = Frontiers in Veterinary Science | volume = 7 | pages = 376 | date = 2020-07-23 | pmid = 32793641 | pmc = 7390895 | doi = 10.3389/fvets.2020.00376 | doi-access = free }} are the gold standard for accurately identifying the presence of the mecA gene, which confers resistance to beta-lactam drugs. However, methicillin resistance can still be identified reliably using biochemical or phenotypic methods, such as disc diffusion. Although cefoxitin disks have been used,{{cite journal | vauthors = Wu MT, Burnham CA, Westblade LF, Dien Bard J, Lawhon SD, Wallace MA, Stanley T, Burd E, Hindler J, Humphries RM | display-authors = 6 | title = Evaluation of Oxacillin and Cefoxitin Disk and MIC Breakpoints for Prediction of Methicillin Resistance in Human and Veterinary Isolates of Staphylococcus intermedius Group | journal = Journal of Clinical Microbiology | volume = 54 | issue = 3 | pages = 535–42 | date = March 2016 | pmid = 26607988 | pmc = 4767974 | doi = 10.1128/JCM.02864-15 }} oxacillin disks are considered to be much more sensitive, and thus a more accurate method for predicting methicillin resistance in S. pseudintermedius strains.{{Cite journal |date=2019|title=Vitek 2 Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing |journal=Biomedical Safety & Standards|volume=49|issue=4|pages=28|doi=10.1097/01.bmsas.0000553632.43991.10 |s2cid=243674809 }}{{Cite journal| vauthors = Jones RN |date=1984|title=NCCLS guidelines: revised performance standards for antimicrobial disk susceptibility tests |journal=Antimicrobic Newsletter|volume=1|issue=8|pages=64–65|doi=10.1016/0738-1751(84)90027-3 }}

In dogs, S. pseudintermedius is normally found on the microbiota of the skin.{{cite journal | vauthors = Davis JA, Jackson CR, Fedorka-Cray PJ, Barrett JB, Brousse JH, Gustafson J, Kucher M | title = Carriage of methicillin-resistant staphylococci by healthy companion animals in the US | journal = Letters in Applied Microbiology | volume = 59 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–8 | date = July 2014 | pmid = 24730724 | doi = 10.1111/lam.12254 | s2cid = 31682652 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Somayaji R, Rubin JE, Priyantha MA, Church D | title = Exploring Staphylococcus pseudintermedius: an emerging zoonotic pathogen? | journal = Future Microbiology | volume = 11 | issue = 11 | pages = 1371–1374 | date = October 2016 | pmid = 27750440 | doi = 10.2217/fmb-2016-0137 | doi-access = free }} The presence of S. pseudintermediushas been observed in higher amounts on dogs that suffer from atopic dermatitis. It is also one of the leading causes of bacterial skin and soft tissue infections,{{cite journal | vauthors = Gagetti P, Wattam AR, Giacoboni G, De Paulis A, Bertona E, Corso A, Rosato AE | title = Identification and molecular epidemiology of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius strains isolated from canine clinical samples in Argentina | journal = BMC Veterinary Research | volume = 15 | issue = 1 | pages = 264 | date = July 2019 | pmid = 31351494 | pmc = 6660709 | doi = 10.1186/s12917-019-1990-x | doi-access = free }} such as pyoderma, urinary tract infections,{{cite journal | vauthors = Couto N, Monchique C, Belas A, Marques C, Gama LT, Pomba C | title = Trends and molecular mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance in clinical staphylococci isolated from companion animals over a 16 year period | journal = The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy | volume = 71 | issue = 6 | pages = 1479–87 | date = June 2016 | pmid = 26944924 | doi = 10.1093/jac/dkw029 | doi-access = free }} and surgical site infections.{{cite journal | vauthors = Pires Dos Santos T, Damborg P, Moodley A, Guardabassi L | title = Staphylococcus pseudintermedius: Inference of Population Structure from Multilocus Sequence Typing Data | language = en | journal = Frontiers in Microbiology | volume = 7 | pages = 1599 | date = 2016 | pmid = 27803691 | doi = 10.3389/fmicb.2016.01599 | pmc = 5067483 | doi-access = free }} It is also known to infect cats, although not as common.{{cite journal | vauthors = Kadlec K, Schwarz S, Perreten V, Andersson UG, Finn M, Greko C, Moodley A, Kania SA, Frank LA, Bemis DA, Franco A, Iurescia M, Battisti A, Duim B, Wagenaar JA, van Duijkeren E, Weese JS, Fitzgerald JR, Rossano A, Guardabassi L | display-authors = 6 | title = Molecular analysis of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius of feline origin from different European countries and North America | journal = The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy | volume = 65 | issue = 8 | pages = 1826–8 | date = August 2010 | pmid = 20534627 | doi = 10.1093/jac/dkq203 | doi-access = free | hdl = 20.500.11820/cbd3237d-b913-42c7-9987-ecc4e95cde02 | hdl-access = free }} It is transferred by animal-animal contact, and some dog-human zoonoses have also been reported. Transmission is done either vertically or horizontally. The overall prevalence of S. pseudintermedius in small animals is increasing every year,{{cite journal | vauthors = Eckholm NG, Outerbridge CA, White SD, Sykes JE | title = Prevalence of and risk factors for isolation of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus spp. from dogs with pyoderma in northern California, USA | journal = Veterinary Dermatology | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | pages = 154–61.e34 | date = February 2013 | pmid = 23331692 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-3164.2012.01051.x }} specifically in small animals worldwide.

Staphylococcus pseudintermedius is becoming a threat due to its heterogeneous qualities{{cite journal | vauthors = Garbacz K, Piechowicz L, Zarnowska S, Haras K, Dabrowska-Szponar M | title = Heterogeneity of methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus pseudintermedius strains isolated from diseased dogs | journal = Polish Journal of Veterinary Sciences | volume = 14 | issue = 2 | pages = 283–4 | date = 2011 | pmid = 21721415 | doi = 10.2478/v10181-011-0043-6 | doi-access = free }} and multi-drug resistance phenotype. Methicillin-resistant S. pseudintermedius (MRSP) has five major clonal complex (CC) lineages, each with their own unique traits regarding genetic diversity, geographical distribution and antimicrobial resistance.{{cite journal | vauthors = Osland AM, Vestby LK, Fanuelsen H, Slettemeås JS, Sunde M | title = Clonal diversity and biofilm-forming ability of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius | journal = The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy | volume = 67 | issue = 4 | pages = 841–8 | date = April 2012 | pmid = 22258925 | doi = 10.1093/jac/dkr576 | doi-access = free }} The majority of all MRSP isolates were found in Europe and Asia, with North America, South America, and Oceania contributing only a small portion. The CC71 and CC258 lineages were mostly seen in Europe, CC68 was mostly seen in North America, and CC45 and CC112 seen in Asia. The top three antimicrobials worldwide that MRSP is found to be resistant to are erythromycin, clindamycin, and tetracycline.

When looking at the epidemiology of the S. intermedius group (SIG), which includes S. pseudintermedius, S. intermedius, and S. delphini, it is noted that in humans most of the recorded cases were above the age of 50, diabetic, and/or immunocompromised in some way.{{cite journal | vauthors = Yarbrough ML, Lainhart W, Burnham CA | title = Epidemiology, Clinical Characteristics, and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Profiles of Human Clinical Isolates of Staphylococcus intermedius Group | journal = Journal of Clinical Microbiology | volume = 56 | issue = 3 | date = March 2018 | pmid = 29305548 | doi = 10.1128/JCM.01788-17 | pmc = 5824035 }} Most of the cultures came from wound sites and respiratory specimens. S. pseudintermedius is not normally found within the microbiota of humans. Humans that work in close proximity to animals are at higher risk of S. pseudintermedius infections, such as veterinarians, animal trainers, and zookeepers. Although the risk of pet owners becoming infected by their pets is low, there have been reported cases.{{cite journal | vauthors = Kmieciak W, Szewczyk EM | title = Are zoonotic Staphylococcus pseudintermedius strains a growing threat for humans? | journal = Folia Microbiologica | volume = 63 | issue = 6 | pages = 743–747 | date = November 2018 | pmid = 29804274 | pmc = 6182621 | doi = 10.1007/s12223-018-0615-2 }}

As previously described, S. pseudintermedius, an opportunistic pathogen, is a part of the normal microbiome of the skin and mucous membranes in animals. Animals acquire this bacterium through vertical transmission with transfer of S. pseudintermedius from the mother's vaginal mucous membrane to their offspring during birth. A compromised immune system or tissue injury allows this bacterium to push past host defences leading to infection. This results in clinical manifestations such as purulent dermatitis, otitis externa, conjunctivitis, urinary tract infections, and post-operative infections. Disease is most commonly seen in dogs and cats with canine pyoderma being the most notable manifestation of S. pseudintermedius.{{cite journal | vauthors = Bajwa J | title = Canine superficial pyoderma and therapeutic considerations | journal = The Canadian Veterinary Journal | volume = 57 | issue = 2 | pages = 204–6 | date = February 2016 | pmid = 26834275 | pmc = 4713004 }}

The virulence of S. pseudintermedius is an area of on going research and has many unknowns.{{cite journal | vauthors = Fitzgerald JR | title = The Staphylococcus intermedius group of bacterial pathogens: species re-classification, pathogenesis and the emergence of meticillin resistance | journal = Veterinary Dermatology | volume = 20 | issue = 5–6 | pages = 490–5 | date = October 2009 | pmid = 20178486 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-3164.2009.00828.x }} The virulence factors carried by S. pseudintermedius vary between strains and do not determine if it will cause an infection. Rather, infection is a result of an animal's immune status,{{cite journal | vauthors = González-Martín M, Corbera JA, Suárez-Bonnet A, Tejedor-Junco MT | title = Staphylococcus aureus | journal = The Veterinary Quarterly | volume = 40 | issue = 1 | pages = 118–131 | date = December 2020 | pmid = 32223696 | pmc = 7178840 | doi = 10.1080/01652176.2020.1748253 }} environment, and genetics.

Numerous virulence factors such as enzymes, toxins, and binding proteins have been associated with different S. pseudintermedius strains. These include proteases, thermonucleases, coagulases, DNAase, lipase, hemolysin, clumping factor, leukotoxin, enterotoxin, protein A, and exfoliative toxin.

Haemolysins, leukotoxins, exfoliative toxins, and enterotoxins are secreted from the bacteria to modulate the host's immune response.

The pore-forming cytotoxins, α-hemolysin and β-hemolysin, lyse erythrocytes of sheep and rabbits. Leukotoxin destroys host leukocytes and causes tissue necrosis. Exfoliative toxin is responsible for the majority of symptoms seen in canine pyoderma and otitis i.e. skin exfoliation and crusting. Exfoliative toxin causes vesicle formation and erosion in epithelial cells resulting in splitting of the skin. Super-antigens such as enterotoxins activate host immune cells causing T cell proliferation and cytokine release. This virulence factor induces vomiting and has been associated with food poisoning in humans. Protein A, an immunoglobulin binding protein, has been found on the surface of S. pseudintermedius. Protein A attaches to the Fc region of host antibodies, rendering them useless. Without the Fc region, the host immune system cannot recognize that antibody; the complement system cannot be activated and phagocytes cannot destroy the bacteria.

The previously mentioned protein A, as well as clumping factor, are surface proteins that allow the bacteria to bind to host cells. S. pseudintermedius has been found to produce biofilms, an extracellular matrix of protein, DNA, and polysaccharide, which aids the bacteria in avoiding the host immune system and resisting drugs. Biofilms allow the bacteria to persist on medical equipment even after disinfection and adhere to host cells, a component of chronic infections. Fragments of a biofilm can break off and disseminate to other sites in the body, spreading infection. Quorum sensing, a mechanism that coordinates the bacteria's colonization efforts, has been reported in some strains. Coagulase, lipase, and DNAase produced by the bacteria also aid in its dissemination throughout the host body.

Staphyloccus pseudintermedius has zoonotic potential as it has been found in humans that live with companion animals in the same household. S. pseudintermedius is not a normal commensal bacterium found in humans, however it is capable of adapting to the human microbiota and has become increasingly more common. People at the highest risk for contracting this pathogen are pet owners and veterinarians due to their higher contact with dogs and to a lesser extent cats.{{cite journal | vauthors = Starlander G, Börjesson S, Grönlund-Andersson U, Tellgren-Roth C, Melhus A | title = Cluster of infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius in humans in a tertiary hospital | journal = Journal of Clinical Microbiology | volume = 52 | issue = 8 | pages = 3118–20 | date = August 2014 | pmid = 24871217 | pmc = 4136194 | doi = 10.1128/JCM.00703-14 }} The most common colonization site in the human body is within the nasal cavity and from here, the bacteria can cause infections.{{cite journal | vauthors = Stegmann R, Burnens A, Maranta CA, Perreten V | title = Human infection associated with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius ST71 | journal = The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy | volume = 65 | issue = 9 | pages = 2047–8 | date = September 2010 | pmid = 20601356 | doi = 10.1093/jac/dkq241 | doi-access = free }}{{cite web|title=Staphylococcal Infections - Infectious Diseases|url=https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/gram-positive-cocci/staphylococcal-infections|access-date=2020-10-06|website=Merck Manuals Professional Edition|language=en-US}} S. pseudintermedius infections in a human host have been known to cause endocarditis, post-surgical infections, inflammation of the nasal cavity (rhinosinusitis) and catheter-related bacteremia. Staphyloccus pseudintermedius becomes established in a human wound, it has the ability to form antibiotic resistance biofilms. Mechanisms of biofilm resistance of S. pseudintermedius are likely multifactorial and may help to establish infections in humans.

There is an increasing prevalence of antibiotic resistance in S. pseudintermedius, specifically to methicillin, which makes it challenging to treat in humans.{{cite journal | vauthors = Paul NC, Moodley A, Ghibaudo G, Guardabassi L | title = Carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius in small animal veterinarians: indirect evidence of zoonotic transmission | journal = Zoonoses and Public Health | volume = 58 | issue = 8 | pages = 533–9 | date = December 2011 | pmid = 21824350 | doi = 10.1111/j.1863-2378.2011.01398.x | s2cid = 36452642 }} Veterinary dermatologists are exposed to animals with skin and soft infections that commonly possess MRSP (methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius). Veterinarians have been found to be colonized with MRSP but not MSSP (methicillin‐susceptible S. pseudintermedius). Treatment of human MRSP infections is done with antibiotics and these should not be used for treatment in animals. Oral antimicrobial treatment for active infection is commonly done with the use of mupirocin, linezolid, quinupristin, rifampicin or vancomyocin are possible treatments. Hand washing, sterilizing equipment and hygiene practices should be implemented to decrease the spread of Staphylococcus infections.

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• {{cite journal | vauthors = Windahl U, Reimegård E, Holst BS, Egenvall A, Fernström L, Fredriksson M, Trowald-Wigh G, Andersson UG | display-authors = 6 | title = Carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius in dogs--a longitudinal study | journal = BMC Veterinary Research | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = 34 | date = March 2012 | pmid = 22444911 | pmc = 3325892 | doi = 10.1186/1746-6148-8-34 | doi-access = free }}
• {{cite journal | vauthors = Himsworth CG, Patrick DM, Parsons K, Feng A, Weese JS | title = Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius in rats | journal = Emerging Infectious Diseases | volume = 19 | issue = 1 | pages = 169–70 | date = January 2013 | pmid = 23260061 | pmc = 3557998 | doi = 10.3201/eid1901.120897 }}

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• [http://bacdive.dsmz.de/index.php?search=14670&submit=Search Type strain of Staphylococcus pseudintermedius at BacDive - the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase]

{{Taxonbar|from=Q16992700}}

Category:Gram-positive bacteria

pseudintermedius

Category:Bacteria described in 2005