:en:Seleucid era
{{Short description|Calendar era used during Hellenistic period}}
The Seleucid era ("SE") or {{lang|la|Anno Graecorum}} (literally "year of the Greeks" or "Greek year"), sometimes denoted "AG," was a system of numbering years in use by the Seleucid Empire and other countries among the ancient Hellenistic civilizations, and later by the Parthians. It is sometimes referred to as "the dominion of the Seleucidæ," or the Year of Alexander. The era dates from Seleucus I Nicator's reconquest of Babylon in 312/11 BC after his exile in Ptolemaic Egypt,Denis C. Feeney, Caesar's Calendar, University of California Press, Berkeley 2007, p. 139. considered by Seleucus and his court to mark the founding of the Seleucid Empire. According to Jewish tradition, it was during the sixth year of Alexander the Great's reign (lege: possibly Alexander the Great's infant son, Alexander IV of Macedon) that they began to make use of this counting.Babylonian Talmud (Avodah Zarah 10a), Rabbeinu Hananel's Commentary; RASHI's commentary on Babylonian Talmud (Avodah Zarah 9a); Sefer Hakabbalah of Rabbi Avraham ben David (Ravad); Midrash David on Mishnah Tractate Avot (Ethics of the Fathers, 1:6)
Versions
Two different variations of the Seleucid years existed, one where the year started in spring and another where it starts in autumn:
- The natives of the empire used the Babylonian calendar, in which the new year falls on 1 Nisanu (3 April in 311 BC), so in this system year 1 of the Seleucid era corresponds roughly to April 311 BC to March 310 BC. This included the inhabitants of Coele-Syria, notably the Jews who call it the Era of Contracts ({{langx|he|מניין שטרות|minyān shəṭarot}}).
- The Macedonian court adopted the Babylonian calendar (substituting the Macedonian month names) but reckoned the new year to be in the autumn (the exact date is unknown). In this system year 1 of the Seleucid era corresponds to the period from autumn 312 BC to summer 311 BC. By the 7th century AD / 10th AG, the west Syrian Christians settled on 1 October-to-30 September.{{cite book|title=The Seventh Century|author=Andrew Palmer|year=1993 | publisher=Liverpool University Press | pages=xxxiv, xxxvii, lii-lviii}} Jews, however, reckon the start of each new Seleucid year with the lunar month Tishri.Emil Schürer, Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi, vol. 1, Leipzig 1886–1890; 4th edition 1901–1909, pp. 36–46; Mishnah, Rosh HaShanah 1:1
These differences in the beginning of the year means that dates differ by one if they fall between spring and autumn. Notably, the Jewish historical book 1 Maccabees generally uses the Babylonian and Judean year count ({{Bibleverse|1|Maccabees|6:20|NRSV}}, {{Bibleverse|1|Maccabees|7:1|NRSV}}, 9:3, 10:1, etc.).{{cite book | title=A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ | url=https://archive.org/details/ahistoryjewishp00sophgoog |last=Schürer |first=Emil |author-link=Emil Schürer | year=1890| publisher=T&T Clark | pages=[https://archive.org/details/ahistoryjewishp00sophgoog/page/n48 36]–44}} However, the book 2 Maccabees exclusively uses the Macedonian version of the calendar, likely because it was written in either Cyprus or Egypt.{{cite book |last=Bar-Kochva |first=Bezalel |authorlink=Bezalel Bar-Kochva |date=1989 |title=Judas Maccabaeus: The Jewish Struggle Against the Seleucids |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0521323525 |page=543}} Elias Bickerman gives this example:
:For instance, the restoration of the temple of Jerusalem by Judas Maccabaeus, approximately 15 December 164 BC, fell in the year 148 of the Seleucid Era according to Jewish (and Babylonian) calculation, but in the year 149 for the court.{{cite journal |last=Bickerman |first=Elias J. |author-link = Elias J. Bickerman |title = Notes on Seleucid and Parthian Chronology|journal = Berytus|volume = 8|pages = 73–84|year = 1943|url=http://almashriq.hiof.no/ddc/projects/archaeology/berytus-back/berytus08/73.html}}
Later usage
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| footer = An example from China: the Syriac text at the bottom of the Xi'an Stele mentions that the stele was erected in the "Year of the Greeks 1092" (781 AD), at the imperial capital city of Chang'an (modern-day Xi'an).{{cite book |last1=Tang |first1=Li |last2=Winkler |first2=Dietmar W. |title=From the Oxus River to the Chinese Shores: Studies on East Syriac Christianity in China and Central Asia |date=2013 |publisher=LIT Verlag Münster |isbn=978-3-643-90329-7 |page=131 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYaMuV3N5vUC&pg=PA131 |language=en}}{{cite book |last1=Holm |first1=Frits Vilhelm |title=The Nestorian Monument: An Ancient Record of Christianity in China |chapter=Translation of the Nestorian Inscription |year=1909 |publisher=The Open Court Publishing Co. |chapter-url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Nestorian_Monument:_An_Ancient_Record_of_Christianity_in_China/Translation_of_the_Nestorian_Inscription|quote="In the year of the Greeks one thousand and ninety-two, the Lord Jazedbuzid, Priest and Vicar-episcopal of Cumdan the royal city, son of the enlightened Mailas, Priest of Balach a city of Turkestan, set up this tablet, whereon is inscribed the Dispensation of our Redeemer, and the preaching of the apostolic missionaries to the King of China. ["The Priest Lingpau", in Chinese] "Adam the Deacon, son of Jazedbuzid, Vicar-episcopal. The Lord Sergius, Priest and Vicar-episcopal. Sabar Jesus, Priest. Gabriel, Priest, Archdeacon, and Ecclesiarch of Cumdan and Sarag."}}{{cite book |last1=Wilmshurst |first1=David |title=A Monument to the Spread of the Syrian Brilliant Teaching in China |page=9 |url=http://www.syriacstudies.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/10-Syrian-teaching-in-China.pdf}}
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The Seleucid era was used as late as the sixth century CE, for instance in the {{ill|Zabad inscription|fr|Inscription trilingue de Zabad}} in Syria, dated the 24th of Gorpiaios, 823 (24 September, 512 AD),M. A. Kugener, Nouvelle Note Sur L'Inscription Trilingue De Zébed, Rivista degli Studi Orientali (1907), pp. 577-586. and in the writings of John of Ephesus.Peter Charanis, On the Question of the Hellenization of Sicily and Southern Italy During the Middle Ages, American Historical Review, 52:1 (1946), p. 82. Syriac chroniclers continued to use it up to Michael the Syrian in the 12th century AD / 15th century AG. It has been found on Central Asian tombstones of Christians belonging to the Church of the East well into the 14th century AD.{{Cite web |url=http://www.oxuscom.com/graves.htm |title=Syriac Gravestones from Central Asia |access-date=2012-01-19 |archive-date=2001-04-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010408191932/http://www.oxuscom.com/Graves.htm |url-status=dead }}
The Seleucid era counting, or "era of contracts" ({{lang|he-Latn|minyan shəṭarot}}), was used by Yemenite Jews in their legal deeds and contracts until modern times,{{cite book |last=Sar-Shalom|first=Rahamim |title=She'harim La'Luah Ha'ivry (Gates to the Hebrew Calendar)|date=1984 |location=Tel-Aviv |page=164 (Seleucid era counting) |language=he |oclc=854906532}} a practice derived from an ancient Jewish teaching in the Talmud, requiring all Diaspora Jews to uphold its practice.Babylonian Talmud, Avodah Zarah 10a, which reads: “Said Rav Nahman: 'In the Diaspora, it is not permissible to count [the date in years] except only by the kings of the Grecians'.” For this reason, the Seleucid era counting is mentioned in the Book of Maccabees (I Macc. i. 11) and in the writings of the historian Josephus. The Seleucid era counting fell into disuse among most Jewish communities, following Rabbi David ben Zimra's cancellation of the practice when he served as Chief Rabbi of Egypt.Chaim Yosef David Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim [Ma'arekhet Gedolim], ed. Yitzhak Isaac Ben-Yaaqov, (the Letters Daleth), Vienna 1864, s.v. מהר"ר דוד ן' זמרא, [https://archive.org/stream/shemhagedolimvaa00azul#page/n56/mode/2up p. 19 (section 16 - ז)] (Hebrew)
References
{{Reflist}}
= Bibliography =
- Robert Harry van Gent. [http://www.staff.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/babylon/babycal.htm The Babylonian Calendar]. Has a date converter based on Parker & Dubberstein (1971).
- {{Cite book |last=Kosmin |first=Paul J. |author-link=Paul J. Kosmin |title=Time and Its Adversaries in the Seleucid Empire |date=2018 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674976931 }}
- {{cite web |last1=Kosmin |first1=Paul J. |author-link=Paul J. Kosmin |title=A revolution in time |url=https://aeon.co/essays/when-time-became-regular-and-universal-it-changed-history |website=aeon |access-date=12 January 2020 |date=7 May 2019 |quote=Once local and irregular, time-keeping became universal and linear in 311 BCE. History would never be the same again.}}
- {{cite encyclopedia |last=Strootman |first=Rolf |title=Seleucid Era |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |date=2015 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |id= |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/seleucid-era |access-date=14 May 2021 }}
{{Calendars}}
{{Chronology}}