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0s

{{Short description|First 9 years of the Common Era}}

{{other uses|0s (disambiguation)|0S (disambiguation)}}

{{redirect-multi|3|AD 1|1 AD|AD 2}}

{{redirect-multi|2|AD 3|4 AD|Daniel Dae Kim’s production company|3AD|the British independent record label|4AD}}

{{refimprove|date=February 2022}}

File:Epitaph des Marcus Caelius.JPG (AD 9). Teutoburg Forest is commonly seen as one of the most important defeats in Roman history, bringing the triumphant period of expansion under Augustus to an abrupt end. The outcome of this battle dissuaded the Romans from their ambition of conquering Germania, and is thus considered one of the most important events in European history.{{cite book |last1=Murdoch |first1=Adrian |year=2004 |chapter=Germania Romana |editor1-last=Murdoch |editor1-first=Brian |editor1-link=Brian O. Murdoch |editor2-last=Read |editor2-first=Malcolm |title=Early Germanic Literature and Culture |url= |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |page=57 |isbn=157113199X}}]]

{{Decadebox|0}}

The 0s began on January 1, AD 1 and ended on December 31, AD 9, covering the first nine years of the Common Era.

In Europe, the 0s saw the continuation of conflict between the Roman Empire and Germanic tribes in the Early Imperial campaigns in Germania. Vinicius, Tiberius and Varus led Roman forces in multiple punitive campaigns, before sustaining a major defeat at the hands of Arminius in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. Concurrently, the Roman Empire fought the {{lang|la|Bellum Batonianum|italic=no}} against a rebelling alliance of native peoples led by Bato the Daesitiate in Illyricum, which was suppressed in AD 9. A conflict also took place in Korea, where Daeso, King of Dongbuyeo invaded Goguryeo with a 50,000-man army in AD 6. He was forced to retreat when heavy snow began to fall, stopping the conflict until the next decade. In China, the last ruler of the Chinese Western Han dynasty (Ruzi Ying) was deposed, allowing Wang Mang to establish the Xin dynasty.

Literary works from the 0s include works from the ancient Roman poet Ovid; the {{Lang|la|Ars Amatoria}}, an instructional elegy series in three books, Metamorphoses, a poem which chronicles the history of the world from its creation to the deification of Julius Caesar within a loose mythico-historical framework, and Ibis, a curse poem written during his years in exile across the Black Sea for an offense against Augustus. Nicolaus of Damascus wrote the 15-volume History of the World.

Estimates for the world population by AD 1 range from 170 to 300 million. A census was concluded in China in AD 2: final numbers showed a population of nearly 60 million (59,594,978 people in slightly more than 12 million households). The census is one of the most accurate surveys in Chinese history.

Calendar details

Because there is no year zero in the Gregorian calendar, this period is one of two "1-to-9" decade-like timespans that contain only nine years, along with the 0s BC. The Anno Domini (AD) calendar era which numbers these years 1-9 was devised by Dionysius Exiguus in 525, and became widely used in Christian Europe in the 9th century. Dionysius assigned BC 1 to be the year he believed Jesus was born (or according to at least one scholar, AD 1). Modern scholars disagree with Dionysius' calculations, placing the event several years earlier (see Chronology of Jesus).

Errors applying leap years in the Julian Calendar affect parts of this 1-to-9 timespan. As a result, sources differ as to whether, for example, AD 1 was a common year starting on Saturday or Sunday. It was a common year starting on Saturday by the proleptic Julian calendar, and a common year starting on Monday by the proleptic Gregorian calendar. It is the epoch year for the Anno Domini (AD) Christian calendar era, and the 1st year of the 1st century and 1st millennium of the Christian or Common Era (CE).

Politics and wars

File:World in 1 CE.png

= Heads of state =

For brevity, only the most powerful and hegemonic states of the period are included. See list of state leaders in the 1st century for a broader list. Furthermore, the last year of a reign is excluded from this table if it lasted multiple years.

class="wikitable"

|+

!Polity

!AD 1

!AD 2

!AD 3

!AD 4

!AD 5

!AD 6

!AD 7

!AD 8

!AD 9

Roman Empire

| colspan="9" |Augustus

Chinese empire

| colspan="5" |Ping

| colspan="3" |Ruzi Ying

|Wang Mang

Parthian EmpireGoing by Daryaee (2012)

Daryaee, Touraj (2012). "Appendix: Ruling Dynasties of Iran". In Daryaee, Touraj (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–432. {{ISBN|978-0199875757}}.

|Phraates IV

| colspan="3" |Phraates V and Musa

|(none)

|Orodes III

|(none)

| colspan="2" |Vonones I

= Wars =

class="wikitable"

!Start

!Finish

!Name of Conflict

!Description

6 AD

|9 AD

|{{lang|la|Bellum Batonianum|italic=no}}

|

12 BC

|AD 16

|Early imperial campaigns in Germania

|By AD 1, the Roman Empire had been expanding its territories and exerting influence throughout Europe, including regions bordering the Rhine River. The Romans sought to consolidate their control over Germanic territories east of the Rhine and integrate them into the empire. Between 2 BC and AD 4, Vinicius commanded five legions in Germany, successfully leading them in the "vast war" against Germanic tribes. He was awarded the ornamenta triumphalia upon his return to Rome. In AD 4, Tiberius took command and waged campaigns in northern Germany, conquering several tribes and establishing alliances. The Cherusci tribe, including the influential Arminius, became friends with Rome. Tiberius built a winter base on the Lippe to monitor the Cherusci. By AD 6, most German tribes were pacified, and Rome planned an attack on the Marcomanni but made peace instead. Varus replaced Tiberius and imposed civic changes, but Arminius incited a revolt. In AD 9, Varus fell into an ambush by Arminius, suffering a devastating defeat as Roman forces were surrounded and overwhelmed. Varus took his own life, while a few survivors managed to return to Roman quarters.

6 AD

|21 AD

|Goguryeo-Dongbuyeo Wars

|

Events

File:East-Hem 001ad.jpg

[[File:Germanic tribes (750BC-1AD).png|thumb|Germanic tribes in Europe in AD 1:

{{Legend|Red|Settlements before 750 BC}}

{{Legend|Orange|New settlements after 750 BC until 1 AD}}

{{Legend|Yellow|New settlements until 100 AD}}

{{Legend|Lime|New settlements after 100 AD}}

]]

= Africa =

  • AD 2 – Juba II of Mauretania joins Gaius Caesar in Armenia as a military advisor. It is during this period that he meets Glaphyra, a Cappadocian princess and the former wife of Alexandros of Judea, a brother of Herod Archelaus, ethnarch of Judea, and becomes enamoured with her.{{Cite book |last=Roller |first=Duane W |title=The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene |publisher=Routledge |year=2003 |location=New York}}
  • AD 7 – The epoch of the Ethiopian calendar begins.

= China =

  • AD 1 – Confucius is given his first royal title (posthumous name) of Baocheng Xuan Ni Gong.Thomas A. Wilson (2003), in Xinzhong Yao (Ed.), RoutledgeCurzon Encyclopedia of Confucianism, "Baocheng Xuan Ni Gong", p. 26.Book of Han, 12.351
  • AD 2 – Wang Mang begins a program of personal aggrandizement, restoring marquess titles to past imperial princes and introducing a pension system for retired officials. Restrictions are placed on the Emperor's mother, Consort Wei and members of the Wei Clan.{{Cite book |last=Klingaman |first=William K. |url=http://archive.org/details/firstcenturyempe0000klin |title=The first century : emperors, gods and everyman |date=1991 |publisher=Hamish Hamilton |location=London |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-241-12887-9}}
  • AD 2 – The first census is concluded in China after having begun the year before: final numbers show a population of nearly 60 million (59,594,978 people in slightly more than 12 million households). The census is one of the most accurate surveys in Chinese history.
  • AD 3 – Wang Mang foils a plot by his son, Wang Yu, his brother-in-law, Lu Kuan, and the Wei clan to oust him from the regent's position. Wang Yu and Lu Kuan are killed in the purge that follows.{{Cite web|title=Wang Mang {{!}} emperor of Xin dynasty|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Wang-Mang|access-date=2021-03-31|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}
  • AD 4 – Emperor Ping of Han marries Empress Wang (Ping), daughter of Wang Mang, cementing his influence.
  • AD 4 – Wang Mang is given the title "superior duke".{{rp|64}}
  • AD 6, January – Some Chinese fear for the life of the young, ailing Emperor Ping Di as the planet Mars disappears behind the moon this month.
  • AD 6, February 3 – The boy emperor, Ping Di, dies of unexpected causes at age 14; Wang Mang alone selects the new emperor, Ruzi Ying, age 2, starting the Jushe era of the Han dynasty.
  • AD 6 – Candidates for government office must take civil-service examinations.
  • AD 6 – The imperial Liu clan suspects the intentions of Wang Mang and foment agrarian rebellions during the course of Ruzi Ying's reign. The first of these is led by Liu Chong, Marquess of Ang-Zong (a/k/a Marquis of An-chung), with a small force starting in May or June.
  • AD 7 – Zhai Yi, Governor of the Commandery of Dong (modern Puyang, Henan) declares Liu Zin, Marquess of Yang Xiang (modern Tai'an, Shandong), emperor. This proves to be the largest of the rebellions against Emperor Ruzi of Han.
  • AD 7 – Wang Mang puts down the rebellion during the winter. Zhai is captured and executed while Liu Xin escapes.
  • AD 8 – Start of Chushi era of the Chinese Han dynasty.
  • AD 8 – Wang Mang crushes a rebellion by Chai I, and on the winter solstice (which has been dated January 10 of the following year) officially assumes the title emperor, establishing the short-lived Xin dynasty.{{cite book

| last = Klingaman

| first = William K.

| title = The First Century: Emperors, Gods and Everyman

| date = 1990

| isbn = 978-0785822561

| publisher = Harper-Collins

}}

  • AD 9, January 10 – Wang Mang founds the short-lived Xin dynasty in China (until AD 25). Wang Mang names his wife, Wang, empress and his son, Wang Lin Crown Prince, heir to the throne.{{fact|date=January 2025}}
  • AD 9 – Empress Wang is given the title of Duchess Dowager of Ding'an, while Ruzi Ying, the former Emperor of Han, becomes the Duke of Ding'an. Ruzi Ying is placed under house arrest.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

= Europe =

== Korea ==

= Persia =

= Roman Empire =

  • AD 1 – Tiberius, under order of Emperor Augustus, quells revolts in Germania (AD 1–5).Velleius Paterculus, [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/2D*.html#ref:Langobardi The Roman History], Book II. p 271.
  • AD 1 – Gaius Caesar meets with Phraates V, the king of Parthia, on the Euphrates. Rather than invade the Parthians, Gaius Caesar concludes peace with them; Parthia recognizes Roman claims to Armenia.Daryaee, Touraj. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History Oxford University Press, 2012, p. 173
  • AD 1 – Birth of Jesus, as assigned by Dionysius Exiguus in his anno Domini era according to at least one scholar.{{cite book

| first = Georges

| last = Declercq

| title = Anno Domini: The origins of the Christian Era

| location = Turnhout, Belgium

| publisher = Brepols

| date = 2000

| isbn = 978-2503510507

| pages = 143–147

}}{{cite journal

| first = Georges

| last = Declercq

| journal = Sacris Erudiri

| volume = 41

| pages = 165–246

| title = Dionysius Exiguus and the introduction of the Christian Era

| location = Brussels

| publisher = Brepols

| date = 2002

| issn = 0771-7776

| doi = 10.1484/J.SE.2.300491

| quote = Annotated version of a portion of Anno Domini

}} However, most scholars think that Dionysius placed the birth of Jesus in the previous year, 1 BC. Furthermore, most modern scholars do not consider Dionysius' calculations authoritative, placing the event several years earlier (see Chronology of Jesus).{{cite book

| first = James D. G.

| last = Dunn

| series = Christianity in the Making

| volume = 1

| title = Jesus Remembered

| publisher = Eerdmans Publishing

| date = 2003

| page = 324

| isbn = 978-0802839312

}}

Demographics

{{Main|Estimates of historical world population#Historical population|List of states by population in 1 CE}}

Estimates for the world population in 1 AD range from 150 to 300 million. The below table summarizes estimates by various authors.

class="wikitable" style="text-align:right;font-size:small;"

!PRB

(1973–2016)Data from [http://www.prb.org/Home.aspx Population Reference Bureau] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080520091122/http://www.prb.org/Home.aspx |date=2008-05-20 }}.

2016 estimate: (a) [http://www.prb.org/pdf16/prb-wpds2016-web-2016.pdf "2016 World Population Data Sheet"]

2015 estimate: (b) Toshiko Kaneda, 2015, [http://www.prb.org/pdf15/2015-world-population-data-sheet_eng.pdf "2015 World Population Data Sheet"].

2014 estimate: (c) Carl Haub, 2014, [http://www.prb.org/pdf14/2014-world-population-data-sheet_eng.pdf "2014 World Population Data Sheet"].

2013 estimate: (d) Carl Haub, 2013, [http://www.prb.org/pdf13/2013-population-data-sheet_eng.pdf "2013 World Population Data Sheet"].

2012 estimate: (e) Carl Haub, 2012, [http://www.prb.org/pdf12/2012-population-data-sheet_eng.pdf "2012 World Population Data Sheet"].

2011 estimate: (f) Carl Haub, 2011, [http://www.prb.org/pdf11/2011population-data-sheet_eng.pdf "2011 World Population Data Sheet"].

2010 estimate: (g) Carl Haub, 2010, [http://www.prb.org/pdf10/10wpds_eng.pdf "2010 World Population Data Sheet"].

2009 estimate: (h) Carl Haub, 2009, [http://www.prb.org/pdf09/09wpds_eng.pdf "2009 World Population Data Sheet"].

2008 estimate: (i) Carl Haub, 2008, [http://www.prb.org/pdf08/08WPDS_Eng.pdf "2008 World Population Data Sheet"].

2007 estimate: (j) Carl Haub, 2007, [http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2007/2007WorldPopulationDataSheet.aspx "2007 World Population Data Sheet"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110224205549/http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2007/2007WorldPopulationDataSheet.aspx |date=2011-02-24 }}.

2006 estimate: (k) Carl Haub, 2006, [http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2006/2006WorldPopulationDataSheet.aspx "2006 World Population Data Sheet"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222075621/http://prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2006/2006WorldPopulationDataSheet.aspx |date=2010-12-22 }}.

2005 estimate: (l) Carl Haub, 2005, [http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2005/2005WorldPopulationDataSheet.aspx "2005 World Population Data Sheet"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110414150237/http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2005/2005WorldPopulationDataSheet.aspx |date=2011-04-14 }}.

2004 estimate: (m) Carl Haub, 2004, [http://www.prb.org/pdf04/04WorldDataSheet_ENG.pdf "2004 World Population Data Sheet"].

2003 estimate: (n) Carl Haub, 2003, [http://homepage.ntu.edu.tw/~psc/WorldPopulationDS03_Eng.pdf "2003 World Population Data Sheet"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819182509/http://homepage.ntu.edu.tw/~psc/WorldPopulationDS03_Eng.pdf |date=2019-08-19 }}.

2002 estimate: (o) Carl Haub, 2002, [http://www.prb.org/pdf/worldpopulationds02_eng.pdf "2002 World Population Data Sheet"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171209093516/http://www.prb.org/pdf/WorldPopulationDS02_Eng.pdf |date=2017-12-09 }}.

2001 estimate: (p) Carl Haub, 2001, [http://www.ined.fr/fichier/s_rubrique/18790/publi_pdf2_pop_and_soc_english_370.en.pdf "2001 World Population Data Sheet"].

2000 estimate: (q) 2000, [http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2000/9BillionWorldPopulationby2050.aspx "9 Billion World Population by 2050"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180201050626/http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2000/9BillionWorldPopulationby2050.aspx |date=2018-02-01 }}.

1997 estimate: (r) 1997, [http://www.epidemiolog.net/evolving/DemographyBasics.pdf "Studying Populations"].

Estimates for 1995 and prior: (s) Carl Haub, 1995, [https://www.un.org/popin/popis/journals/poptoday/today0295.html "How Many People Have Ever Lived on Earth?"] Population Today, Vol. 23 (no. 2), pp. 5–6.

!UN

(2015)Data from [http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/unpp/panel_population.htm United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division.]

1950–2100 estimates (only medium variants shown): (a) [http://esa.un.org/unpp/ World Population Prospects: The 2008 Revision.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511162049/http://esa.un.org/unpp/ |date=2011-05-11 }}

Estimates prior to 1950: (b) [https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/sixbillion/sixbillion.htm "The World at Six Billion", 1999.]

Estimates from 1950 to 2100: (c) [http://www.geohive.com/earth/his_history3.aspx "Population of the entire world, yearly, 1950 - 2100", 2013.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119132504/http://www.geohive.com/earth/his_history3.aspx |date=November 19, 2016 }}

2014: (d) http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/Highlights/WUP2014-Highlights.pdf "2014 World Urbanization Prospects", 2014.]

2015: (e) http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Publications/Files/Key_Findings_WPP_2015.pdf"2015 World Urbanization Prospects", 2015.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140320035709/http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/unpp/panel_population.htm |date=March 20, 2014 }}

!Maddison

(2008)[http://www.theworldeconomy.org/publications/worldeconomy/ Angus Maddison, 2003, The World Economy: Historical Statistics, Vol. 2, OECD, Paris] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513232041/http://www.theworldeconomy.org/publications/worldeconomy/|date=May 13, 2008}} {{ISBN|92-64-10412-7}}.

[http://www.ggdc.net/maddison/Historical_Statistics/horizontal-file_02-2010.xls "Statistical Appendix"] (2008, ggdc.net) "The historical data were originally developed in three books: Monitoring the World Economy 1820-1992, OECD, Paris 1995; The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective, OECD Development Centre, Paris 2001; The World Economy: Historical Statistics, OECD Development Centre, Paris 2003. All these contain detailed source notes. Figures for 1820 onwards are annual, wherever possible. For earlier years, benchmark figures are shown for 1 AD, 1000 AD, 1500, 1600 and 1700." "OECD countries GDP revised and updated 1991-2003 from National Accounts for OECD Countries, vol. I, 2006. Norway 1820-1990 GDP from Ola Grytten (2004), "The Gross Domestic Product for Norway, 1830-2003" in Eitrheim, Klovland and Qvigstad (eds), Historical Monetary Statistics for Norway, 1819-2003, Norges Bank, Oslo. Latin American GDP 2000-2003 revised and updated from ECLAC, Statistical Yearbook 2004 and preliminary version of the 2005 Yearbook supplied by Andre Hofman. For Chile, GDP 1820-2003 from Rolf Lűders (1998), "The Comparative Economic Performance of Chile 1810-1995", Estudios de Economia, vol. 25, no. 2, with revised population estimates from Diaz, J., R. Lűders, and G. Wagner (2005) Chili 1810-2000: la Republica en Cifras, mimeo, Instituto de Economia, Universidad Católica de Chile. For Peru, GDP 1896-1990 and population 1896-1949 from Bruno Seminario and Arlette Beltran, Crecimiento Economico en el Peru 1896-1995, Universidad del Pacifico, 1998. " "For Asia there are amendments to the GDP estimates for South and North Korea, 1911-74, to correct an error in Maddison (2003). Estimates for the Philippines, 1902-1940 were amended in line with Richard Hooley (2005), 'American Economic Policy in the Philippines, 1902-1940', Journal of Asian Economics, 16. 1820 estimates were amended for Hong Kong, the Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Taiwan and Thailand." "Asian countries GDP revised and updated 1998-2003 from AsianOutlook, April 2005. Population estimates for all countries except China and Indonesia revised and updated 1950-2008 and 2030 from International Data Base, International Programs Center, Population Division, US Bureau of the Census, April 2005 version. China's population 1990-2003 from China Statistical Yearbook 2005, China Statistics Press, Beijing. Indonesian population 1950-2003 kindly supplied by Pierre van der Eng. The figures now include three countries previously omitted: Cook Islands, Nauru and Tuvalu."

!HYDE

(2010)Klein Goldewijk, K., A. Beusen, M. de Vos and G. van Drecht (2011). The HYDE 3.1 spatially explicit database of human induced land use change over the past 12,000 years, Global Ecology and Biogeography20(1): 73-86. {{doi|10.1111/j.1466-8238.2010.00587.x}} ([http://themasites.pbl.nl/tridion/en/themasites/hyde/download/index-2.html pbl.nl]). HYDE (History Database of the Global Environment), 2010. HYDE 3.1 gives estimates for 5000 BC, 1000 BC and "AD 0". HYDE estimates are higher than those by Colin McEvedy (1978) but lower than those by Massimo Livi Bacci (1989, 2012). ([https://web.archive.org/web/20150221004127/http://itbulk.org/population/world-population-history/ graphs (itbulk.org)]).

!Tanton

(1994)[http://www.thesocialcontract.com/artman2/publish/tsc0403/article_329.shtml John H. Tanton, 1994, "End of the Migration Epoch? Time For a New Paradigm", The Social Contract, Vol. 4 (no 3), pp. 162–173].

!Biraben

(1980)Slightly updated data from original paper in French: (a) Jean-Noël Biraben, 1980, "An Essay Concerning Mankind's Evolution", Population, Selected Papers, Vol. 4, pp. 1–13. Original paper in French: (b) Jean-Noël Biraben, 1979, "Essai sur l'évolution du nombre des hommes", Population, Vol. 34 (no. 1), pp. 13–25.

!McEvedy &

Jones (1978)Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones, 1978, Atlas of World Population History, Facts on File, New York, {{ISBN|0-7139-1031-3}}.

!Thomlinson

(1975)Ralph Thomlinson, 1975, Demographic Problems: Controversy over population control, 2nd Ed., Dickenson Publishing Company, Ecino, CA, {{ISBN|0-8221-0166-1}}.

!Durand

(1974)John D. Durand, 1974, "Historical Estimates of World Population: An Evaluation", University of Pennsylvania, Population Center, Analytical and Technical Reports, Number 10.

!Clark

(1967)Colin Clark, 1967, Population Growth and Land Use, St. Martin's Press, New York, {{ISBN|0-333-01126-0}}.

300MHaub (1995): "By 1 A.D., the world may have held about 300 million people. One estimate of the population of the Roman Empire, from Spain to Asia Minor, in 14 A.D. is 45 million. However, other historians set the figure twice as high, suggesting how imprecise population estimates of early historical periods can be."

|300M

|231M"The present figures are a revision and update of those presented on this website in 2003. The most significant changes are in the entries for the year 1, where gaps in previous tables have been filled with the new estimates for the Roman Empire in Maddison (2007). The estimates are in fact for 14 AD"

|188M[http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0959683609356587 Data] from [http://themasites.pbl.nl/tridion/en/themasites/hyde/index.html History Database of the Global Environment.] K. Klein Goldewijk, A. Beusen and P. Janssen, "HYDE 3.1: Long-term dynamic modeling of global population and built-up area in a spatially explicit way", from table on pg. 2, Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (MNP), Bilthoven, The Netherlands.

|150M

|255M

|170M

|200M

|270–330M

|256MThe estimates are in fact for 14 AD"

Significant people

Births

Deaths

| last = Mommsen

| first = Theodor

| date = 1996

| title = A History of Rome Under the Emperors

| publisher = Routledge (UK)

| page = 107

| isbn = 978-0415101134

| editor1-first = Alexander

| editor1-last = Demandt

}}

See also

References

{{Reflist}}

{{commons category}}