2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum

{{2016 United Kingdom EU referendum series}}

{{Further|Accession of the United Kingdom to the European Communities|European Communities Act 1972 (UK)|European Union Act 2011}}

The European Communities were formed in the 1950s{{snd}} the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1952, and the European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC or Euratom) and European Economic Community (EEC) in 1957. The EEC, the more ambitious of the three, came to be known as the "Common Market". The UK first applied to join them in 1961, but this was vetoed by France.{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-26515129 |title=Britain and the EU: A long and rocky relationship |author=Wilson, Sam |date=1 April 2014 |work=BBC News |access-date=2 June 2016}} A later application was successful, and the UK joined in 1973; two years later, a national referendum on continuing EC membership resulted in 67.2% voting "Yes" in favour of continued membership, on a 64.6% national turnout. However, no further referendums on the issue of the United Kingdom's relationship with Europe were held and successive British governments integrated further into the European project, which gained focus when the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union (EU) in 1993, which incorporated (and after the Lisbon Treaty, succeeded) the European Communities.{{cite web |title=Treaty of Maastricht on European Union |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=URISERV:xy0026 |publisher=EUR-Lex |access-date=2 June 2016}}

{{See also|Bloomberg speech|2014 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom|2015 United Kingdom general election}}

At the May 2012 NATO summit meeting, UK Prime Minister David Cameron, Foreign Secretary William Hague and Ed Llewellyn discussed the idea of using a European Union referendum as a concession to the Eurosceptic wing of the Conservative Party.{{cite web |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-brexit-ohare-pizza-20160624-story.html |title=Fateful O'Hare Airport pizza meeting sealed Brexit vote deal: British media |work=Chicago Tribune |first=Chicago |last=Tribune|date=24 June 2016 }} On 20 June 2012, a three-clause private member's bill was introduced into the House of Commons by the then Eurosceptic MP Douglas Carswell to end the United Kingdom's EU membership and repeal the European Communities Act 1972, but without containing any commitment to the holding of any referendum. It received a second reading in a half-hour long debate in the chamber on 26 October 2012, but did not progress any further.{{cite web |url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-20085437 |title= MPs debate case for UK pulling out of European Union |author= |date= 26 October 2012|website=www.bbc.co.uk |publisher=BBC News |access-date=3 June 2020 }}

File:James Wharton 2016.jpg James Wharton introduced a Private member's bill to the House of Commons in 2013 committing the UK to holding a referendum on continued EU membership by the end of 2017 which passed all of its stages in the chamber before it was blocked in the House of Lords early in 2014.]]

File:David Cameron official.jpg promised to renegotiate the terms of the UK's EU membership and later hold a referendum on the subject if a Conservative majority government was elected.]]

In January 2013, Cameron delivered the Bloomberg speech and promised that, should the Conservatives win a parliamentary majority at the 2015 general election, the British government would negotiate more favourable arrangements for continuing British membership of the EU, before holding a referendum on whether the UK should remain in or leave the EU.{{cite news |title=David Cameron Pledges EU Referendum if Conservatives Win Next Election |url=http://www.rte.ie/news/2013/0123/364037-david-cameron-eu/ |access-date=19 February 2013 |publisher=Raidió Teilifís Éireann |date=24 January 2013}} The Conservative Party published a draft EU Referendum Bill in May 2013, and outlined its plans for renegotiation followed by an in-out vote (i.e. a referendum giving options only of leaving and of remaining in under the current terms, or under new terms if these had become available), were the party to be re-elected in 2015.{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-22530655 |title=David Cameron: EU referendum bill shows only Tories listen |work=BBC News |access-date=14 July 2013 |date=14 May 2013}} The draft Bill stated that the referendum had to be held no later than 31 December 2017.{{cite web |title=European Union (Referendum) Bill (HC Bill 11)|url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/bills/cbill/2013-2014/0011/cbill_2013-20140011_en_2.htm |publisher=Parliament of the United Kingdom|date=20 June 2013 }}

The draft legislation was taken forward as a Private member's bill by Conservative MP James Wharton which was known as the European Union (Referendum) Bill 2013.{{cite web |url=http://www.parliament.uk/about/how/laws/bills/private-members |title=Private Members' Bills |publisher=Parliament of the United Kingdom |access-date=8 August 2013}} The bill's First Reading in the House of Commons took place on 19 June 2013.{{cite web |url=http://www.parliament.uk/business/news/2013/may/private-members-bill-ballot-16-may-2013 |title=Presentation of Bills |publisher=Parliament of the United Kingdom |access-date=8 August 2013}} Cameron was said by a spokesperson to be "very pleased" and would ensure the Bill was given "the full support of the Conservative Party".{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-22542207 |title=EU referendum: Tory MP will take forward bill |work=BBC News |date=16 May 2013 |access-date=8 August 2013}}

Regarding the ability of the bill to bind the UK Government in the 2015–20 Parliament (which indirectly, as a result of the referendum itself, proved to last only two years) to holding such a referendum, a parliamentary research paper noted that:

The Bill simply provides for a referendum on continued EU membership by the end of December 2017 and does not otherwise specify the timing, other than requiring the Secretary of State to bring forward orders by the end of 2016. [...] If no party obtained a majority at the [next general election due in 2015], there might be some uncertainty about the passage of the orders in the next Parliament.European Union (Referendum) Bill, Bill 11 of 2013–14 Research Paper 13/41 (page 1), 28 June 2013; access-date 5 July 2014.

The bill received its Second Reading on 5 July 2013, passing by 304 votes to none after almost all Labour MPs and all Liberal Democrat MPs abstained, cleared the Commons in November 2013, and was then introduced to the House of Lords in December 2013, where members voted to block the bill.{{cite news |last1=Rigby |first1=Elizabeth |last2=Pickard |first2=Jim |title=EU referendum bill blocked in Lords |url=http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/fbad2f36-8a95-11e3-9c29-00144feab7de.html |access-date=5 July 2014 |newspaper=Financial Times |date=31 January 2014}}

Conservative MP Bob Neill then introduced an Alternative Referendum Bill to the Commons.{{cite news |title=EU referendum bill likely after Bob Neill comes third in backbench ballot |agency=Press Association |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2014/jun/12/eu-referendum-bob-neill-private-members-bill-ballot |access-date=5 July 2014 |newspaper=The Guardian |date=12 June 2014}}{{cite news |date=2 July 2014 |title=Conservative law on EU referendum raises 'serious' {{sic|poss|ibilty|nolink=y}} of exit, says MP |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/eureferendum/10939762/Conservative-law-on-EU-referendum-raises-serious-possibilty-of-exit-says-MP.html |access-date=17 May 2016 |first=James |last=Kirkup |work=The Telegraph}} After a debate on 17 October 2014, it passed to the Public Bills Committee, but because the Commons failed to pass a money resolution, the bill was unable to progress further before the dissolution of parliament on 27 March 2015.{{cite news|title=MPs debate Bob Neill's Bill for EU membership referendum|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-29661906|work=BBC News|access-date=17 May 2016}}{{cite web|title=European Union (Referendum) Bill 2014–15 – UK Parliament |url=http://services.parliament.uk/bills/2014-15/europeanunionreferendum.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023055059/http://services.parliament.uk/bills/2014-15/europeanunionreferendum.html |archive-date=23 October 2014 |publisher=Parliament of the United Kingdom |access-date=17 May 2016 }}

At the European Parliament election in 2014, the UK Independence Party (UKIP) secured more votes and more seats than any other party, the first time a party other than the Conservatives or Labour had topped a nationwide poll in 108 years, leaving the Conservatives in third place.{{cite news |last1=Parker |first1=George |last2=Stacey |first2=Kiran |title=Ukip and Front National lead populist earthquake |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/aad578e8-e463-11e3-a73a-00144feabdc0.html |access-date=22 June 2016 |work=Financial Times |date=26 May 2014}}

Under Ed Miliband's leadership between 2010 and 2015, the Labour Party ruled out an in-out referendum unless and until a further transfer of powers from the UK to the EU were to be proposed.{{cite news |title=Miliband: EU poll is 'clear and present danger' to jobs |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/election-2015-32114191 |work=BBC News |access-date=28 May 2016}} In their manifesto for the 2015 general election, the Liberal Democrats pledged to hold an in-out referendum only in the event of there being a change in the EU treaties.{{cite news |title=Liberal Democrats Hint Cameron's EU Referendum Plan Negotiable |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-election-liberal-democrats-idUKKBN0N60FJ20150415 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208224928/http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-election-liberal-democrats-idUKKBN0N60FJ20150415 |archive-date=8 December 2015 |date=15 April 2015 |work=Reuters}} The UK Independence Party (UKIP), the British National Party (BNP), the Green Party,[https://web.archive.org/web/20111026203650/http://www.greenparty.org.uk/news/yes-to-an-eu-referendum-green-mp-calls-for-chance-to-build-a-better-europe.html "Yes to an EU Referendum: Green MP Calls for Chance to Build a Better Europe"]. Green Party of England and Wales. Retrieved 26 April 2014. the Democratic Unionist Party[http://dev.mydup.com/images/uploads/publications/DUP_Manifesto_2015_LR.pdf DUP manifesto, 2015] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151022020235/http://dev.mydup.com/images/uploads/publications/DUP_Manifesto_2015_LR.pdf |date=22 October 2015}}, mydup.com. Retrieved 28 May 2016. and the Respect Party[http://www.respectparty.org/the-eu "The EU"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408030603/http://www.respectparty.org/the-eu/ |date=8 April 2014}}. Respect Party. Retrieved 26 April 2014. all supported the principle of a referendum.

When the Conservative Party won a majority of seats in the House of Commons at the 2015 general election, Cameron reiterated his party's manifesto commitment to hold an in-out referendum on UK membership of the EU by the end of 2017, but only after "negotiating a new settlement for Britain in the EU".{{cite book |title=The Conservative Party Manifesto 2015 |publisher=Conservative Party |page=30 |url=https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/manifesto2015/ConservativeManifesto2015.pdf |access-date=16 May 2015}}

{{main|2015–2016 United Kingdom renegotiation of European Union membership|European Union law}}

In early 2014, David Cameron outlined the changes he aimed to bring about in the EU and in the UK's relationship with it.{{cite news |last=Ross |first=Tim |title=David Cameron: my seven targets for a new EU |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=15 March 2014 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/eureferendum/10700610/David-Cameron-my-seven-targets-for-a-new-EU.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/eureferendum/10700610/David-Cameron-my-seven-targets-for-a-new-EU.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=8 June 2016}}{{cbignore}} These were: additional immigration controls, especially for citizens of new EU member states; tougher immigration rules for present EU citizens; new powers for national parliaments collectively to veto proposed EU laws; new free-trade agreements and a reduction in bureaucracy for businesses; a lessening of the influence of the European Court of Human Rights on British police and courts; more power for individual member states, and less for the central EU; and abandonment of the EU notion of "ever closer union". He intended to bring these about during a series of negotiations with other EU leaders and then, if re-elected, to announce a referendum.

In November that year, Cameron gave an update on the negotiations and further details of his aims.{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-34779250|title=The four key points from David Cameron's EU letter |work=BBC News |access-date=8 June 2016}} The key demands made of the EU were: on economic governance, to recognise officially that Eurozone laws would not necessarily apply to non-Eurozone EU members and the latter would not have to bail out troubled Eurozone economies; on competitiveness, to expand the single market and to set a target for the reduction of bureaucracy for businesses; on sovereignty, for the UK to be legally exempted from "ever closer union" and for national parliaments to be able collectively to veto proposed EU laws; and, on immigration, for EU citizens going to the UK for work to be unable to claim social housing or in-work benefits until they had worked there for four years, and for them to be unable to send child benefit payments overseas.{{cite web |url=http://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Donald-Tusk-letter_001.pdf |first=David |last=Cameron |title=A new settlement for the United Kingdom in a reformed European Union |access-date=8 June 2016 |archive-date=8 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808184104/http://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Donald-Tusk-letter_001.pdf }}

The outcome of the renegotiations was announced in February 2016.{{cite web|url=https://fullfact.org/europe/explaining-eu-deal-introduction/|first=Conor James|last=McKinney|title=Explaining the EU deal: an introduction |date=22 February 2016|access-date=12 June 2016}} The renegotiated terms were in addition to the United Kingdom's existing opt-outs in the European Union and the UK rebate. The significance of the changes to the EU-UK agreement was contested and speculated upon, with none of the changes considered fundamental, but some considered important to many British people. Some limits to in-work benefits for EU immigrants were agreed, but these would apply on a sliding scale for four years and would be for new immigrants only; before they could be applied, a country would have to get permission from the European Council. Child benefit payments could still be made overseas, but these would be linked to the cost of living in the other country.{{cite web |url=https://fullfact.org/europe/explaining-eu-deal-exporting-child-benefit/ |first=Charlotte |last=O'Brien |title=Explaining the EU deal: child benefit|date=22 February 2016 |access-date=12 June 2016}} On sovereignty, the UK was reassured that it would not be required to participate in "ever closer union"; these reassurances were "in line with existing EU law". Cameron's demand to allow national parliaments to veto proposed EU laws was modified to allow national parliaments collectively to object to proposed EU laws, in which case the European Council would reconsider the proposal before itself deciding what to do. On economic governance, anti-discrimination regulations for non-Eurozone members would be reinforced, but they would be unable to veto any legislation.{{cite web |url=https://fullfact.org/europe/explaining-eu-deal-uk-and-eurozone/ |first=Paul |last=Craig |title=Explaining the EU deal: the UK and the eurozone |date=22 February 2016 |access-date=12 June 2016}} The final two areas covered were proposals to "exclude from the scope of free movement rights, third country nationals who had no prior lawful residence in a Member State before marrying a Union citizen"{{cite web |url=https://fullfact.org/europe/explaining-eu-deal-limiting-residence-rights/ |first=Niamh |last=Nic Shuibhne |title=Explaining the EU deal: limiting residence rights for family members |date=22 February 2016 |access-date=12 June 2016}} and to make it easier for member states to deport EU nationals for public policy or public security reasons.{{cite web |url=https://fullfact.org/europe/explaining-eu-deal-deporting-eu-immigrants/ |first=Catherine |last=Barnard |title=Explaining the EU deal: deporting EU immigrants |date=22 February 2016 |access-date=12 June 2016}} The extent to which the various parts of the agreement would be legally binding is complex; no part of the agreement itself changed EU law, but some parts could be enforceable in international law.{{cite web |url=https://fullfact.org/europe/explaining-eu-deal-it-legally-binding/ |first=Steve |last=Peers |title=Explaining the EU deal: is it legally binding? |date=24 February 2016 |access-date=12 June 2016}}

The EU had reportedly offered David Cameron a so-called "emergency brake", which would have allowed the UK to withhold social benefits to new immigrants for the first four years after they arrived; this brake could have been applied for a period of seven years.{{cite web |url=http://www.politico.eu/article/how-david-cameron-lost-brexit-eu-referendum-prime-minister-campaign-remain-boris-craig-oliver-jim-messina-obama/ |title=How David Cameron blew it – The behind-the-scenes story of a failed campaign to keep Britain in the European Union. |author= |date=24 June 2016 |website=Politico EU |access-date=24 July 2016}} That offer was still on the table at the time of the Brexit referendum, but expired when the vote determined that the UK would leave the EU. Cameron claimed that "he could have avoided Brexit had European leaders let him control migration", according to the Financial Times.{{cite news |last=Parker |first=George |title=Cameron pins Brexit on EU failure to grant UK brake on migration |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/3901dd48-3cee-11e6-9f2c-36b487ebd80a.html |newspaper=Financial Times |access-date=24 July 2016}}{{cite news |last=Stewart |first=Heather |date=28 June 2016 |title=Cameron tells EU leaders they must offer UK more control over immigration |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jun/28/cameron-eu-leaders-uk-control-immigration |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=29 June 2016}} However, Angela Merkel said that the offer had not been made by the EU. Merkel stated in the German Parliament: "If you wish to have free access to the single market then you have to accept the fundamental European rights as well as obligations that come from it. This is as true for Great Britain as for anybody else."{{cite news |last=Woodcock |first=Andrew |date=28 June 2016 |title=Cameron warns EU immigration rules could threaten UK trade deal |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/immigration-fears-caused-brexit-vote-david-cameron-tells-brussels-a7108516.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220501/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/immigration-fears-caused-brexit-vote-david-cameron-tells-brussels-a7108516.html |archive-date=1 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |newspaper=The Independent |access-date=24 July 2016}}{{cbignore}}

{{see also|European Union Referendum Act 2015}}

The planned referendum was included in the Queen's Speech on 27 May 2015.{{cite news |title=Queen's Speech 2015: EU referendum, tax freeze and right-to-buy |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-32894214 |work=BBC News |access-date=4 June 2015}} It was suggested at the time that Cameron was planning to hold the referendum in October 2016,{{cite news |title=David Cameron may bring EU referendum forward to 2016 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2015/may/11/david-cameron-european-union-referendum |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=9 November 2015 |first=Nicholas |last=Watt}} but the European Union Referendum Act 2015, which authorised it, went before the House of Commons the following day, just three weeks after the election.{{cite web |url=http://services.parliament.uk/bills/2015-16/europeanunionreferendum.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150531014231/http://services.parliament.uk/bills/2015-16/europeanunionreferendum.html |archive-date=31 May 2015 |title=European Union Referendum Bill 2015–16 |publisher=Parliament of the United Kingdom |access-date=24 September 2015}} On the bill's second reading on 9 June, members of the House of Commons voted by 544 to 53 in favour, endorsing the principle of holding a referendum, with only the Scottish National Party voting against.{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-33067157 |title=EU referendum: MPs support plan for say on Europe |access-date=17 May 2016 |work=BBC News}} In contrast to the Labour Party's position prior to the 2015 general election under Miliband, acting Labour leader Harriet Harman committed her party to supporting plans for an EU referendum by 2017, a position maintained by elected leader Jeremy Corbyn.{{cite news |title=Labour to back EU referendum bill, says Harman |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-32863749 |date=24 May 2015 |work=BBC News |access-date=9 January 2016}}

To enable the referendum to take place, the European Union Referendum Act[http://www.bailii.org/uk/legis/num_act/2015/ukpga_201536_en_1.html European Union Referendum Act 2015] in BAILII. was passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It extended to include and take legislative effect in Gibraltar,{{cite web |title=European Union Referendum Act 2015 |url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2015/36/section/5 |publisher=Government of the United Kingdom |access-date=14 May 2016}}{{cite news |author1=Rowena Mason |author2=Nicholas Watt |author3=Ian Traynor |author4=Jennifer Rankin |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/feb/20/cameron-set-to-name-eu-referendum-date-after-cabinet-meeting |title=EU referendum to take place on 23 June, David Cameron confirms |work=The Guardian |date=20 February 2016 |access-date=2 February 2016}} and received royal assent on 17 December 2015. The Act was, in turn, confirmed, enacted and implemented in Gibraltar by the European Union (Referendum) Act 2016 (Gibraltar),Act No. 2016-01 (Legislation Number (L.N.) 2016/034, as amended by L.N. 2016/035, L.N. 2016/082 and L.N. 2016/120. which was passed by the Gibraltar Parliament and entered into law upon receiving the assent of the Governor of Gibraltar on 28 January 2016.

The European Union Referendum Act required a referendum to be held on the question of the UK's continued membership of the European Union (EU) before the end of 2017. It did not contain any requirement for the UK Government to implement the results of the referendum. Instead, it was designed to gauge the electorate's opinion on EU membership. The referendums held in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland in 1997 and 1998 are examples of this type, where opinion was tested before legislation was introduced. The UK does not have constitutional provisions which would require the results of a referendum to be implemented, unlike, for example, the Republic of Ireland, where the circumstances in which a binding referendum should be held are set out in its constitution. In contrast, the legislation that provided for the referendum held on AV in May 2011 would have implemented the new system of voting without further legislation, provided that the boundary changes also provided for in the Parliamentary Voting System and Constituencies Act 2011 were also implemented. In the event, there was a substantial majority against any change. The 1975 referendum was held after the re-negotiated terms of the UK's EC membership had been agreed by all EC Member States, and the terms set out in a command paper and agreed by both Houses.House of Commons Library BRIEFING PAPER Number 07212, 3 June 2015. This content is released under the Open Parliament Licence v3.0. Following the 2016 referendum, the High Court confirmed that the result was not legally binding, owing to the constitutional principles of parliamentary sovereignty and representative democracy, and the legislation authorising the referendum did not contain clear words to the contrary.R (Miller) v Brexit Secretary [http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWHC/Admin/2016/2768.html#para105%5B2016%5D EWHC 2768 (Admin)] at para. 106.

File:2016 EU Referendum Ballot Paper.svg

Research by the Electoral Commission confirmed that its recommended question "was clear and straightforward for voters, and was the most neutral wording from the range of options ... considered and tested", citing responses to its consultation by a diverse range of consultees.{{cite web|url=https://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/sites/default/files/2019-08/EU-referendum-question-assessment-report.pdf|access-date=5 September 2015|title=Referendum on membership of the European Union: Assessment of the Electoral Commission on the proposed referendum question|publisher=United Kingdom Electoral Commission}} The proposed question was accepted by the government in September 2015, shortly before the bill's third reading.{{cite news|last1=Watt|first1=Nicholas|last2=Syal|first2=Rajeev|date=1 September 2015|title=EU referendum: Cameron accepts advice to change wording of question|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2015/sep/01/eu-referendum-cameron-urged-to-change-wording-of-preferred-question|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=13 September 2015}} The question that appeared on ballot papers in the referendum under the Act was:

{{Poem quote|

Should the United Kingdom remain a member of the European Union or leave the European Union?

}}

with the responses to the question (to be marked with a single (X)):

{{Poem quote|

Remain a member of the European Union

Leave the European Union

}}

and in Welsh:

{{Blockquote|

A ddylai'r Deyrnas Unedig aros yn aelod o'r Undeb Ewropeaidd neu adael yr Undeb Ewropeaidd?

}}

with the responses (to be marked with a single (X)):

{{Blockquote|

Aros yn aelod o'r Undeb Ewropeaidd

Gadael yr Undeb Ewropeaidd

}}

Prior to being officially announced, it was widely speculated that a June date for the referendum was a serious possibility. The First Ministers of Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales co-signed a letter to Cameron on 3 February 2016 asking him not to hold the referendum in June, as devolved elections were scheduled to take place the previous month on 5 May. These elections had been postponed for a year to avoid a clash with the 2015 general election, after Westminster had implemented the Fixed-term Parliament Act. Cameron refused this request, saying people were able to make up their own minds in multiple elections spaced at least six weeks from each other.{{cite news|title=David Cameron just gave a massive hint about when the EU referendum will happen|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/eu-referendum-first-ministers-of-scotland-wales-and-northern-ireland-write-to-david-cameron-opposing-a6850816.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220501/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/eu-referendum-first-ministers-of-scotland-wales-and-northern-ireland-write-to-david-cameron-opposing-a6850816.html |archive-date=1 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|work=The Independent|access-date=17 May 2016}}{{cbignore}}

{{cite news|title=Carwyn Jones writes a joint letter with the first ministers of Scotland and Northern Ireland to urge EU referendum delay|url=https://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/politics/carwyn-jones-writes-joint-letter-10830613|work=WalesOnline|access-date=16 October 2021}}

On 20 February 2016, Cameron announced that the UK Government would formally recommend to the British people that the UK should remain a member of a reformed European Union and that the referendum would be held on 23 June, marking the official launch of the campaign. He also announced that Parliament would enact secondary legislation on 22 February relating to the European Union Referendum Act 2015. With the official launch, ministers of the UK Government were then free to campaign on either side of the argument in a rare exception to Cabinet collective responsibility.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-35621079|title=EU referendum: Cameron sets June date for UK vote|date=20 February 2016|access-date=17 May 2016|work=BBC News}}

The right to vote in the referendum in the United Kingdom is defined by the legislation as limited to residents of the United Kingdom who were either also Commonwealth citizens under [https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1981/61/section/37 Section 37] of the British Nationality Act 1981 (which include British citizens and other British nationals), or those who were also citizens of the Republic of Ireland, or both. Members of the House of Lords, who could not vote in general elections, were able to vote in the referendum. The electorate of 46,500,001 represented 70.8% of the population of 65,678,000 (UK and Gibraltar).{{cite web |title=Who can vote in the EU referendum? |url=https://fullfact.org/europe/who-can-vote-eu-referendum/ |publisher=fullfact.org |date=7 June 2016 |access-date=24 December 2017}} Other than the residents of Gibraltar, British Overseas Territories Citizens residing in the British Overseas Territories were unable to vote in the referendum.[http://www.royalgazette.com/editorials/article/20160616/brexit-and-threats-it-poses-to-bermuda "Brexit and the threats it poses to Bermuda"], The Royal Gazette, 16 June 2016{{Cite web|url=http://www.penguin-news.com/index.php/headlines/all-headlines/15-politics/41-brexit-and-the-falkland-islands|title=Brexit and the Falkland Islands |website=www.penguin-news.com|access-date=15 January 2019|archive-date=16 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190116050209/http://www.penguin-news.com/index.php/headlines/all-headlines/15-politics/41-brexit-and-the-falkland-islands}}

Residents of the United Kingdom who were citizens of other EU countries were not allowed to vote unless they were citizens (or were also citizens) of the Republic of Ireland, of Malta, or of the Republic of Cyprus.{{cite news |title=EU citizens not eligible for referendum vote, says No 10 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-32872211 |access-date=24 December 2017 |work=BBC News |date=25 May 2015}}

The Representation of the People Acts 1983 (1983 c. 2) and 1985 (1985 c. 50), as amended, also permit certain British citizens (but not other British nationals), who had once lived in the United Kingdom, but had since and in the meantime lived outside of the United Kingdom, but for a period of no more than 15 years, to vote.{{cite web |title=Background to the UK's EU referendum 2016 |url=http://www.parliament.uk/business/publications/research/eu-referendum/background-uk-eu-referendum-2016/ |access-date=28 June 2016}}

Voting on the day of the referendum was from 0700 to 2200 BST (WEST) (0700 to 2200 CEST in Gibraltar) in some 41,000 polling stations staffed by over 100,000 poll workers. Each polling station was specified to have no more than 2,500 registered voters.{{citation needed|date=September 2016}} Under the provisions of the Representation of the People Act 2000, postal ballots were also permitted in the referendum and were sent out to eligible voters some three weeks ahead of the vote (2 June 2016).

The minimum age for voters in the referendum was set to 18 years, in line with the Representation of the People Act, as amended. A House of Lords amendment proposing to lower the minimum age to 16 years was rejected.{{cite news |last1=Sims|first1=Alexandra|last2=Stone|first2=Jon |title=MPs block plan to let 16 and 17-year olds vote in the EU referendum |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/house-of-commons-votes-against-lowering-voting-age-for-eu-referendum-a6764966.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220501/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/house-of-commons-votes-against-lowering-voting-age-for-eu-referendum-a6764966.html |archive-date=1 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=30 January 2017|work=The Independent|date=8 December 2015}}{{cbignore}}

The deadline to register to vote was initially midnight on 7 June 2016; however, this was extended by 48 hours owing to technical problems with the official registration website on 7 June, caused by unusually high web traffic. Some supporters of the Leave campaign, including the Conservative MP Sir Gerald Howarth, criticised the government's decision to extend the deadline, alleging it gave Remain an advantage because many late registrants were young people who were considered to be more likely to vote for Remain.{{cite news|title=EU vote registration deadline extended|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-eu-referendum-36480764|access-date=21 June 2016|work=BBC News|date=8 June 2016}} According to provisional figures from the Electoral Commission, almost 46.5 million people were eligible to vote.{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-eu-referendum-36602702 |title=European Union referendum: UK goes to the polls |access-date=23 June 2016 |work=BBC News}}

Nottingham City Council emailed a Vote Leave supporter to say that the council was unable to check whether the nationality that people stated on their voting registration form was true, and hence that they simply had to assume that the information that was submitted was, indeed, correct.{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-eu-referendum-36446521 |title=EU referendum: Thousands wrongly sent polling cards |date=3 June 2016 |work=BBC News}}

3,462 EU nationals were wrongly sent postal voting cards, due to an IT issue experienced by Xpress, an electoral software supplier to a number of councils. Xpress was initially unable to confirm the exact number of those affected. The matter was resolved by the issuance of a software patch which rendered the wrongly recorded electors ineligible to vote on 23 June.

Residents of the Crown Dependencies (which are not part of the United Kingdom), namely the Isle of Man and the Bailiwicks of Jersey and Guernsey, even if they were British citizens, were excluded from the referendum unless they were also previous residents of the United Kingdom (that is England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland).{{cite news |title=Lord of the Rings star launches Manx EU referendum petition |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-isle-of-man-35429021 |date=29 January 2016 |work=BBC News |access-date=15 February 2016}}

Some residents of the Isle of Man protested that they, as full British citizens under the British Nationality Act 1981 and living within the British Islands, should also have been given the opportunity to vote in the referendum, as the Isle and the Bailiwicks, although not included as if they were part of the United Kingdom for the purpose of European Union (and European Economic Area (EEA)) membership (as is the case with Gibraltar), would also have been significantly affected by the outcome and impact of the referendum.

{{Main|Campaigning in the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum}}{{See also|Allegations of unlawful campaigning in the 2016 EU referendum}}File:Britain Stronger in Europe campaigners, Southgate, London, 11 June 2016 01.jpg campaigners, London, June 2016]] File:Vote Leave and Vote Remain posters in Pimlico, June 2016.jpg, London]]

File:European Union - Brexit referendum "I'm in" sticker on a green Harrington jacket.png

In October 2015, Britain Stronger in Europe, a cross-party group campaigning for Britain to remain a member of the EU, was formed.{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-34502343|title='Patriotic' call to remain in the EU|date=12 October 2015|access-date=22 December 2019}} There were two rival groups promoting British withdrawal from the EU that sought to become the official Leave campaign: Leave.EU (which was endorsed by most of UKIP, including Nigel Farage), and Vote Leave (endorsed by Conservative Party Eurosceptics). In January 2016, Nigel Farage and the Leave.EU campaign became part of the Grassroots Out movement, which was borne out of infighting between Vote Leave and Leave.EU campaigners.{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-34484687|title=The battle to be official Leave campaign|date=14 March 2016|access-date=22 December 2019}}{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/mar/24/brexit-splits-leave-vote-beleave-funds|title=Keep your enemies close: the splits and infighting behind the Leave campaigns|first=Michael |last=Savage |date=24 March 2018|work=The Guardian|access-date=23 December 2019|issn=0261-3077}} In April, the Electoral Commission announced that Britain Stronger in Europe and Vote Leave were to be designated as the official remain and leave campaigns respectively.{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-36038672|title=Lead EU referendum campaigns named|date=13 April 2016|access-date=22 December 2019}} This gave them the right to spend up to £7,000,000, a free mailshot, TV broadcasts and £600,000 in public funds. The UK Government's official position was to support the Remain campaign. Nevertheless, Cameron announced that Conservative Ministers and MPs were free to campaign in favour of remaining in the EU or leaving it, according to their conscience. This decision came after mounting pressure for a free vote for ministers.{{cite news |title=Cameron: MPs will be allowed free vote on EU referendum – video |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/video/2016/jan/05/cameron-mps-will-be-allowed-free-vote-on-eu-referendum-video |access-date=9 January 2016 |work=The Guardian |date=5 January 2016 |format=Video |quote=The PM also indicates Tory MPs will be able to take differing positions once the renegotiation has finished}} In an exception to the usual rule of cabinet collective responsibility, Cameron allowed cabinet ministers to campaign publicly for EU withdrawal.{{cite news |last1=Hughes |first1=Laura |last2=Swinford |first2=Stephen |last3=Dominiczak |first3=Peter |title=EU Referendum: David Cameron forced to let ministers campaign for Brexit after fears of a Cabinet resignation |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/eureferendum/12082083/EU-referendum-David-Cameron-gives-ministers-free-vote-live.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105112034/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/eureferendum/12082083/EU-referendum-David-Cameron-gives-ministers-free-vote-live.html |archive-date=5 January 2016 |access-date=9 January 2016 |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=5 January 2016}} A Government-backed campaign was launched in April.{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-eu-referendum-35984991 |title=EU referendum: PM 'makes no apology' for £9m EU leaflets |work=BBC News |access-date=17 May 2016}} On 16 June, all official national campaigning was suspended until 19 June following the murder of Jo Cox.{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-eu-referendum-36553442 |title=EU Referendum campaigns remain suspended after Jo Cox attack |work=BBC News |date=17 June 2016 |access-date=17 June 2016}}

After internal polls suggested that 85% of the UK population wanted more information about the referendum from the government, a leaflet was sent to every household in the UK.{{cite web|title=Why the Government believes that voting to remain in the European Union is the best decision for the UK.|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/517014/EU_referendum_leaflet_large_print.pdf|publisher=Government of the United Kingdom|access-date=4 June 2016}} It contained details about why the government believed the UK should remain in the EU. This leaflet was criticised by those wanting to leave as giving the remain side an unfair advantage; it was also described as being inaccurate and a waste of taxpayers' money (it cost £9.3m in total).{{cite news |last1=Landale |first1=James |title=EU referendum: Government to spend £9m on leaflets to every home |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-eu-referendum-35980571 |access-date=11 April 2016 |work=BBC News |date=7 April 2016}} During the campaign, Nigel Farage suggested that there would be public demand for a second referendum should the result be a remain win closer than 52–48%, because the leaflet meant that the remain side had been permitted to spend more money than the leave side.{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-eu-referendum-36306681 |title=Nigel Farage: Narrow Remain win may lead to second referendum |work=BBC News |date=17 May 2016 |access-date=29 August 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913012929/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-eu-referendum-36306681 |archive-date=13 September 2016 }}

In the week beginning on 16 May, the Electoral Commission sent a voting guide regarding the referendum to every household within the UK and Gibraltar to raise awareness of the upcoming referendum. The eight-page guide contained details on how to vote, as well as a sample of the actual ballot paper, and a whole page each was given to the campaign groups Britain Stronger in Europe and Vote Leave to present their case.{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-eu-referendum-36286993|title=All voters to get EU referendum guide|date=15 May 2016|work=BBC News}}{{cite web |url=https://www.aboutmyvote.co.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/203410/EU-Referendum-voting-guide_England-and-Scotland.pdf |title=The 2016 EU Referendum Voting Guide |website=About My Vote |publisher=Electoral Commission |access-date=4 June 2016 |archive-date=15 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160615083249/http://www.aboutmyvote.co.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/203410/EU-Referendum-voting-guide_England-and-Scotland.pdf }}

The Vote Leave campaign argued that if the UK left the EU, national sovereignty would be protected, immigration controls could be imposed, and the UK would be able to sign trade deals with the rest of the world. The UK would also be able to stop membership payments to the EU every week.{{Cite web|url=http://www.voteleavetakecontrol.org/why_vote_leave.html|title=Why Vote Leave|website=Vote Leave|access-date=22 December 2019}}{{refn|group="note"|The figure widely circulated by the Vote Leave campaign that the UK sends the EU £350m a week was declared a "misuse of official statistics" by the UK Statistics authority.{{Cite report | url=https://www.statisticsauthority.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/Letter-from-Sir-David-Norgrove-to-Foreign-Secretary.pdf | title=Use of '£350m per week' figure to describe UK's financial contributions to the EU | date=17 September 2017 | access-date=22 December 2019 | archive-date=17 December 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217103724/https://www.statisticsauthority.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/Letter-from-Sir-David-Norgrove-to-Foreign-Secretary.pdf }} This figure did not take into account the UK's budget rebate. Taking the rebate into account, the UK sent the EU £252m a week in 2016. Later, a private prosecution was launched against Boris Johnson for misconduct in public office; the case was thrown out.{{Cite court | url=https://www.judiciary.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/2019ewhc-1709-admin-johnson-v-westminster-mags-final.pdf|litigants=Alexander Boris de Pfeffel Johnson vs Brexit Justice Ltd and Marcus Ball|date=3 July 2019|access-date=29 April 2020|court=High Court, Queen's Bench}}}} The Britain Stronger in Europe campaign argued that leaving the European Union would damage the UK economy, and that the status of the UK as a world influence was hinged upon its membership.{{Cite web|url=https://www.strongerin.co.uk/get_the_facts|title=Get the Facts|website=Britain Stronger in Europe|access-date=22 December 2019|archive-date=22 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222202441/https://www.strongerin.co.uk/get_the_facts}}

File:UK MPs EU referendum voting intention 2016.svg a total of 479 MPs publicly declared their intention to vote in favour of remaining in the European Union compared with just 158 MPs who declared their intention to vote in favour of leaving the European Union. {{legend|#0069b5|Leave}}

{{legend|#ffc010|Remain}}]]

The tables list political parties with representation in the House of Commons or the House of Lords, the European Parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the Northern Ireland Assembly, the Welsh Parliament, or the Gibraltar Parliament at the time of the referendum.

Among minor parties, the Socialist Labour Party, the Communist Party of Britain, Britain First,{{cite web|url=http://www.britainfirst.org/policies/ |title=Britain First Policies |publisher=Britainfirst.org |access-date=27 May 2016}} the British National Party (BNP),{{cite web|url=http://bnp.org.uk/policies/foreign-affairs|title=Foreign Affairs {{!}} British National Party|date=n.d.|work=bnp.org.uk|access-date=25 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630054755/http://www.bnp.org.uk/policies/foreign-affairs|archive-date=30 June 2016}} Éirígí [Ireland],{{cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/politics/%C3%A9ir%C3%ADg%C3%AD-backs-brexit-with-northern-ireland-poster-campaign-1.2666248|title=Éirígí backs Brexit with Northern Ireland poster campaign|newspaper=The Irish Times}} the Respect Party,{{cite web|url=http://www.respectparty.org/2016/02/22/respect-to-campaign-to-leave-the-european-union/|title=Respect to campaign to leave the EU|publisher=respectparty.org|date=22 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303080320/http://www.respectparty.org/2016/02/22/respect-to-campaign-to-leave-the-european-union/|archive-date=3 March 2016}} the Trade Unionist and Socialist Coalition (TUSC),{{cite web|author1=Trade Unionist |author2=Socialist Coalition |name-list-style=amp |title=TUSC letter in The Guardian – now sign the petition |url=https://www.tusc.org.uk/17182/22-02-2016/tusc-letter-in-the-guardian-now-sign-the-petition |publisher=tusc.org.uk |date=22 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304173007/https://www.tusc.org.uk/17182/22-02-2016/tusc-letter-in-the-guardian-now-sign-the-petition |archive-date=4 March 2016 }} the Social Democratic Party,{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-eu-referendum-36094520|title=EU referendum: 10 alternatives to the official Leave and Remain campaigns|work=BBC News|access-date=27 April 2016}} the Liberal Party,{{cite web|url=http://www.liberal.org.uk/assembly/2016/assemblyMOTIONS.pdf|title=Liberal Party Assembly Motion|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170103182304/http://www.liberal.org.uk/assembly/2016/assemblyMOTIONS.pdf|archive-date=3 January 2017}} Independence from Europe,{{cite AV media|people=Mike Nattrass MEP FRICS|date=19 April 2014|title= An independence from Europe YouTube|medium= Video|publisher=Mike Nattrass via YouTube|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JO2ij6EorAc}} and the Workers' Party [Ireland]{{cite web|url=http://workersparty.ie/statement-by-workers-party-president-on-eve-of-eu-referendum/|title=Statement by Workers' Party President Michael Donnelly on eve of EU referendum|publisher=Workers Party of Ireland|access-date=22 October 2018}} supported leaving the EU.

The Scottish Socialist Party (SSP), Left Unity and Mebyon Kernow [Cornwall] supported remaining in the EU.{{cite web|last=Cullen|first=Hugh|url=https://www.scottishsocialistparty.org/the-socialist-case-against-leaving-the-european-union/|title=The Socialist Case Against Leaving the European Union|publisher=Scottish Socialist Party|date=15 February 2016}}{{cite web |url= https://leftunity.org/leaflet-remain-for-a-europe-of-solidarity/ |title= Leaflet: Remain – For a Europe of Solidarity |date= 6 May 2016 |website= leftunity.org |access-date= 24 June 2022}}{{cite web |url= https://www.mebyonkernow.org/news/article.php?id=266 |title= MK backs "remain" vote in EU referendum |date= 3 April 2016 |website= Mebyon Kernow's official website |access-date= 24 June 2022 |archive-date= 26 May 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220526035620/https://www.mebyonkernow.org/news/article.php?id=266 }}

The Socialist Party of Great Britain supported neither leave nor remain and the Women's Equality Party had no official position on the issue.{{cite web |url= https://www.worldsocialism.org/spgb/socialist-standard/2016/2010s/no-1342-june-2016/problem-not-eu-its-capitalism/ |title= The Problem is Not the EU … It's Capitalism |date= April 2016 |website= Socialist Party of Great Britain |access-date= 27 June 2022}}{{cite web |url= https://www.worldsocialism.org/spgb/socialist-standard/1986/2010s/2016/article/no-1341-may-2016/editorial-eu-referendum-irrelevant-sideshow/ |title= Editorial: EU Referendum – An Irrelevant Sideshow |date= May 2016 |website= Socialist Party of Great Britain |access-date= 27 June 2022}}{{cite web|title=WE propose a Women's Bill of Rights |url=http://www.womensequality.org.uk/we_propose_a_women_s_bill_of_rights |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160320165738/http://www.womensequality.org.uk/we_propose_a_women_s_bill_of_rights |archive-date=20 March 2016 |publisher=womensequality.org.uk |date=8 March 2016 }}{{cite news|last=Mayer|first=Catherine|title=Whether we leave or stay in the EU, a Women's Bill of Rights is long overdue|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/catherine-mayer/international-womens-day_b_9408130.html|work=HuffPost|publisher=AOL|date=8 March 2016|access-date=27 May 2016}} The Socialist Equality Party called for an "active boycott" of the referendum.{{cite web|title=For an active boycott of the Brexit referendum!|author=Socialist Equality Party (UK)|publisher=World Socialist Web Site|url=https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2016/02/29/pers-f29.html|date=29 February 2016|access-date=23 April 2025}}

{{For|the positions of backbench MPs and other politicians|Endorsements in the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum}}

The Cabinet of the United Kingdom is a body responsible for making decisions on policy and organising governmental departments; it is chaired by the Prime Minister and contains most of the government's ministerial heads.{{cite web|title=How Cabinet works|url=http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/cabinetpapers/cabinet-gov/|publisher=The National Archives|access-date=22 March 2016}} Following the announcement of the referendum in February, 23 of the 30 Cabinet ministers (including attendees) supported the UK staying in the EU.{{cite news|title=EU Referendum: Where Conservative MPs stand|work=BBC News|date=21 March 2016|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-eu-referendum-35616946|access-date=22 March 2016}} Iain Duncan Smith, in favour of leaving, resigned on 19 March and was replaced by Stephen Crabb who was in favour of remaining.{{cite news|title=Who is Stephen Crabb?|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-35851269|access-date=22 March 2016|work=BBC News}} Crabb was already a cabinet member, as the Secretary of State for Wales, and his replacement, Alun Cairns, was in favour of remaining, bringing the total number of pro-remain Cabinet members to 25.

{{see also|Opinion polling for the United Kingdom European Union membership referendum#Business leaders}}

Various UK multinationals have stated that they would not like the UK to leave the EU because of the uncertainty it would cause, such as Shell,{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/11651167/Shell-CEO-urges-Britain-to-remain-in-European-Union.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/11651167/Shell-CEO-urges-Britain-to-remain-in-European-Union.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |work=The Daily Telegraph |title= Shell CEO urges Britain to remain in European Union| date= 4 June 2015}}{{cbignore}} BT{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2015/may/07/bt-signs-up-266000-new-fibre-broadband-customers-last-quarter-revenues-sports-tv/|title=BT boss says EU is a positive force for business|author=Juliette Garside|work=The Guardian}} and Vodafone,{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/vodafone-head-joins-deutsche-bank-in-warning-over-brexit-10262295.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220501/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/vodafone-head-joins-deutsche-bank-in-warning-over-brexit-10262295.html |archive-date=1 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Vodafone head joins Deutsche Bank in warning over EU exit|author1=Jamie Dunkley |author2=Russell Lynch |date=20 May 2015|work=The Independent}}{{cbignore}} with some assessing the pros and cons of Britain exiting.{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/deutsche-bank-considers-uk-exit-plan-10259849.html?origin=internalSearch/|title=Deutsche Bank considers UK exit plan|author=Hazel Sheffield|date=19 May 2015|work=The Independent}} The banking sector was one of the most vocal advocating to stay in the EU, with the British Bankers' Association saying: "Businesses don't like that kind of uncertainty".{{cite web|url=http://www.ft.com/fastft/320481/bankers-start-warn-on-uks-eu-referendum/|title= Bankers start to warn on UK's EU referendum|work=Financial Times}} RBS warned of potential damage to the economy.{{cite press release|url=http://104.46.54.198/media-centre/news/2015/feb/rbs-warns-business-damage-brexit-plans|title=RBS warns of business damage from Brexit plans|date=26 February 2015|publisher=Scottish National Party|access-date=7 January 2016|archive-url=https://archive.today/20160619101131/http://104.46.54.198/media-centre/news/2015/feb/rbs-warns-business-damage-brexit-plans|archive-date=19 June 2016}} Furthermore, HSBC and foreign-based banks JP Morgan and Deutsche Bank claim a Brexit might result in the banks' changing domicile.{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2015/apr/24/hsbc-warns-it-could-leave-uk-over-eu-referendum-uncertainty|title=HSBC warns of economic risks of UK pulling out of Europe|author=Jill Treanor|work=The Guardian}}{{cite news|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-banks-hsbc-jpmorgan-idUKKBN0OW09Z20150616/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160220152838/http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-banks-hsbc-jpmorgan-idUKKBN0OW09Z20150616|archive-date=20 February 2016|title=HSBC, JPMorgan may move parts of businesses to Luxembourg – The Times|agency=Reuters UK}} According to Goldman Sachs and the City of London's policy chief, all such factors could impact on the City of London's present status as a European and global market leader in financial services.{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/economics/11671324/Brexit-would-sap-Londons-wealth-and-power.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/economics/11671324/Brexit-would-sap-Londons-wealth-and-power.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph |title=Brexit 'would sap London's wealth and power |date=12 June 2015 |access-date=22 December 2015}}{{cbignore}} In February 2016, leaders of 36 of the FTSE 100 companies, including Shell, BAE Systems, BT and Rio Tinto, officially supported staying in the EU.{{cite news |title=EU exit would risk jobs, says group of business bosses |publisher=BBC |date=23 February 2016}} Moreover, 60% of the Institute of Directors and the EEF memberships supported staying.{{cite news |last1=Parker |first1=George |last2=Cadman |first2=Emily |last3=Plimmer |first3=Gill |title=Cameron outlines business case |work=Financial Times |date=22 February 2016 |page=3}}

Many UK-based businesses, including Sainsbury's, remained steadfastly neutral, concerned that taking sides in the divisive issue could lead to a backlash from customers.{{cite news|last1=Castle|first1=Stephen|title=Fear of Alienating Customers Keeps British Companies From Taking Sides on E.U.|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/02/world/europe/brexit-referendum-companies-neutral-eu.html|access-date=16 May 2016|work=The New York Times|issue=2 May 2016|date=1 May 2016}}

Richard Branson stated that he was "very fearful" of the consequences of a UK exit from the EU.{{cite news |title=Branson 'fearful' over Brexit impact|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-36578505|access-date=22 June 2016|work=BBC News |date=20 June 2016}} Alan Sugar expressed similar concern.{{cite news|title=Alan Sugar: Brexit Would Be A 'Disaster' For UK|url=http://news.sky.com/story/1701803/alan-sugar-brexit-would-be-a-disaster-for-uk|access-date=22 June 2016|publisher=Sky News}}

James Dyson, founder of the Dyson company, argued in June 2016 that the introduction of tariffs would be less damaging for British exporters than the appreciation of the pound against the Euro, arguing that, because Britain ran a 100 billion pound trade deficit with the EU, tariffs could represent a significant revenue source for the Treasury.[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/men/thinking-man/sir-james-dyson-so-if-we-leave-the-eu-no-one-will-trade-with-us/ Sir James Dyson: 'So if we leave the EU no one will trade with us? Cobblers...'] A. Pearson, The Daily Telegraph (London), 10 June 2016 Pointing out that languages, plugs and laws differ between EU member states, Dyson said that the 28-country bloc was not a single market, and argued the fastest growing markets were outside the EU. Engineering company Rolls-Royce wrote to employees to say that it did not want the UK to leave the EU.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-36534172 |title=Rolls-Royce says Brexit will heighten investment risk |work=BBC News}}

Surveys of large UK businesses showed a strong majority favoured the UK remaining in the EU.{{cite news |author=Farell, Sean|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2016/jun/02/uk-small-businesses-are-evenly-split-on-brexit-poll-says |title=UK small businesses are evenly split on Brexit, poll says |work=The Guardian |date=2 June 2016 |access-date=15 June 2016}} Small and medium-sized UK businesses were more evenly split. Polls of foreign businesses found that around half would be less likely to do business in the UK, while 1% would increase their investment in the UK.{{cite news|last1=Kleinman|first1=Mark|title=Brexit Threat To UK Jobs, ICC Survey Warns|url=http://news.sky.com/story/1676669/brexit-threat-to-uk-jobs-icc-survey-warns|access-date=14 May 2016|publisher=Sky News|date=11 April 2016}}{{cite web|title=86% of international businesses surveyed believe the UK should remain within the EU – says ICC United Kingdom|url=https://cdn.shopify.com/s/files/1/0898/9972/files/Press_Release_2016-04-12_ICC_UK_Survey_Results.pdf?6519071907519500121|website=iccwbo.uk|publisher=United Kingdom office of International Chamber of Commerce|access-date=14 May 2016|date=12 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223233754/https://cdn.shopify.com/s/files/1/0898/9972/files/Press_Release_2016-04-12_ICC_UK_Survey_Results.pdf?6519071907519500121|archive-date=23 December 2016}}{{cite news|last1=Cordell|first1=Jake|title=EU businesses want a hard line in any post-Brexit negotiations|url=http://www.cityam.com/240845/eu-referendum-eu-businesses-say-brexit-will-hurt-them-but-they-want-a-tough-stance-in-any-post-brexit-trade-negotiations|access-date=14 May 2016|work=City AM|date=11 May 2016}} Two large car manufacturers, Ford and BMW, warned in 2013 against Brexit, suggesting it would be "devastating" for the economy.{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/industry/9813184/Ford-and-BMW-warn-against-UK-exit-from-EU-as-David-Cameron-readies-historic-speech.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/industry/9813184/Ford-and-BMW-warn-against-UK-exit-from-EU-as-David-Cameron-readies-historic-speech.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Ford and BMW warn against UK exit from EU as David Cameron readies historic speech|first=Richard|last=Blackden|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|date=20 January 2013|access-date=3 January 2014}}{{cbignore}} Conversely, in 2015, some other manufacturing executives told Reuters that they would not shut their plants if the UK left the EU, although future investment might be put at risk.{{cite news|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-autoshow-frankfurt-britain-eu-idUKKCN0RG23F20150916/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160220152910/http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-autoshow-frankfurt-britain-eu-idUKKCN0RG23F20150916|archive-date=20 February 2016|title=Britain's pro-EU carmakers say plants not at risk from 'Brexit'|agency=Reuters UK}} The CEO of Vauxhall stated that a Brexit would not materially affect its business.{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/economics/11866869/Ignore-the-scaremongers-manufacturing-powerhouse-Vauxhall-says-it-would-be-fine-outside-the-EU.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/economics/11866869/Ignore-the-scaremongers-manufacturing-powerhouse-Vauxhall-says-it-would-be-fine-outside-the-EU.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Ignore the scaremongers, manufacturing powerhouse Vauxhall says it would be fine outside the EU|author=Szu Ping Chan|date=15 September 2015|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|access-date=6 January 2016}}{{cbignore}} Foreign-based Toyota CEO Akio Toyoda confirmed that, whether or not Britain left the EU, Toyota would carry on manufacturing cars in Britain as they had done before.{{cite news |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/1afaf414-b81f-11e5-b151-8e15c9a029fb.html |title=Toyota pledges to stay in UK even if country takes Brexit |work=Financial Times|date=11 January 2016 |last1=Harding |first1=Robin |last2=Inagaki |first2=Kana }}

In the week following conclusion of the UK's renegotiation (and especially after Boris Johnson announced that he would support the UK leaving), the pound fell to a seven-year low against the dollar and economists at HSBC warned that it could drop even more.P. Spence, [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2016/02/24/pound-falls-below-139-as-economists-warn-brexit-could-hammer-hou Pound falls below $1.39 as economists warn Brexit could hammer households], The Daily Telegraph, Finance, 24 February 2016. At the same time, Daragh Maher, head of HSBC, suggested that if Sterling dropped in value so would the Euro. European banking analysts also cited Brexit concerns as the reason for the Euro's decline.{{cite web|last=Nelson|first=Eshe|title=If Sterling Goes Down on 'Brexit,' It's Taking the Euro With It|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-02-23/if-sterling-goes-down-on-brexit-it-s-taking-the-euro-with-it|date=23 February 2016|publisher=Bloomberg|access-date=26 February 2016}} Immediately after a poll in June 2016 showed that the Leave campaign was 10 points ahead, the pound dropped by a further one per cent.{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/eu-referendum-poll-brexit-pound-dollar-value-fall-independent-poll-vote-leave-remain-a7075361.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220501/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/eu-referendum-poll-brexit-pound-dollar-value-fall-independent-poll-vote-leave-remain-a7075361.html |archive-date=1 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Pound falls after Independent poll puts Brexit 10 points ahead|date=10 June 2016|website=The Independent}}{{cbignore}} In the same month, it was announced that the value of goods exported from the UK in April had shown a month-on-month increase of 11.2%, "the biggest rise since records started in 1998".{{cite news|title=UK trade deficit narrows in April as exports jump|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-36488323|work=BBC News|access-date=11 June 2016}}{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2016/jun/09/uk-trade-deficit-falls-after-record-rise-in-exports|title=UK trade deficit falls after record rise in exports |date=9 June 2016|access-date=15 June 2016}}

Uncertainty over the referendum result, together with several other factors—US interest rates rising, low commodity prices, low Eurozone growth and concerns over emerging markets such as China—contributed to a high level of stock market volatility in January and February 2016.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}} On 14 June, polls showing that a Brexit was more likely led to the FTSE 100 falling by 2%, losing £98 billion in value.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-36526008 |title=FTSE 100 falls 2% as investors fret over Brexit|work=BBC News}}{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2016/06/14/ftse-100-slides-towards-6000-and-pound-falls-as-brexit-fears-dri/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160614115128/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2016/06/14/ftse-100-slides-towards-6000-and-pound-falls-as-brexit-fears-dri/ |archive-date=14 June 2016 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=FTSE 100 loses £100bn in four days as Brexit paralyses markets and pound crumbles|work=The Daily Telegraph}} After further polls suggested a move back towards Remain, the pound and the FTSE recovered.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-36573757 |title= The pound has made strong gains against the dollar |work=BBC News}}

On the day of the referendum, sterling hit a 2016 high of $1.5018 for £1 and the FTSE 100 also climbed to a 2016 high, as a new poll suggested a win for the Remain campaign.{{cite news |title=Sterling hits 2016 high, stocks climb as UK votes on Brexit |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-global-markets-idUSKCN0Z901Z|date=23 June 2016|work=Reuters}} Initial results suggested a vote for 'Remain' and the value of the pound held its value. However, when the result for Sunderland was announced, it indicated an unexpected swing to 'Leave'. Subsequent results appeared to confirm this swing and sterling fell in value to $1.3777, its lowest level since 1985. On the following Monday when the markets opened, £1 sterling fell to a new low of $1.32.{{cite web |title=GBP to USD exchange rate |work=Yahoo Finance |date=24 June 2016 |url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/british-pound-us-dollar-swing-brexit-eu-referendum-025253609.html|access-date=24 June 2016}}

Muhammad Ali Nasir and Jamie Morgan two British economists differentiated and reflected on the weakness of the Sterling due to the weak external position of the UK's economy and the further role played by the uncertainty surrounding Brexit{{cite journal |title=Pre-Brexit: The EU referendum as an illustration of the effects of uncertainty on the Sterling exchange rate |journal=Journal of Economic Studies |url=https://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/id/eprint/5123/1/Pre-BrexittheEUReferendumasanIllistrationoftheEffectsofUncertaintyAM-NASIR.pdf |date=2017|volume=45 |issue=5 |pages=910–921 |doi=10.1108/JES-07-2017-0205 |last1=Nasir |first1=Muhammad Ali |last2=Morgan |first2=Jamie |s2cid=158274269 }} They reported that during the week of the referendum, up to the declaration of the result, exchange rate depreciation deviated from the long-run trend by approximately 3.5 per cent, but the actual immediate effect on the exchange rate was an 8 per cent depreciation. Furthermore, that over the period from the announcement of the referendum, the exchange rate fluctuated markedly around its trend and one can also identify a larger effect based on the "wrong-footing" of markets at the point when the outcome was announced.

When the London Stock Exchange opened on the morning of 24 June, the FTSE 100 fell from 6338.10 to 5806.13 in the first ten minutes of trading. It recovered to 6091.27 after a further 90 minutes, before further recovering to 6162.97 by the end of the day's trading. When the markets reopened the following Monday, the FTSE 100 showed a steady decline losing over 2% by mid-afternoon.{{cite web |title=FTSE 100 at the London Stock Exchange |url=http://www.londonstockexchange.com/exchange/prices-and-markets/stocks/indices/summary/summary-indices.html?index=UKX |access-date=24 June 2016}} Upon opening later on the Friday after the referendum, the US Dow Jones Industrial Average dropped nearly 450 points or about 2½% in less than half an hour. The Associated Press called the sudden worldwide stock market decline a stock market crash.{{cite news |url=http://bigstory.ap.org/article/d4930c2180b143d685213a75e916bee8/british-vote-leaving-eu-rocks-world-financial-markets |first1=Danica |last1=Kirka |first2=Youkyung |last2=Lee |title=Stocks crash as UK vote to quit EU shocks investors |date=24 June 2016 |access-date=24 June 2016 |newspaper=AP The Big Story |agency=Associated Press |location=London |archive-date=3 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160703190302/http://bigstory.ap.org/article/d4930c2180b143d685213a75e916bee8/british-vote-leaving-eu-rocks-world-financial-markets }} Investors in worldwide stock markets lost more than the equivalent of US$2 trillion on 24 June 2016, making it the worst single-day loss in history, in absolute terms.{{cite news |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2016/06/26/brexit-cost-investors-2-trillion-the-worst-one-day-drop-ever.html |first=Javier E. |last=David |title=Brexit cost investors $2 trillion, the worst one day drop ever |publisher=CNBC |date=26 June 2016 |access-date=26 June 2016}} The market losses amounted to US$3 trillion by 27 June.{{cite news |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2016/06/27/brexit-related-losses-widen-in-relentless-sell-off.html |title=Brexit-related losses widen to $3 trillion in relentless 2-day sell-off |first=Javier E. |last=David |publisher=CNBC |date=27 June 2016 |access-date=28 June 2016}} Sterling fell to a 31-year low against the US dollar.{{cite news |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-eu-sterling-idUKKCN0Z92PQ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20160627021919/http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-eu-sterling-idUKKCN0Z92PQ |archive-date=27 June 2016 |title=UK markets shudder after Brexit vote, sterling hits 31-year low |first1=Jamie |last1=McGeever |first2=Patrick |last2=Graham |date=24 June 2016 |access-date=26 June 2016 |work=Reuters}} The UK's and the EU's sovereign debt credit ratings were also lowered to AA by Standard & Poor's.{{cite news |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2016/06/27/sp-cuts-united-kingdom-sovereign-credit-rating-to-aa-from-aaa.html |first=Everett |last=Rosenfeld |title=Brexit fears drive downgrade: S&P cuts UK rating to 'AA' from 'AAA' |publisher=CNBC |date=27 June 2016 |access-date=27 June 2016}}{{cite web |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2016/06/30/sp-revises-european-union-credit-rating-to-aa-from-aa.html |title=S&P revises European Union credit rating to AA from AA+|date=30 June 2016|publisher=CNBC}}

By mid-afternoon on 27 June 2016, sterling was at a 31-year low, having fallen 11% in two trading days, and the FTSE 100 had surrendered £85 billion;{{cite news |last1=Cunningham |first1=Tara |last2=Davidson |first2=Lauren |date=27 June 2016 |title=FTSE 100 surrenders £85bn in two days, pound slides and banking stocks plunge in Brexit aftermath |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2016/06/27/george-osborne-to-speak-in-attempt-to-calm-markets-following-bre/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160627064623/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2016/06/27/george-osborne-to-speak-in-attempt-to-calm-markets-following-bre/ |archive-date=27 June 2016 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph |access-date=27 June 2016 |quote=FTSE 100 surrenders £85bn in two days, pound slides and banking stocks plunge in Brexit aftermath}} however, by 29 June it had recovered all its losses since the markets closed on polling day and the value of the pound had begun to rise.{{cite news |title=Markets shift after Carney speech |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-36670583 |access-date=1 July 2016 |work=BBC News}}{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-36660133 |title=Global stock markets rally as Brexit fears abate |date=29 June 2016 |work=BBC News |access-date=30 June 2016}}

The referendum was generally well-accepted by the European far right.{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jun/24/european-far-right-hails-britains-brexit-vote-marine-le-pen|title=European far right hails Brexit vote|first=Angelique|last=Chrisafis|date=24 June 2016|work=The Guardian}} Marine Le Pen, the leader of the French Front national, described the possibility of a Brexit as "like the fall of the Berlin Wall" and commented that "Brexit would be marvellous – extraordinary – for all European peoples who long for freedom".{{cite web |last=Verhofstadt |first=Guy |title=Putin will be rubbing his hands at the prospect of Brexit |work=The Guardian |date=5 January 2016 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/jan/05/putin-rubbing-hands-brexit-david-cameron-eu |access-date=29 November 2015}} A poll in France in April 2016 showed that 59% of the French people were in favour of Britain remaining in the EU.{{cite web |last=Ball |first=Sam |title=Why the French are against Brexit, but only just |publisher=France 24 |date=30 April 2016 |url=http://www.france24.com/en/20160430-brexit-france-eu-why-french-are-against-but-only-just}} Dutch politician Geert Wilders, leader of the Party for Freedom, said that the Netherlands should follow Britain's example: "Like in the 1940s, once again Britain could help liberate Europe from another totalitarian monster, this time called 'Brussels'. Again, we could be saved by the British.""[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/05/21/britain-could-liberate-europe-again-by-voting-for-brexit-and-spa/ Exclusive: Britain 'could liberate Europe again' by voting for Brexit and sparking populist revolution]". The Daily Telegraph (London). 22 May 2016.

Polish President Andrzej Duda lent his support for the UK remaining within the EU.{{cite web |last=Holehouse |first=Matthew |title=Brexit will trigger collapse of EU, warns Poland |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=18 January 2016 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/eureferendum/12105727/Brexit-will-trigger-collapse-of-EU-warns-Poland.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/eureferendum/12105727/Brexit-will-trigger-collapse-of-EU-warns-Poland.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=29 November 2015}}{{cbignore}} Moldovan Prime Minister Pavel Filip asked all citizens of Moldova living in the UK to speak to their British friends and convince them to vote for the UK to remain in the EU.{{cite web |url=http://www.publika.md/pavel-filip-incurajeaza-moldovenii-sa-discute-cu-prietenii-lor-britanici-pentru-un-vot-pro-ramanere-in-ue_2661621.html |title=Pavel Filip încurajează moldovenii să discute cu prietenii lor britanici pentru un vot pro-rămânere în UE |last=www.publika.md |date=20 June 2016 |work=publika.md |access-date=22 June 2016 |archive-date=22 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160622031434/http://www.publika.md/pavel-filip-incurajeaza-moldovenii-sa-discute-cu-prietenii-lor-britanici-pentru-un-vot-pro-ramanere-in-ue_2661621.html }} Spanish foreign minister José García-Margallo said Spain would demand control of Gibraltar the "very next day" after a British withdrawal from the EU.{{cite news |title=Spanish PM's anger at David Cameron over Gibraltar |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-eu-referendum-36548175 |work=BBC News |date=16 June 2016}} Margallo also threatened to close the border with Gibraltar if Britain left the EU.{{cite news |title=Brexit border closure 'perfectly possible' in law – Margallo |url=http://chronicle.gi/2016/06/brexit-border-closure-perfectly-possible-in-law-margallo/ |work=Gibraltar Chronicle |date= 18 June 2016}}

Swedish foreign minister Margot Wallström said on 11 June 2016 that if Britain left the EU, other countries would have referendums on whether to leave the EU, and that if Britain stayed in the EU, other countries would negotiate, ask and demand to have special treatment.[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/eu-referendum-swedish-foreign-minister-warns-brexit-could-cause-break-up-of-european-union-a7076626.html EU referendum: Swedish foreign minister warns Brexit 'could cause break-up of European Union'] L. Dearden, The Independent (London), 11 June 2016 Czech prime minister Bohuslav Sobotka suggested in February 2016 that the Czech Republic would start discussions on leaving the EU if the UK voted for an EU exit.M. Holehouse, [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/czechrepublic/12170994/Czechs-will-follow-Britain-out-of-EU.html "Czech Republic 'will follow Britain out of EU'"], The Daily Telegraph, 23 February 2016

Christine Lagarde, the managing director of the International Monetary Fund, warned in February 2016 that the uncertainty over the outcome of the referendum would be bad "in and of itself" for the British economy.{{cite news |last1=Inman |first1=Phillip |title=Brexit referendum could destabilise UK recovery, says IMF |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/feb/24/brexit-referendum-destabilise-uk-economic-recovery-imf-lagarde |access-date=26 February 2016 |work=The Guardian |date=24 February 2016}} In response, Leave campaigner Priti Patel said a previous warning from the IMF regarding the coalition government's deficit plan for the UK was proven incorrect and that the IMF "were wrong then and are wrong now".{{cite news |last=Riley-Smith |first= Ben |title=EU referendum: IMF accused of 'bullying' voters with warnings over Brexit |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/05/13/eu-referendum-imf-issue-warning-over-brexit1/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/05/13/eu-referendum-imf-issue-warning-over-brexit1/ |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph |access-date=16 May 2016}}{{cbignore}}

In October 2015, United States Trade Representative Michael Froman declared that the United States was not keen on pursuing a separate free-trade agreement (FTA) with Britain if it were to leave the EU, thus, according to The Guardian newspaper, undermining a key economic argument of proponents of those who say Britain would prosper on its own and be able to secure bilateral FTAs with trading partners.{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2015/oct/29/us-warns-britain-it-could-face-trade-barriers-if-it-leaves-eu|title=US warns Britain: If you leave EU you face barriers to trading with America|date=28 October 2015|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=6 January 2016}} Also in October 2015, the United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom Matthew Barzun said that UK participation in NATO and the EU made each group "better and stronger" and that, while the decision to remain or leave is a choice for the British people, it was in the US interest that it remain.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-34670671|title=US ambassador: We would love strong UK in strong EU|date=29 October 2015|work=BBC News|access-date=6 January 2016}} In April 2016, eight former US Secretaries of the Treasury, who had served both Democratic and Republican presidents, urged Britain to remain in the EU.[https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-eu-referendum-36087583 Staying in EU 'best hope' for UK's future say ex-US Treasury secretaries], BBC News (20 April 2016).

In July 2015, President Barack Obama confirmed the long-standing US preference for the UK to remain in the EU. Obama said: "Having the UK in the EU gives us much greater confidence about the strength of the transatlantic union, and is part of the cornerstone of the institutions built following World War II that has made the world safer and more prosperous. We want to make sure that the United Kingdom continues to have that influence."{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2015/jul/23/barack-obama-britain-remain-eu-world-more-prosperous |title=Britain must stay in EU 'to make world more prosperous', says Obama |author=Andrew Sparrow |date=24 July 2015 |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=9 January 2016}} Some Conservative MPs accused U.S. President Barack Obama of interfering in the Brexit vote,{{cite news |title=Barack Obama accused of interfering in British politics after recommending UK remain in EU |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news-14-5/barack-obama-accused-of-interfering-in-british-politics-after-recommending-uk-remain-in-eu-10414727.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220501/https://www.independent.co.uk/news-14-5/barack-obama-accused-of-interfering-in-british-politics-after-recommending-uk-remain-in-eu-10414727.html |archive-date=1 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |work=The Independent |date=25 July 2015}}{{cbignore}}{{cite news |title=Obama's Brexit comments spark controversy in UK |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/04/obama-eu-britain-brexit-160422042549023.html |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=23 April 2016}} with Boris Johnson calling the intervention a "piece of outrageous and exorbitant hypocrisy"{{cite news |title=Johnson slams Obama's 'outrageous hypocrisy' over EU debate |url=https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/uk/johnson-slams-obamas-outrageous-hypocrisy-over-eu-debate-34535162.html |work=The Belfast Telegraph |date=13 March 2016}} and UKIP leader Nigel Farage accusing him of "monstrous interference", saying "You wouldn't expect the British Prime Minister to intervene in your presidential election, you wouldn't expect the Prime Minister to endorse one candidate or another."{{cite news |title='Monstrous interference': UK pols furious at Obama's plan to intervene in EU debate |url=https://www.foxnews.com/politics/monstrous-interference-uk-pols-furious-at-obamas-plan-to-intervene-in-eu-debate |publisher=Fox News Channel |date=22 April 2016}} Obama's intervention was criticised by Republican Senator Ted Cruz as "a slap in the face of British self-determination as the president, typically, elevated an international organisation over the rights of a sovereign people", and stated that "Britain will be at the front of the line for a free trade deal with America", were Brexit to occur.{{cite news |url=https://www.thetimes.com/article/britain-will-be-at-the-front-of-the-queue-for-a-us-trade-deal-vpg93g25r |title=Britain will be at the front of the queue for a US trade deal |access-date=27 April 2016|last1=Cruz |first1=Ted }}{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/04/27/ted-cruz-post-brexit-britain-would-be-at-front-of-the-line-for-t/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/04/27/ted-cruz-post-brexit-britain-would-be-at-front-of-the-line-for-t/ |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Ted Cruz: Post-Brexit Britain would be at front of the line for trade deal if I am US President |author=Michael Wilkinson |date=27 April 2016 |newspaper=The Telegraph |access-date=27 April 2016}}{{cbignore}} More than 100 MPs from the Conservatives, Labour, UKIP and the DUP wrote a letter to the U.S. ambassador in London asking President Obama not to intervene in the Brexit vote as it had "long been the established practice not to interfere in the domestic political affairs of our allies and we hope that this will continue to be the case."{{cite news |title=Don't meddle in EU vote, Brexit MPs tell Obama |url=https://www.thetimes.com/world/us-world/article/dont-meddle-in-our-euurope-vote-brexit-mps-tell-obama-j255z90xj |work=The Times |date=20 March 2016}}{{cite news |title=Obama warned against EU referendum intervention |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-eu-referendum-35829208 |work=BBC News |date=17 March 2016}} Two years later, one of Obama's former aides recounted that the public intervention was made following a request by Cameron.{{cite web |url=https://news.sky.com/story/cameron-personally-requested-obamas-back-of-the-queue-brexit-warning-11423669 |title=Cameron 'personally requested Obama's back of the queue Brexit warning' |author=Greg Heffer |date=2 July 2018|publisher=Sky News |access-date=17 July 2018}}

Prior to the vote, Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump anticipated that Britain would leave based on its concerns over migration,{{cite web |url=https://www.express.co.uk/news/uk/655219/Donald-Trump-EU-Brexit-blessing-crazy-migration |title='Time to GO': Trump gives Brexit blessing as he blames 'crazy migration' for EU collapse |author=Olli Smith |date=24 March 2016 |work=Daily Express |access-date=18 March 2016}} while Democratic presidential candidate Hillary Clinton hoped that Britain would remain in the EU to strengthen transatlantic co-operation.{{cite web |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/brexit-referendum/first-read-how-brexit-impacts-american-poltiics-n597561 |title=First Read: How 'Brexit' Impacts American Politics |work=NBC News |date=23 June 2016 |author=Chuck Todd, Mark Murray and Carrie Dann}}

In October 2015, Chinese President Xi Jinping declared his support for Britain remaining in the EU, saying "China hopes to see a prosperous Europe and a united EU, and hopes Britain, as an important member of the EU, can play an even more positive and constructive role in promoting the deepening development of China-EU ties". Chinese diplomats have stated "off the record" that the People's Republic sees the EU as a counterbalance to American economic power, and that an EU without Britain would mean a stronger United States.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}

In February 2016, the finance ministers from the G20 major economies warned for the UK to leave the EU would lead to "a shock" in the global economy.{{cite news |last1=Ross |first1=Tim |title=Global economy will suffer 'a shock' if Britain leaves EU, G20 warns |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/12175865/Global-economy-will-suffer-a-shock-if-Britain-leaves-EU-G20-warns.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160301010334/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/12175865/Global-economy-will-suffer-a-shock-if-Britain-leaves-EU-G20-warns.html |archive-date=1 March 2016 |access-date=27 February 2016 |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=27 February 2016}}{{cite news |title=UK EU exit would be global economy 'shock' – G20 leaders |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-eu-referendum-35677385 |access-date=27 February 2016 |work=BBC News}}

In May 2016, the Australian Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull said that Australia would prefer the UK to remain in the EU, but that it was a matter for the British people, and "whatever judgment they make, the relations between Britain and Australia will be very, very close".{{cite web | title=Turnbull hopeful UK avoids EU Brexit | url=http://www.news.com.au/national/breaking-news/turnbull-hopeful-uk-avoids-eu-brexit/news-story/0afdf43fb5c3ea5d778ca4bc756cbee0 | access-date=29 June 2016 | date=1 May 2016 | archive-date=6 June 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160606093029/http://www.news.com.au/national/breaking-news/turnbull-hopeful-uk-avoids-eu-brexit/news-story/0afdf43fb5c3ea5d778ca4bc756cbee0 }}

Indonesian president Joko Widodo stated during a European trip that he was not in favour of Brexit.{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.com/indonesia/dunia/2016/04/160421_dunia_jokowi_brexit|title=Presiden Jokowi ingin Inggris tak keluar dari Uni Eropa

|work=BBC Indonesia|date=22 April 2016|access-date=21 June 2016|language=id}}

Sri Lankan Prime Minister Ranil Wickremesinghe issued a statement of reasons why he was "very concerned" at the possibility of Brexit.{{cite news|url=http://www.dailymirror.lk/110981/Ranil-very-concerned-on-probable-Brexit|title=Ranil 'very concerned' at probable Brexit|journal=Daily Mirror|date=15 June 2016|access-date=20 June 2016}}

Russian President Vladimir Putin said: "I want to say it is none of our business, it is the business of the people of the UK."{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/russian-president-vladimir-putin-says-david-cameron-called-the-eu-referendum-to-blackmail-europe-a7088576.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220501/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/russian-president-vladimir-putin-says-david-cameron-called-the-eu-referendum-to-blackmail-europe-a7088576.html |archive-date=1 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=EU referendum: Vladimir Putin says David Cameron called vote 'to blackmail Europe' |work=The Independent |date=18 June 2016 |first=Will |last=Worley}}{{cbignore}} Maria Zakharova, the official Russian foreign ministry spokesperson, said: "Russia has nothing to do with Brexit. We are not involved in this process in any way. We don't have any interest in it."{{cite news|url=http://www.newsweek.com/does-putin-really-want-brexit-eu-471035 |title=Does Putin Really Want a Brexit From The EU? | work= Newsweek |date= 16 June 2016 |first1= Alexander |last1=Titov |first2= Richard|last2= Sakwa }}

In November 2015, the Governor of the Bank of England Mark Carney said that the Bank of England would do what was necessary to help the UK economy if the British people voted to leave the EU.P. Spence, [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/bank-of-england/11987883/Bank-of-England-can-make-Brexit-work-says-Mark-Carney.html Bank of England can make Brexit work, says Mark Carney], The Daily Telegraph, 11 November 2015. In March 2016, Carney told MPs that an EU exit was the "biggest domestic risk" to the UK economy, but that remaining a member also carried risks, related to the European Monetary Union, of which the UK is not a member.[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-35751919 Mark Carney: EU exit is 'biggest domestic risk'] BBC News, 8 March 2016 In May 2016, Carney said that a "technical recession" was one of the possible risks of the UK leaving the EU.{{cite news|last1=Robertson|first1=Jamie|title=Brexit vote may spark recession, Mark Carney warns|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-36273448|work=BBC News|access-date=13 May 2016}} However, Iain Duncan Smith said Carney's comment should be taken with "a pinch of salt", saying "all forecasts in the end are wrong".{{cite news|title=Iain Duncan Smith casts doubt on Mark Carney's Brexit warning|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-eu-referendum-36279424|work=BBC News|access-date=13 May 2016}}

In December 2015, the Bank of England published a report about the impact of immigration on wages. The report concluded that immigration put downward pressure on workers' wages, particularly low-skilled workers: a 10 per cent point rise in the proportion of migrants working in low-skilled services drove down the average wages of low-skilled workers by about 2 per cent.[http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/research/Documents/workingpapers/2015/swp574.pdf The impact of immigration on occupational wages: evidence from Britain] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160607123503/http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/research/Documents/workingpapers/2015/swp574.pdf |date=7 June 2016 }} S. Nickell and J. Saleheen, Staff Working Paper No. 574, Bank of England (2015) The 10 percentage point rise cited in the paper is larger than the entire rise observed since the 2004–06 period in the semi/unskilled services sector, which is about 7 percentage points.{{cite web|url=http://www.niesr.ac.uk/blog/how-small-small-impact-immigration-uk-wages#.WPjbo_krLD4|title=How small is small? The impact of immigration on UK wages – National Institute of Economic and Social Research|website=niesr.ac.uk|date=17 January 2016}}

In March 2016, Nobel prize-winning economist Joseph Stiglitz argued that he might reconsider his support for the UK remaining in the EU if the proposed Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP) were to be agreed to.[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/eu-referendum-joseph-stiglitz-ttip-labour-transatlantic-trade-investment-partnership-a6907806.html EU referendum: UK could be better off leaving if TTIP passes, Joseph Stiglitz says], H. Sheffield, The Independent, 2 March 2016 Stiglitz warned that under the investor-state dispute settlement provision in current drafts of the TTIP, governments risked being sued for loss of profits resulting from new regulations, including health and safety regulations to limit the use of asbestos or tobacco.

The German economist Clemens Fuest wrote that there was a liberal, free-trade bloc in the EU comprising the UK, the Netherlands, the Czech Republic, Sweden, Denmark, Ireland, Slovakia, Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, controlling 32% of the votes in the European Council and standing in opposition to the dirigiste, protectionist policies favoured by France and its allies.{{cite web|last=Fuest|first=Clemens|title = How Germany Views Brexit|publisher=Project Syndicate|date=19 April 2016|url=https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/brexit-consequences-for-germany-by-clemens-fuest-2016-04|access-date=29 November 2015}} Germany with its 'social market' economy stands midway between the French dirigiste economic model and the British free-market economic model. From the German viewpoint, the existence of the liberal bloc allows Germany to play-off free-market Britain against dirigiste France, and that if Britain were to leave, the liberal bloc would be severely weakened, thereby allowing the French to take the EU into a much more dirigiste direction that would be unattractive from the standpoint of Berlin.

A study by Oxford Economics for the Law Society of England and Wales has suggested that Brexit would have a particularly large negative impact on the UK financial services industry and the law firms that support it, which could cost the law sector as much as £1.7bn per annum by 2030.{{cite news|last1=Dakers|first1=Marion|title=Law firms will bear the brunt of Brexit, lawyers warn|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/economics/11896143/Law-firms-will-bear-the-brunt-of-Brexit-lawyers-warn.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/economics/11896143/Law-firms-will-bear-the-brunt-of-Brexit-lawyers-warn.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=14 June 2016|work=The Daily Telegraph|date=28 September 2015}}{{cbignore}} The Law Society's own report into the possible effects of Brexit notes that leaving the EU would be likely to reduce the role played by the UK as a centre for resolving disputes between foreign firms, whereas a potential loss of "passporting" rights would require financial services firms to transfer departments responsible for regulatory oversight overseas.{{cite web|title=The EU and the Legal Sector|url=https://www.lawsociety.org.uk/News/documents/eu-and-the-legal-sector-October-2015/|publisher=The Law Society of England and Wales|access-date=24 June 2016|date=October 2015|format=PDF}}

World Pensions Forum director M. Nicolas J. Firzli has argued that the Brexit debate should be viewed within the broader context of economic analysis of EU law and regulation in relation to English common law, arguing: "Every year, the British Parliament is forced to pass tens of new statutes reflecting the latest EU directives coming from Brussels – a highly undemocratic process known as 'transposition'... Slowly but surely, these new laws dictated by EU commissars are conquering English common law, imposing upon UK businesses and citizens an ever-growing collection of fastidious regulations in every field".{{cite web|first=Nicolas| last=Firzli | title=A Frenchman writes: Britain should say adiEU in June |url=http://www.efinancialnews.com/story/2016-03-07/britain-should-say-adieu-to-eu |website=Dow Jones Financial News|access-date=7 March 2016}}

Thiemo Fetzer, professor of economics from University of Warwick, analyzed the welfare reforms in the UK since 2000 and suggests that numerous austerity-induced welfare reforms from 2010 onwards have stopped contributing to mitigate income differences through transfer payments. This could be a key activating factor of anti-EU preferences that lie behind the development of economic grievances and the lack of support in a Remain victory.{{Cite news|last=Fetzer|first=Thiemo|date=25 July 2018|title=Did Austerity Cause Brexit?|location=Rochester, NY|ssrn=3251187}}

Michael Jacobs, the current director of the Commission on Economic Justice at the Institute for Public Policy Research and Mariana Mazzucato, a professor in University College London in Economics of Innovation and Public Value have found that the Brexit campaign had the tendency to blame external forces for domestic economic problems and have argued that the problems within the economy wasn't due to 'unstoppable forces of globalisation' but rather the result of active political and business decisions. Instead, they claim that orthodox economic theory has guided poor economic policy such as investment and that has been the cause of problems within the British economy.{{cite web |title=The Brexit-Trump syndrome: it's the economics, stupid |date=21 November 2016 |url=http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/id/eprint/69142 |access-date=20 December 2019}}

In May 2016, the Institute for Fiscal Studies said that an EU exit could mean two more years of austerity cuts as the government would have to make up for an estimated loss of £20 billion to £40 billion of tax revenue. The head of the IFS, Paul Johnson, said that the UK "could perfectly reasonably decide that we are willing to pay a bit of a price for leaving the EU and regaining some sovereignty and control over immigration and so on. That there would be some price though, I think is now almost beyond doubt."{{cite news|work =BBC News|date=25 May 2016| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-eu-referendum-36371700 |title=EU exit could add two years to austerity, IFS says}}

A poll of lawyers conducted by a legal recruiter in late May 2016 suggested 57% of lawyers wanted to remain in the EU.{{cite news|last1=Higgins|first1=Kathryn|title=Majority of UK lawyers want to remain in the EU, poll finds|url=http://www.globallegalpost.com/big-stories/majority-of-uk-lawyers-want-to-remain-in-the-eu-poll-finds-80188332/|access-date=14 June 2016|work=Global Legal Post|date=1 June 2016}}

During a Treasury Committee shortly following the vote, economic experts generally agreed that the leave vote would be detrimental to the UK economy.{{cite news|url=http://www.parliamentlive.tv/Event/Index/cb083c53-3998-4f3a-8eca-e114e3dbdf0b|title=Video: The UK's future economic relationship with the European Union|date=5 July 2016}}

Michael Dougan, Professor of European Law and Jean Monnet Chair in EU Law at the University of Liverpool and a constitutional lawyer, described the Leave campaign as "one of the most dishonest political campaigns this country [the UK] has ever seen", for using arguments based on constitutional law that he said were readily demonstrable as false.{{cite AV media| people = Dougan, Michael| date = 30 June 2016| title = Professor Michael Dougan assesses UK's position following vote to leave the EU| medium = Youtube| url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0dosmKwrAbI| access-date = 31 May 2018| time = 01:18| location = Liverpool| publisher = University of Liverpool, School of Law and Social Justice| quote =I really do have no hesitation whatsoever in concluding that Leave conducted one of the most dishonest political campaigns this country has ever seen.}}

Simon Stevens, head of NHS England, warned in May 2016 that a recession following a Brexit would be "very dangerous" for the National Health Service, saying that "when the British economy sneezes, the NHS catches a cold."{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-eu-referendum-36353145 |title=EU referendum: Brexit 'could damage NHS', health boss warns |work=BBC News |date=22 May 2016}} Three-quarters of a sample of NHS leaders agreed that leaving the EU would have a negative effect on the NHS as a whole. In particular, eight out of 10 respondents felt that leaving the EU would have a negative impact on trusts' ability to recruit health and social care staff.{{cite web|work=Public Finance| first=Emma |last=Rumney| date=26 May 2016|url=http://www.publicfinance.co.uk/news/2016/05/nhs-leaders-fear-negative-impact-brexit-survey-says |title=NHS leaders fear negative impact of Brexit, survey says}} In April 2016, a group of nearly 200 health professionals and researchers warned that the NHS would be in jeopardy if Britain left the European Union.{{cite news|url=https://www.thetimes.com/article/leaving-eu-would-put-nhs-at-risk-health-professionals-warn-zdrq7r2hm |title=Brexit would put the NHS at risk, health leaders warn|work=The Times | date=4 April 2016| first1=Katie|last1=Gibbons|first2=Michael|last2=Savage}} The leave campaign reacted by saying more money would be available to be spent on the NHS if the UK left the EU.

Guidelines by the Charity Commission for England and Wales that forbid political activity for registered charities have limited UK health organizations' commentary on EU poll, according to anonymous sources consulted by the Lancet.{{cite journal | title=Guidelines cause UK health charities to be silent on Brexit | author=Barbara Casassus | journal=The Lancet | date= 4 June 2016 | volume=387 | issue=10035 | pages=2277–2278 | doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30714-0 | pmid=27302254| doi-access=free }} According to Simon Wessely, head of psychological medicine at the Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London – neither a special revision of the guidelines from 7 March 2016, nor Cameron's encouragement have made health organisations, willing to speak out. The Genetic Alliance UK the Royal College of Midwives the Association of the British Pharmaceutical Industry and the Chief Executive of the National Health Service had all stated pro-remain positions by early June 2016.

A June 2016 survey of British fishermen found that 92% intended to vote to leave the EU.{{cite news|url=https://www.pressandjournal.co.uk/fp/news/uk/942753/skippers-want-out-of-eu-according-to-aberdeen-university-research/|title=Study finds 92% of fisherman will vote for Brexit|date=10 June 2016|newspaper=The Press and Journal|access-date=11 June 2016|first1=Lindsay|last1=Watling}} The EU's Common Fisheries Policy was mentioned as a central reason for their near-unanimity. More than three-quarters believed that they would be able to land more fish, and 93% stated that leaving the EU would benefit the fishing industry.{{cite web|last1=Vevers|first1=Dan|title=Nine in ten fishermen will back Brexit, survey suggests|url=http://stv.tv/news/politics/1356963-nine-in-ten-fishermen-will-back-brexit-survey-suggests/|publisher=STV|access-date=11 June 2016}}

In May 2016, more than 300 historians wrote in a joint letter to The Guardian that Britain could play a bigger role in the world as part of the EU. They said: "As historians of Britain and of Europe, we believe that Britain has had in the past, and will have in the future, an irreplaceable role to play in Europe."{{cite news |last=Stewart |first=Heather |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/may/25/vote-to-leave-eu-will-condemn-britain-to-irrelevance-say-historians |title=Vote to leave EU would 'condemn Britain to irrelevance', say historians |work=The Guardian |date=25 May 2016 |access-date=20 June 2016}} On the other hand, many historians argued in favour of leaving, seeing it as a return to self-sovereignty.[https://www.ft.com/content/86c8faa8-1696-11e6-9d98-00386a18e39d Rival historians trade blows over Brexit], Financial Times{{Cite web|url=https://spearswms.com/wealth/historian-andrew-roberts-brexit/|title=Historian Andrew Roberts on Brexit|date=22 June 2016}}

Following David Cameron's announcement of an EU referendum, in July 2013 the Institute of Economic Affairs (IEA) announced the "Brexit Prize", a competition to find the best plan for a UK exit from the European Union, and declared that a departure was a "real possibility" following the 2015 general election.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-23322122|title='Brexit': IEA offers prize for UK exit plan from EU|publisher=BBC|date=15 July 2013|access-date=8 August 2013}} Iain Mansfield, a Cambridge graduate and UKTI diplomat, submitted the winning thesis: A Blueprint for Britain: Openness not Isolation.{{cite web|url=http://www.iea.org.uk/brexit|title=IEA Brexit Prize|publisher=Iea.org.uk|date=8 April 2014|access-date=20 May 2014}} Mansfield's submission focused on addressing both trade and regulatory issues with EU member states as well as other global trading partners.{{cite news|last=Stacey|first=Kiran|title=UK diplomat wins prize for Brexit plan|url=http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/e60931b0-bf1b-11e3-a4af-00144feabdc0.html|access-date=21 April 2014|newspaper=Financial Times|date=8 April 2014|url-access=subscription }}{{cite web|last=Littlewood|first=Mark|title=The winner of the Brexit Prize provides a blueprint for an open, independent Britain|url=http://www.conservativehome.com/platform/2014/04/mark-littlewood-the-winner-of-the-brexit-prize-provides-a-blueprint-for-an-open-independent-britain.html|work=Conservative Home|date=9 April 2014 |access-date=21 April 2014}}

{{Main|Opinion polling for the United Kingdom European Union membership referendum}}

File:UK EU referendum polling.svg

Opinion polls from 2010 onwards suggested the British public were relatively evenly divided on the question, with opposition to EU membership peaking in November 2012 at 56% compared with 30% who prefer to remain in,{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2012/nov/17/eu-referendum-poll|title=56% of Britons Would Vote to Quit EU in Referendum, Poll Finds|date=17 November 2012|newspaper=The Observer|access-date=4 January 2014|first1=Daniel|last1=Boffey|first2=Toby|last2=Helm}} while in June 2015 those in favour of Britain remaining in the EU reached 43% versus those opposed 36%.{{cite web|url=http://d25d2506sfb94s.cloudfront.net/cumulus_uploads/document/pkmgvmnprr/InternalResults_150612_EU_referendum_Website.pdf|title=YouGov Survey Results|date=11 June 2015|publisher=D25d2506sfb94s.cloudfront.net|access-date=17 July 2015}} The largest ever poll (of 20,000 people, in March 2014) showed the public evenly split on the issue, with 41% in favour of withdrawal, 41% in favour of membership, and 18% undecided.{{cite news|url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/lord-ashcroft-europe-poll-europe-111600663.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407102544/http://finance.yahoo.com/news/lord-ashcroft-europe-poll-europe-111600663.html|archive-date=7 April 2014|title=Lord Ashcroft Europe Poll – Europe on Trial|publisher=Yahoo! Finance|date=23 March 2014|access-date=20 May 2014}} However, when asked how they would vote if Britain renegotiated the terms of its membership of the EU, and the UK Government stated that British interests had been satisfactorily protected, more than 50% indicated that they would vote for Britain to stay in.{{cite web|url=http://cdn.yougov.com/cumulus_uploads/document/65qzen2gxe/YG-Archive-Pol-Sun-results-160614.pdf|title=YouGov/The Sun Survey Results|date=June 2014|publisher=YouGov|access-date=12 June 2015}}

Analysis of polling suggested that young voters tended to support remaining in the EU, whereas those older tend to support leaving, but there was no gender split in attitudes.{{cite web|url=http://whatukthinks.org/eu/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Analysis-paper-1-Britain-divided.pdf|title=Britain divided? Who supports and who opposes EU membership|author= John Curtice, senior research fellow at NatCen and professor of politics at Strathclyde University|publisher=Economic and Social Research Council|date=October 2015}}{{cite news |last=Grice |first=Andrew |date=23 November 2015 |title=EU referendum: Majority of UK public wants 'Brexit', poll reveals |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/eu-referendum-majority-of-public-now-wants-a-brexit-poll-reveals-a6745561.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220501/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/eu-referendum-majority-of-public-now-wants-a-brexit-poll-reveals-a6745561.html |archive-date=1 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |newspaper=The Independent |access-date=24 November 2015}}{{cbignore}} In February 2016 YouGov also found that euroscepticism correlated with people of lower income and that "higher social grades are more clearly in favour of remaining in the EU", but noted that euroscepticism also had strongholds in "the more wealthy, Tory shires".{{cite web|url=https://yougov.co.uk/news/2016/02/28/eurosceptic-map-britain/|title=The Eurosceptic map of Britain|publisher=YouGov|last=Dahlgreen|first=Will|date=28 February 2016|access-date=28 February 2016}} Scotland, Wales and many English urban areas with large student populations were more pro-EU. Big business was broadly behind remaining in the EU, though the situation among smaller companies was less clear-cut.{{cite news|title=Conservatives: the party of business?|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/70295a84-c4f4-11e5-b3b1-7b2481276e45.html|newspaper=Financial Times|date=3 February 2016|access-date=8 February 2016 |first=Jim |last=Pickard}} In polls of economists, lawyers, and scientists, clear majorities saw the UK's membership of the EU as beneficial.{{cite journal |last1=Cressey |first1=Daniel |title=Scientists say 'no' to UK exit from Europe in Nature poll |journal=Nature |date=30 March 2016 |volume=531 |issue=7596 |page=559 |doi=10.1038/531559a |pmid=27029257 |bibcode=2016Natur.531..559C|s2cid=4408142 |doi-access=free }}{{cite news|last1=Booth|first1=James|title=Partners overwhelmingly anti-Brexit as confidence in Britain staying in falters|url=http://www.legalweek.com/legal-week/analysis/2448934/partners-overwhelmingly-anti-brexit-as-confidence-in-britain-staying-in-falters|access-date=14 May 2016|work=Legal Week|date=2 March 2016|archive-date=10 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610092250/http://www.legalweek.com/legal-week/analysis/2448934/partners-overwhelmingly-anti-brexit-as-confidence-in-britain-staying-in-falters}}{{cite web|url=https://www.ipsos-mori.com/researchpublications/researcharchive/3739/Economists-Views-on-Brexit.aspx |title=Economists' Views on Brexit |date=28 May 2016 |access-date=29 May 2016 |publisher=Ipsos MORI}}{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/may/28/economists-reject-brexit-boost-cameron |title=Economists overwhelmingly reject Brexit in boost for Cameron |last1=Sodha |first1=Sonia |author-link1=Sonia Sodha |last2=Helm |first2=Toby |last3=Inman |first3=Phillip |date=28 May 2016 |access-date=29 May 2016 |newspaper=Observer}}{{cite news |last1=Giles |first1=Chris |last2=Cadman |first2=Emily |title=Economists' forecasts: Brexit would damage growth |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/1a86ab36-afbe-11e5-b955-1a1d298b6250.html |access-date=14 May 2016 |work=Financial Times |date=3 January 2016}} On the day of the referendum, the bookmaker Ladbrokes offered odds of 6/1 against the UK leaving the EU.{{Cite news |url=http://www.edp24.co.uk/news/politics/the_year_the_bookies_were_confounded_150_1_on_trump_becoming_us_president_and_100_1_on_alan_partridge_becoming_the_mayor_of_east_anglia_1_4832435 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161231074641/http://www.edp24.co.uk/news/politics/the_year_the_bookies_were_confounded_150_1_on_trump_becoming_us_president_and_100_1_on_alan_partridge_becoming_the_mayor_of_east_anglia_1_4832435 |archive-date=31 December 2016 |title=The year the bookies were confounded – 150/1 on Trump becoming US President and 100/1 on Alan Partridge becoming the Mayor of East Anglia |last=Dickinson |first=Annabelle |date=30 December 2016 |newspaper=Eastern Daily Press }} Meanwhile, spread betting firm Spreadex offered a Leave Vote Share spread of 45–46, a Remain Vote Share spread of 53.5-54.5, and a Remain Binary Index spread of 80–84.7, where victory for Remain would makeup to 100 and a defeat 0.{{Cite web|date=23 June 2016|title=FTSE and pound hover near recent highs as Brexit referendum gets underway|url=https://www.spreadex.com/financials/market-analysis/spreadex-market-update/ftse-and-pound-hover-near-recent-highs-as-brexit-referendum-gets-underway/|access-date=3 August 2020|website=www.spreadex.com}}

Shortly after the polls closed at 10 pm on 23 June, the British polling company YouGov released a poll conducted among almost 5,000 people on the day; it suggested a narrow lead for "Remain", which polled 52% with Leave polling 48%. It was later criticised for overestimating the margin of the "Remain" vote,{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-38402133|title=Why were the polls wrong again in 2016?|first=David|last=Cowling|date=24 December 2016|work=BBC News|access-date=12 September 2018}} when it became clear a few hours later that the UK had voted 51.9% to 48.1% in favour of leaving the European Union.

{{main|Issues in the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum}}

The number of jobs lost or gained by a withdrawal was a dominant issue; the BBC's outline of issues warned that a precise figure was difficult to find. The Leave campaign argued that a reduction in red tape associated with EU regulations would create more jobs and that small to medium-sized companies who trade domestically would be the biggest beneficiaries. Those arguing to remain in the EU, claimed that millions of jobs would be lost. The EU's importance as a trading partner and the outcome of its trade status if it left was a disputed issue. Whereas those wanting to stay cited that most of the UK's trade was made with the EU, those arguing to leave say that its trade was not as important as it used to be. Scenarios of the economic outlook for the country if it left the EU were generally negative. The United Kingdom also paid more into the EU budget than it received.{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-32793642 |title=UK and the EU: Better off out or in? |work=BBC News |date=23 February 2016 |access-date=3 March 2016}}

File:Boris Johnson July 2016.jpg played a key role in the Vote Leave campaign.]]

Citizens of EU countries, including the United Kingdom, have the right to travel, live and work within other EU countries, as free movement is one of the four founding principles of the EU.{{cite news |last1=Sodha |first1=Sonia |author-link=Sonia Sodha |title=Why is EU free movement so important? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-33655318 |access-date=4 March 2016 |work=Analysis, BBC Radio 4 |date=27 July 2015}} Campaigners for remaining said that EU immigration had positive impacts on the UK's economy, citing that the country's growth forecasts were partly based upon continued high levels of net immigration. The Office for Budget Responsibility also claimed that taxes from immigrants boost public funding. A recent{{when|date=March 2019}} academic paper suggests that migration from Eastern Europe put pressure on wage growth at the lower end of the wage distribution, while at the same time increasing pressures on public services and housing.{{cite web |url= http://www.trfetzer.com/does-migration-cause-extreme-voting/ |title= Does Migration Cause Extreme Voting? |last=Becker and Fetzer |date=October 2016 |publisher= University of Warwick |access-date=31 October 2016}} The Leave campaign believed reduced immigration would ease pressure in public services such as schools and hospitals, as well as giving British workers more jobs and higher wages. According to official Office for National Statistics data, net migration in 2015 was 333,000, which was the second highest level on record, far above David Cameron's target of tens of thousands.[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/05/26/eu-referendum-lord-ashcroft-poll-finds-nearly-two-thirds-of-vote/ EU Referendum: Record number of migrants arrive in UK without jobs, as Boris Johnson accuses David Cameron of "deeply damaging" faith in democracy] L. Hughes, The Daily Telegraph (London), 26 May 2016[https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/internationalmigration/bulletins/migrationstatisticsquarterlyreport/may2016 Migration Statistics Quarterly Report: May 2016] ONS, 26 May 2016 Net migration from the EU was 184,000. The figures also showed that 77,000 EU migrants who came to Britain were looking for work.

After the announcement had been made as to the outcome of the referendum, Rowena Mason, political correspondent for The Guardian offered the following assessment: "Polling suggests discontent with the scale of migration to the UK has been the biggest factor pushing Britons to vote out, with the contest turning into a referendum on whether people are happy to accept free movement in return for free trade."{{cite news |last=Mason |first=Rowena |date=24 June 2016 |title=How did UK end up voting to leave the European Union? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/jun/24/how-did-uk-end-up-voting-leave-european-union |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=26 June 2016}} A columnist for The Times, Philip Collins, went a step further in his analysis: "This was a referendum about immigration disguised as a referendum about the European Union."{{cite news |last=Ward |first=Olivia |date=25 June 2016 |title=Toxic Brexit debate has led the U.K. into political turmoil: Analysis |url=https://www.thestar.com/news/world/2016/06/25/toxic-brexit-debate-has-lead-the-uk-into-political-turmoil-analysis.html |newspaper=Toronto Star |location=Toronto, Canada |access-date=26 June 2016}}

The Conservative MEP (Member of the European Parliament) representing South East England, Daniel Hannan, predicted on the BBC programme Newsnight that the level of immigration would remain high after Brexit.

{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-eu-referendum-36628894 |title=Newsnight exchange with Brexit MEP Daniel Hannan |date=25 June 2016 |work=BBC News |access-date=26 June 2016}} "Frankly, if people watching think that they have voted and there is now going to be zero immigration from the EU, they are going to be disappointed. ... you will look in vain for anything that the Leave campaign said at any point that ever suggested there would ever be any kind of border closure or drawing up of the drawbridge."{{cite web |url=https://inews.co.uk/essentials/news/leave-campaigners-suggest-pledges-may-not-upheld/ |title=Nigel Farage: Leave campaign pledges 'mistake', may not be upheld |last=Lowyry |first=Nigel |date=25 June 2016 |website=iNews UK |publisher=Media Nusantara Citra |access-date=26 June 2016}}

The EU had offered David Cameron a so-called "emergency brake" which would have allowed the UK to withhold social benefits to new immigrants for the first four years after they arrived; this brake could have been applied for a period of seven years."{{cite news |last=Helm |first=Toby |date=24 July 2016 |title=Brexit: EU considers migration 'emergency brake' for UK for up to seven years |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jul/24/brexit-deal-free-movement-exemption-seven-years |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=24 July 2016}} That offer was still on the table at the time of the Brexit referendum, but expired when the vote determined that the UK would leave the EU.{{cite web |url=http://www.politico.eu/article/how-david-cameron-lost-brexit-eu-referendum-prime-minister-campaign-remain-boris-craig-oliver-jim-messina-obama/ |title=How David Cameron blew it – The behind-the-scenes story of a failed campaign to keep Britain in the European Union. |author= |date=24 June 2016 |website=Politico EU |access-date=24 July 2016 |quote=As Brussels held its ground, Cameron dropped his manifesto commitment for new EU workers to wait four years before accessing benefits, as long as something was done to cut immigration. In February Britain and the EU struck a deal. Britain would get an "emergency brake," allowing the UK to withhold access to benefits for new migrants for a one-off period of seven years.}}

The possibility that the UK's smaller constituent countries could vote to remain within the EU but find themselves withdrawn from the EU led to discussion about the risk to the unity of the United Kingdom.{{cite web|title=Brexit could lead to second independence poll and break-up of Britain, says leading Scottish investment fund manager|url=http://www.heraldscotland.com/news/14297051.Brexit_could_lead_to_second_independence_poll_and_break_up_of_Britain__says_leading_Scottish_investment_fund_manager/?ref=mr&lp=12|date=24 February 2016|work=The Herald|access-date=5 March 2016}} Scotland's First Minister, Nicola Sturgeon, made it clear that she believed that a second independence referendum would "almost certainly" be demanded by Scots if the UK voted to leave the EU but Scotland did not.{{cite news|title=Sturgeon: EU exit could trigger demand for Scottish independence referendum|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-35625067|date=21 February 2016|work=BBC News|access-date=5 March 2016}} The First Minister of Wales, Carwyn Jones, said: "If Wales votes to remain in [the EU] but the UK votes to leave, there will be a... constitutional crisis. The UK cannot possibly continue in its present form if England votes to leave and everyone else votes to stay".{{cite news|title=EU referendum: Brexit would spark 'constitutional crisis' for UK, warns Welsh First Minister Carwyn Jones|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/eu-referendum-brexit-would-spark-constitutional-crisis-for-uk-warns-welsh-first-minister-carwyn-a6939786.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220501/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/eu-referendum-brexit-would-spark-constitutional-crisis-for-uk-warns-welsh-first-minister-carwyn-a6939786.html |archive-date=1 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|date=18 March 2016|work=The Independent|access-date=21 March 2016}}{{cbignore}}

There was concern that the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP), a proposed trade agreement between the United States and the EU, would be a threat to the public services of EU member states.[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/nhs-could-be-part-privatised-if-uk-and-eu-agree-controversial-ttip-trade-deal-expert-warns-a6888516.html NHS could be part-privatised if UK and EU agree controversial TTIP trade deal, expert warns] I. Johnston, The Independent (London), 21 February 2016[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/ttip-government-caves-in-to-cross-party-alliance-of-eurosceptic-mps-demanding-nhs-is-protected-from-a7038561.html TTIP: Government caves in to cross-party alliance of Eurosceptic MPs demanding NHS is protected from controversial deal] O. Wright, The Independent (London), 19 May 2016[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/05/19/downing-street-accused-of-vicious-briefings-against-brexit-campa/ EU referendum: 25 Tory rebels plot to vote down Queen's Speech as Labour MP caught calling voter 'horrible racist' on campaign trail] L. Hughes, The Daily Telegraph, 19 May 2016[https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/may/20/david-cameron-support-ttip TTIP symbolises the worst of global capitalism. Cameron pushes it at his peril] N. Dearden, The Guardian, 20 May 2016 Jeremy Corbyn, on the Remain side, said that he pledged to veto TTIP in Government.[http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/jeremy-corbyn-ttip-free-trade-deal-eu-us-eu-referendum-brexit_uk_57500b9ce4b040e3e8190ef3 Jeremy Corbyn Vows To Veto 'TTIP' EU-US Free Trade Deal Amid Privatisation Fears] P. Waugh, HuffPost, 2 June 2016 John Mills, on the Leave side, said that the UK could not veto TTIP because trade pacts were decided by Qualified Majority Voting in the European Council.[http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/john-mills/eu-referendum-vote-leave_b_10391536.html The EU Referendum Pits Big Business Against Working People – That's Why I'm Voting 'Leave'] J. Mills, HuffPost, 10 June 2016

There was debate over the extent to which the European Union membership aided security and defence in comparison to the UK's membership of NATO and the United Nations.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-eu-referendum-35628051|title=EU referendum: Leaving EU 'big gamble' for UK security|work=BBC News|date=22 February 2016|access-date=11 April 2016}} Security concerns over the union's free movement policy were raised too, because people with EU passports were unlikely to receive detailed checks at border control.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-eu-referendum-35891716|title=Reality Check: Is Britain safer in or out of the EU?|work=BBC News|date=24 March 2016|access-date=11 April 2016}}

A debate was held by The Guardian on 15 March 2016, featuring the leader of UKIP Nigel Farage, Conservative MP Andrea Leadsom, the leader of Labour's "yes" campaign Alan Johnson and former leader of the Liberal Democrats Nick Clegg.{{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0U4Iecc3Xr0|title=EU referendum debate – Guardian Live|date=15 March 2016|via=YouTube}}

Earlier in the campaign, on 11 January, a debate took place between Nigel Farage and Carwyn Jones, who was at the time the First Minister of Wales and leader of the Welsh Labour Party.{{cite web|url=http://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/nigel-farage-carwyn-jones-go-10602023|title=Nigel Farage and Carwyn Jones to go head-to-head to debate whether UK should stay in the EU|author=Martin Shipton|date=15 December 2015|work=walesonline}}{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-politics-35277063|title=Farage and Jones clash over steel in EU debate|work=BBC News}} Reluctance to have Conservative Party members argue against one another has seen some debates split, with Leave and Remain candidates interviewed separately.{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/05/23/its-official-david-cameron-will-not-debate-another-political-lea/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/05/23/its-official-david-cameron-will-not-debate-another-political-lea/ |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=It's official: David Cameron will not debate another political leader on television before EU referendum|date=24 May 2016|work=The Daily Telegraph|access-date=24 May 2016}}{{cbignore}}

The Spectator held a debate hosted by Andrew Neil on 26 April, which featured Nick Clegg, Liz Kendall and Chuka Umunna arguing for a remain vote, and Nigel Farage, Daniel Hannan and Labour MP Kate Hoey arguing for a leave vote.{{cite web|url=http://events.spectator.co.uk/events/should-britain-should-leave-the-eu/|title=Debate: Should Britain leave the EU?|work=The Spectator}} The Daily Express held a debate on 3 June, featuring Nigel Farage, Kate Hoey and Conservative MP Jacob Rees-Mogg debating Labour MPs Siobhain McDonagh and Chuka Umunna and businessman Richard Reed, co-founder of Innocent drinks.{{cite news |url=http://www.express.co.uk/news/politics/676479/EU-referendum-Daily-Express-EU-debate-Brexit-Nigel-Farage-Chuka-Umunna-live-stream |title=The Express EU Debate in full |date=5 June 2016 |work=Daily Express}} Andrew Neil presented four interviews ahead of the referendum. The interviewees were Hilary Benn, George Osborne, Nigel Farage and Iain Duncan Smith on 6, 8, 10 and 17 May, respectively on BBC One.{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b07gccz2/episodes/guide|title=The Andrew Neil Interviews: Leave or Remain? – Episode guide|publisher=BBC}}

The scheduled debates and question sessions included a number of question and answer sessions with various campaigners.{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b07f493c|title=The EU Debate, Victoria Derbyshire|publisher=BBC}}{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/may/12/vote-leave-lambasts-itv-over-eu-debate-between-cameron-and-farage|title=Vote Leave lambasts ITV over EU debate between Cameron and Farage|date=12 May 2016|work=The Guardian|access-date=24 May 2016}} and a debate on ITV held on 9 June that included Angela Eagle, Amber Rudd and Nicola Sturgeon for remain, Boris Johnson, Andrea Leadsom, and Gisela Stuart for leave.{{cite web|url=http://stv.tv/news/politics/1356549-nicola-sturgeon-and-boris-johnson-to-clash-in-tv-debate/|title=Nicola Sturgeon and Boris Johnson to clash in TV debate|author=Aiden Kerr|publisher=STV News|date=6 June 2016|access-date=9 June 2016}}

EU Referendum: The Great Debate was held at Wembley Arena on 21 June and hosted by David Dimbleby, Mishal Husain and Emily Maitlis in front of an audience of 6,000.{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2016/may/11/bbc-eu-referendum-debate-wembley|title=BBC rejects fears EU referendum debate could be hijacked |author=John Plunkett|date=11 May 2016|access-date=24 May 2016}} The audience was split evenly between both sides. Sadiq Khan, Ruth Davidson and Frances O'Grady appeared for Remain. Leave was represented by the same trio as the ITV debate on 9 June (Johnson, Leadsom and Stuart).{{cite news|title=EU referendum: Campaigns set for live BBC debate at Wembley|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-eu-referendum-36582567|work=BBC News|access-date=21 June 2016}} Europe: The Final Debate with Jeremy Paxman was held the following day on Channel 4.{{cite web|url=http://www.channel4.com/info/press/news/jeremy-paxman-to-host-final-eu-referendum-debate-on-channel-4|title=Jeremy Paxman to host final EU Referendum debate on Channel 4 |date=9 May 2016|access-date=24 May 2016|publisher=Channel 4}}

File:Brexit (27240041144).jpg

Voting took place from 0700 BST (WEST) until 2200 BST (same hours CEST in Gibraltar) in 41,000 polling stations across 382 voting areas, with each polling station limited to a maximum of 2,500 voters.[http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2015/36/section/11/enacted European Referendum Act 2015] Section 11. The referendum was held across all four countries of the United Kingdom, as well as in Gibraltar, as a single majority vote. The 382 voting areas were grouped into twelve regional counts and there was separate declarations for each of the regional counts.

In England, as happened in the 2011 AV referendum, the 326 districts were used as the local voting areas and the returns of these then fed into nine English regional counts. In Scotland the local voting areas were the 32 local councils which then fed their results into the Scottish national count, and in Wales the 22 local councils were their local voting areas before the results were then fed into the Welsh national count. Northern Ireland, as was the case in the AV referendum, was a single voting and national count area although local totals by Westminster parliamentary constituency areas were announced.

Gibraltar was a single voting area, but as Gibraltar was to be treated and included as if it were a part of South West England, its results was included together with the South West England regional count.

The following table shows the breakdown of the voting areas and regional counts that were used for the referendum.

British expat Harry Shindler, a World War II veteran living in Italy, took legal action as the UK does not permit citizens residing abroad who have not lived in the UK for over 15 years to vote in elections. Shindler believed this prohibition violated his rights as he wished to vote in the referendum.{{cite news |last1=Bowcott |first1=Owen |date=2016-04-28 |title=British expats lose legal battle for right to vote in EU referendum |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/apr/28/british-expats-lose-legal-battle-right-to-vote-eu-referendum |access-date=2024-05-16 |work=The Guardian |issn=0261-3077}} He had previously raised a case in 2009 (Shindler v. the United Kingdom 19840/09) regarding his rights to vote in UK general elections that the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) deemed did not violate his rights.{{Cite web |title=HUDOC - European Court of Human Rights |url=https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/?i=001-119229 |access-date=2024-05-16 |website=hudoc.echr.coe.int}}

Shindler first sued the UK government before the referendum, claiming that his disenfranchisement was a penalty against UK citizens who live abroad, exercising their EU right of free movement, thus violating his right as an EU citizen. This 15-year prohibition on voting, Shindler argued, discourages British citizens from continuing to exercise their free movement rights as they are required to return to the UK to vote in the EU referendum.{{Cite web |date=20 April 2016 |title=HARRY SHINDLER MBE - against- (1) CHANCELLOR OF THE DUCHY OF LANCASTER (2) SECRETARY OF STATE FOR FOREIGN AND COMMONWEALTH AFFAIRS |url=https://www.judiciary.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/shindler-final.pdf |access-date=15 May 2024 |website=THE HIGH COURT OF JUSTICE QUEEN'S BENCH DIVISION DIVISIONAL COURT}}

The High Court, on 20 April 2016, rejected Shindler's claims, saying that it is "totally unrealistic" that the 15-year prohibition would deter citizens from settling in another Member State. The court also found that "significant practical difficulties" in allowing residents abroad for more than 15 years to vote permits the government to enact this restriction.

Further, the High Court found that this prohibition, even if it did violate EU rights, is a parliamentary prerogative as "Parliament could legitimately take the view that electors who satisfy the test of closeness of connection set by the 15 year rule form an appropriate group to vote on the question whether the United Kingdom should remain a member of the European Union or leave the European Union."

After the referendum, Shindler brought a case against the Council of the EU in the General Court. He argued that the Council's decision (Decision XT 21016/17) to recognize the referendum was illegal as his disenfranchisement invalidated the referendum.{{Cite web |date=22 May 2017 |title=ANNEX to Council decision (EU, Euratom) 2017/... authorising the opening of negotiations with the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland for an agreement setting out the arrangements for its withdrawal from the European Union |url=https://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/21766/directives-for-the-negotiation-xt21016-ad01re02en17.pdf |website=Council of the European Union}} Shindler argued that the decision lacked "definite constitutional authorization based on the votes of all UK citizens" as not all citizens were permitted to vote. He claims the Council should have "sought judicial review of the constitutionality of the notification of the intention to withdraw" because depriving UK citizens to vote in the referendum is contrary to EU law. Shindler claimed that "the Council should have refused or stayed the opening of negotiations" between the EU and the UK.{{Citation |title=Harry Shindler and Others v Council of the European Union |date=26 November 2018 |issue=Case T-458/17 |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:62017TJ0458&qid=1715823519912 |access-date=2024-05-16 |language=en}}

In November 2018, however, the court found Shindler's arguments unconvincing as the decision to recognize the referendum did not "directly affect the legal situation of the applicants." The Council's action merely recognized and began the withdrawal procedures and did not violate Shinder's rights.

On 16 June 2016, a pro-EU Labour MP, Jo Cox, was shot and killed in Birstall, West Yorkshire the week before the referendum by a man calling out "death to traitors, freedom for Britain", and a man who intervened was injured.{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/jun/18/thomas-mair-charged-with-of-mp-jo-cox|title=Jo Cox murder suspect tells court his name is 'death to traitors, freedom for Britain'|first1=Robert|last1=Booth|first2=Vikram|last2=Dodd|first3=Kevin|last3=Rawlinson|first4=Nicola|last4=Slawson|website=TheGuardian.com|date=18 June 2016}} The two rival official campaigns agreed to suspend their activities as a mark of respect to Cox. After the referendum, evidence emerged that Leave.EU had continued to put out advertising the day after Jo Cox's murder.{{cite news |last1=Cadwalladr |first1=Carole |last2=Helm |first2=Toby |title=Anger over use of Brexit ads in aftermath of Jo Cox murder |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/jul/28/anger-brexit-ads-after-jo-cox-murder-beleave-vote-leave |access-date=26 May 2019 |work=The Observer |date=28 July 2018}}{{cite web |title=The Banks Files: Brexit funder urged campaign to "press it harder" after Jo Cox murder |date=8 March 2019 |url=https://www.channel4.com/news/the-banks-files-brexit-funder-urged-campaign-to-press-it-harder-after-jo-cox-murder |publisher=Channel 4 News |access-date=26 May 2019}} David Cameron cancelled a planned rally in Gibraltar supporting British EU membership.{{cite news|url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/stay-home-spain-pm-tells-cameron-gibraltar-trip-002022290.html|title=Cameron cuts short Gibraltar visit over MP attack|publisher=Yahoo!|date=16 June 2016|access-date=17 June 2016|archive-date=17 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617194414/https://www.yahoo.com/news/stay-home-spain-pm-tells-cameron-gibraltar-trip-002022290.html}} Campaigning resumed on 19 June.{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/jun/18/eu-referendum-campaign-jo-cox|title=Paused EU referendum debate to resume, but with a more respectful tone|first=Heather|last=Stewart|work=The Guardian|date=18 June 2016|access-date=18 June 2016}}{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-eu-referendum-36569338|title=David Cameron: 'No turning back' on EU vote|work=BBC News|date=19 June 2016|access-date=19 June 2016}} Polling officials in the Yorkshire and Humber region also halted counting of the referendum ballots on the evening of 23 June to observe a minute of silence.{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/06/24/counting-stops-for-minute-silence-for-jo-cox/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/06/24/counting-stops-for-minute-silence-for-jo-cox/ |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Counting stops for minute silence for Jo Cox |work=The Telegraph |date=24 June 2016 |access-date=24 June 2016}}{{cbignore}} The Conservative Party, Liberal Democrats, UK Independence Party and the Green Party all announced that they would not contest the ensuing by-election in Cox's constituency as a mark of respect.{{cite news|first=Jon |last=Stone |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/jo-cox-death-conservatives-will-not-contest-murdered-labour-mp-seat-batley-spen-thomas-mair-a7087246.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220501/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/jo-cox-death-conservatives-will-not-contest-murdered-labour-mp-seat-batley-spen-thomas-mair-a7087246.html |archive-date=1 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Jo Cox death: Parties stand down in killed Labour MP's seat as Corbyn and Cameron call for unity |newspaper=The Independent |publisher=Independent Print Limited |date=17 June 2016 |access-date=17 June 2016}}{{cbignore}}

On polling day itself two polling stations in Kingston upon Thames were flooded by rain and had to be relocated.{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/jun/23/referendum-day-queues-polling-stations|title=Long queues reported outside referendum polling stations|first=Caroline|last=Davies|date=23 June 2016|work=The Guardian}} In advance of polling day, concern had been expressed that the courtesy pencils provided in polling booths could allow votes to be later altered. Although this was widely dismissed as a conspiracy theory (see: Voting pencil conspiracy theory), some Leave campaigners advocated that voters should instead use pens to mark their ballot papers. On polling day in Winchester an emergency call was made to police about "threatening behaviour" outside the polling station. After questioning a woman who had been offering to lend her pen to voters, the police decided that no offence was being committed.{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/06/23/pencil-or-pen-an-unusual-conspiracy-theory-grips-brexit-vote/|title=Pencil or pen? An unusual conspiracy theory grips Brexit vote. – The Washington Post|last=Etehad|first=Melissa|date=23 June 2016|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=11 March 2018}}

{{Main|Results of the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum}}

File:United Kingdom EU referendum 2016 area results 2-tone.svg and Gibraltar a total of 270 returned majority votes in favour of "Leave" whereas 129 returned majority votes in favour of "Remain" in the referendum including all 32 areas in Scotland.

{{legend|#0069b5|Leave}}

{{legend|#ffc010|Remain}}]]

The final result was announced on Friday 24 June 2016 at 07:20 BST by then-Electoral Commission Chairwoman Jenny Watson at Manchester Town Hall after all 382 voting areas and the twelve UK regions had declared their totals. With a national turnout of 72% across the United Kingdom and Gibraltar (representing 33,577,342 people), at least 16,788,672 votes were required to win a majority. The electorate voted to "Leave the European Union", with a majority of 1,269,501 votes (3.8%) over those who voted "Remain a member of the European Union".{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/politics/eu_referendum/results|title=EU Referendum Results|publisher=BBC News|access-date=23 December 2019}} The national turnout of 72% was the highest ever for a UK-wide referendum, and the highest for any national vote since the 1992 general election.{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/live/2016/jun/23/eu-referendum-result-live-counting-leave-remain-brain-in-europe |title=Brexit: Nicola Sturgeon says second Scottish referendum 'highly likely' |first1=Andrew |last1=Sparrow |first2=Matthew |last2=Weaver |first3=Philip |last3=Oltermann |first4=Adam |last4=Vaughan |first5=Anushka |last5=Asthana |first6=Mark |last6=Tran |first7=Jessica |last7=Elgot |first8=Holly |last8=Watt |first9=Jennifer |last9=Rankin |first10=Henry |last10=McDonald |first11=Maev |last11=Kennedy |first12=Frances |last12=Perraudin |first13=Arthur |last13=Neslen |first14=Lisa |last14=O'Carroll |first15=Nadia |last15=Khomami |first16=Steven |last16=Morris |first17=Pamela |last17=Duncan |first18=Katie |last18=Allen |first19=Severin |last19=Carrell |first20=Rowena |last20=Mason |first21=Helena |last21=Bengtsson |first22=Caelainn |last22=Barr |first23=Simon |last23=Goodley |first24=Libby |last24=Brooks |first25=Graeme |last25=Wearden |first26=Ben |last26=Quinn |first27=Randeep |last27=Ramesh |first28=Nick |last28=Fletcher |first29=Jill |last29=Treanor |first30=Justin |last30=McCurry |first31=Richard |last31=Adams |first32=Josh |last32=Halliday |first33=David |last33=Pegg |first34=Claire |last34=Phipps |first35=Deborah |last35=Mattinson |first36=Peter |last36=Walker |newspaper=The Guardian |date=24 June 2016}}{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/25/world/europe/britain-brexit-european-union-referendum.html |title=Britain Votes to Leave E.U., Stunning the World |last=Erlanger |first=Steven |date=23 June 2016 |newspaper=The New York Times |issn=0362-4331 |access-date=24 June 2016}}{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/25/business/international/brexit-financial-economic-impact-leave.html |title=Turbulence and Uncertainty for the Market After 'Brexit' |last=Goodman |first=Peter S. |date=23 June 2016 |newspaper=The New York Times |issn=0362-4331 |access-date=24 June 2016}}{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/06/24/eu-referendum-results-live-brexit-wins-as-britain-votes-to-leave/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/06/24/eu-referendum-results-live-brexit-wins-as-britain-votes-to-leave/ |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=EU referendum results live: Brexit wins as Britain votes to leave European Union |access-date=24 June 2016 |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph |last=Hughes |first=Laura}}{{cbignore}} Roughly 38% of the UK population voted to leave the EU and roughly 35% voted to remain.{{cite journal |last1=Moeller |first1=Joergen Oerstroem |title=Trump and Brexit: Some Lessons for Southeast Asia |date=21 February 2017 |publisher=ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute |journal=Perspective|issue=11 |page=2|url=https://iseas.edu.sg/images/pdf/ISEAS_Perspective_2017_11.pdf |access-date=8 November 2019}}

{{UKEU2016Result}}

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{{further|Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit}}

Voting figures from local referendum counts and ward-level data (using local demographic information collected in the 2011 census) suggests that Leave votes were strongly correlated with lower qualifications and higher age.{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-38762034|title=Local voting figures shed new light on EU referendum|date=7 February 2017|newspaper=BBC}}{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/ng-interactive/2016/jun/23/eu-referendum-live-results-and-analysis|title=EU referendum: full results and analysis|date=26 June 2016|newspaper=The Guardian}}{{Cite news|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2016/06/brexit-vote-statistics-united-kingdom-european-union/488780/|title=Who Voted for the Brexit?|date= 25 June 2016|newspaper=The Atlantic}}{{Cite web|url=http://www.statsguy.co.uk/brexit-voting-and-education/|title=Brexit Voting and Education|date=11 February 2017}} The data were obtained from about one in nine wards in England and Wales, with very little information from Scotland and none from Northern Ireland. A YouGov survey reported similar findings; these are summarised in the charts below.

Researchers based at the University of Warwick found that areas with "deprivation in terms of education, income and employment were more likely to vote Leave". The Leave vote tended to be greater in areas which had lower incomes and high unemployment, a strong tradition of manufacturing employment, and in which the population had fewer qualifications.Sascha O Becker, Thiemo Fetzer, Dennis Novy. [https://doi.org/10.1093/epolic/eix012 "Who voted for Brexit? A comprehensive district-level analysis"]. Economic Policy, Volume 32, Issue 92, 1 October 2017, pp.601–650. Quotes: "We find that fundamental characteristics of the voting population were key drivers of the Vote Leave share, in particular their education profiles, their historical dependence on manufacturing employment as well as low income and high unemployment. At the much finer level of wards within cities, we find that areas with deprivation in terms of education, income and employment were more likely to vote Leave. [...] A larger flow of migrants from Eastern Europe reaching a local authority area with a larger share of unqualified people or a larger share of manufacturing workers is also associated with a larger Vote Leave share". It also tended to be greater where there was a large flow of Eastern European migrants (mainly low-skilled workers) into areas with a large share of native low-skilled workers. Those in lower social grades (especially the 'working class') were more likely to vote Leave, while those in higher social grades (especially the 'upper middle class') were more likely to vote Remain.Noel Dempsey & Neil Johnston. [http://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-7501/CBP-7501.pdf "Political disengagement in the UK: who is disengaged?"]. House of Commons briefing paper. House of Commons Library, 14 September 2018. p.23

Polls by Ipsos MORI, YouGov and Lord Ashcroft all assert that 70–75% of under 25s voted 'remain'.{{cite web|url=https://fullfact.org/europe/how-did-young-people-vote-brexit-referendum/|title=How did young people vote in the Brexit referendum?|website=Full Fact|date=23 March 2018|access-date=8 December 2019}} Additionally according to YouGov, only 54% of 25- to 49-year-olds voted 'remain', whilst 60% of 50- to 64-year-olds and 64% of over-65s voted 'leave', meaning that the support for 'remain' was not as strong outside the youngest demographic.{{cite news|url=https://yougov.co.uk/topics/politics/articles-reports/2016/06/27/how-britain-voted|title=How Britain voted at the EU referendum|last=Moore|first=Peter|date=27 June 2016|work=YouGov|access-date=8 December 2019}} Also, YouGov found that around 87% of under-25s in 2018 would now vote to stay in the EU.{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/brexit-leave-eu-remain-vote-support-against-poll-uk-europe-final-say-yougov-second-referendum-peter-a8541971.html|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220501/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/brexit-leave-eu-remain-vote-support-against-poll-uk-europe-final-say-yougov-second-referendum-peter-a8541971.html|archive-date=1 May 2022|url-access=subscription|url-status=live|title=Leave voters dying and Remainers reaching voting age means majority will soon oppose Brexit, study finds|last=Kentish|first=Benjamin|date=17 September 2018|website=The Independent|access-date=8 December 2019}}{{cbignore}} Opinion polling by Lord Ashcroft Polls found that Leave voters believed leaving the EU was "more likely to bring about a better immigration system, improved border controls, a fairer welfare system, better quality of life, and the ability to control our own laws", while Remain voters believed EU membership "would be better for the economy, international investment, and the UK's influence in the world".[http://lordashcroftpolls.com/2016/06/how-the-united-kingdom-voted-and-why/ "How the United Kingdom voted on Thursday… and why"]. Lord Ashcroft Polls. 24 June 2016. Immigration is thought to be a particular worry for older people that voted Leave, who consider it a potential threat to national identity and culture.{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/brexit-why-did-old-people-vote-leave-young-voters-remain-eu-referendum-a7103996.html|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220501/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/brexit-why-did-old-people-vote-leave-young-voters-remain-eu-referendum-a7103996.html|archive-date=1 May 2022|url-access=subscription|url-status=live|title=Brexit: Why did older voters choose to Leave the EU?|last1=Whitely|first1=Paul|last2=Clarke|first2=Harold D.|date=26 June 2016|website=The Independent|access-date=8 December 2019}}{{cbignore}} The polling found that the main reasons people had voted Leave were "the principle that decisions about the UK should be taken in the UK", and that leaving "offered the best chance for the UK to regain control over immigration and its own borders". The main reason people voted Remain was that "the risks of voting to leave the EU looked too great when it came to things like the economy, jobs and prices".

One analysis suggests that in contrast to the general correlation between age and likelihood of having voted to leave the EU, those who experienced the majority of their formative period (between the ages of 15 and 25) during the Second World War are more likely to oppose Brexit than the rest of the over-65 age group,{{failed verification|date=October 2019}} for they are more likely to associate the EU with bringing peace.{{cite web |url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/europpblog/2019/03/21/not-all-the-over-65s-are-in-favour-of-brexit-britains-wartime-generation-are-almost-as-pro-eu-as-millennials/ |title=Not all the 'over 65s' are in favour of Brexit – Britain's wartime generation are almost as pro-EU as millennials |last=Devine |first=Kevin |date=21 March 2019 |website=London School of Economics |access-date=19 October 2019}}

File:EURefVoteByAgeAndEducation2017.jpg|EU referendum vote by age and education, based on a YouGov survey.{{cite web|url=https://yougov.co.uk/news/2016/06/27/how-britain-voted/|title=how-britain-voted|access-date=26 July 2017}}{{cite web|url=https://d25d2506sfb94s.cloudfront.net/cumulus_uploads/document/oxmidrr5wh/EUFinalCall_Reweighted.pdf|title=EUFinalCall_Reweighted|access-date=26 July 2017}}

File:Brexit_leave_vote_vs_educational_attainment_by_area.jpg|EU referendum leave vote versus educational attainment (Highest level of qualification for Level 4 qualifications and above) by area for England and Wales.{{failed verification|reason=regional breakdown not in source; points on chart also differ|date=December 2019}}

On 5 September 2016, the polling company Ipsos MORI estimated the following percentage breakdown of votes in the referendum by different demographic group, as well as the percentage of turnout among registered voters in most of those demographic groups:{{cite web|url=https://www.ipsos.com/en-uk/how-britain-voted-2016-eu-referendum|title=How Britain voted in the 2016 EU referendum|date=5 September 2016 |access-date=20 July 2022}}

{{further|International reactions to the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum}}

{{See also|Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit}}

File:Brexit Campaigners out side Parliament November 2016.jpg

{{main|Aftermath of the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum}}

The referendum was criticised for not granting people younger than 18 years of age a vote. Unlike in the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, the vote was not extended to 16- and 17-year-old citizens. Critics argued that these people would live with the consequences of the referendum for longer than those who were able to vote. Some supporters for the inclusion of these young citizens considered this exclusion a violation of democratic principles and a major shortcoming of the referendum.{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/brexit-eu-referendum-latest-protest-young-people-parliament-vote-a7101701.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220501/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/brexit-eu-referendum-latest-protest-young-people-parliament-vote-a7101701.html |archive-date=1 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Young people are gathering at Parliament furious at not being given the vote |last1=Worley |first1=Will |last2=Forster |first2=Katie |date=24 June 2016 |work=The Independent |access-date=25 June 2016}}{{cbignore}}{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-36619342 |title=Brexit: How much of a generation gap is there? |work=BBC News |access-date=26 June 2016}}

The foreign ministry of Ireland stated on 24 June 2016 that the number of applications from the UK for Irish passports had increased significantly.{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/jun/24/brexit-scramble-for-european-passports |title=Brexit vote sparks scramble for European passports |last=Harding |first=Luke |date=24 June 2016 |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=25 June 2016}}{{cite web |title=Brexit vote sparks surge in Irish passport applications |work=ABC News |date=27 June 2016 |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-06-28/brexit-vote-sparks-surge-in-irish-passport-applications/7548710 |access-date=27 June 2016}} Enquiries about passports also increased: the Irish Embassy in London reported 4,000 a day immediately after the vote to leave, in comparison with the normal 200 a day.{{cite news |last=Halpin |first=Padraic |title=Britons flood Ireland with EU passport queries after Brexit vote |work=Reuters |date=27 June 2016 |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu-ireland-passports-idUSKCN0ZD1KA |access-date=27 June 2016}} Other EU nations also had increases in requests for passports from British citizens, including France and Belgium.

There were more than a hundred reports of racist abuse and hate crime in the immediate aftermath of the referendum, with many citing the plan to leave the European Union.{{cite news |last1=Agerholm |first1=Harriet |title=Brexit: Wave of racial abuse and hate crime reported after EU referendum |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/brexit-eu-referendum-racial-racism-abuse-hate-crime-reported-latest-leave-immigration-a7104191.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220501/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/brexit-eu-referendum-racial-racism-abuse-hate-crime-reported-latest-leave-immigration-a7104191.html |archive-date=1 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=26 June 2016 |work=The Independent |date=26 June 2016}}{{cbignore}} It was claimed that there had been a 57% increase in hate crime following the referendum vote. However, the National Police Chiefs' Council Lead for Hate Crime, Assistant Chief Constable Mark Hamilton, said: "This should not be read as a national increase in hate crime of 57% but an increase in reporting through one mechanism".{{cite web |url=https://news.npcc.police.uk/releases/hate-crime-is-unacceptable-in-any-circumstances-say-police |title=Hate crime is unacceptable in any circumstances say police |website=news.npcc.police.uk}} Others{{who|date=December 2018}} claimed that the numbers did not necessarily reflect "any objective spread in modern Britain", but that the apparent spike in hate crime was the result of the subjective definition of the crime and that the police being incentivised "to find hatred". In the UK, crimes are recorded as hate crimes based on the perception of the victim. Assistant Chief Constable Maurice Mason of the Essex police explained that "If the person feels it's a hate crime it'll get recorded as a hate crime", saying that his county's "50% increase in reported hate crimes" post referendum were "low level matters, some members of the public complaining about Nigel Farage or whatever ... that'll get recorded as a hate crime".{{cite web |url=http://www.yourharlow.com/2016/07/05/essex-police-reveal-hate-crime-spike-since-eu-referendum/ |title=Essex Police reveal hate crime spike since EU referendum |date=5 July 2016 }}

On 24 June 2016, a Polish school in Cambridgeshire was vandalised with a sign reading "Leave the EU. No more Polish vermin".{{cite news |last1=Micklethwaite |first1=Jamie |title=Police probe 'racist signs distributed after Brexit vote in EU referendum' |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/crime/police-probe-racist-signs-distributed-after-brexit-vote-in-eu-referendum-a3281021.html |access-date=26 June 2016 |work=London Evening Standard |date=26 June 2016}} Following the referendum result, similar signs were distributed outside homes and schools in Huntingdon, with some left on the cars of Polish residents collecting their children from school.{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-cambridgeshire-36633388 |title=Anti-Polish cards in Huntingdon after EU referendum |work=BBC News |access-date=26 June 2016}} On 26 June, the London office of the Polish Social and Cultural Association was vandalised with graffiti that was initially characterised as a racist hate crime. However it later emerged that the graffiti, which said, 'F*** you OMP' may have been directed at OMP, a eurosceptic Polish think tank that had issued a statement congratulating Britain on its Brexit vote.{{cite web |url=http://www.getwestlondon.co.uk/news/west-london-news/polish-centre-graffiti-misunderstood-suggestions-11578663 |title=Polish centre graffiti 'not a xenophobic attack' after all? |first=Goolistan |last=Cooper |date=7 July 2016 |website=getwestlondon}}{{cite news |last1=Micklethwaite |first1=Jamie |title=Police probe racist graffiti smeared on Polish centre after Brexit vote |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/london/police-probe-racist-graffiti-smeared-on-polish-centre-after-brexit-vote-a3281081.html |access-date=26 June 2016 |work=London Evening Standard |date=26 June 2016}} This incident was also unsuccessfully investigated by the police. In Wales, a Muslim woman was told to leave after the referendum, even though she had been born and raised in the United Kingdom.{{cite news |last1=Staufenberg |first1=Jess |title=Brexit: Welsh Muslim told to 'pack bags and go home' after campaigning for Remain |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/brexit-latest-news-updates-remain-twitter-muslim-racist-abuse-a7101491.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220501/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/brexit-latest-news-updates-remain-twitter-muslim-racist-abuse-a7101491.html |archive-date=1 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=26 June 2016 |work=The Independent |date=25 June 2016}}{{cbignore}} Other reports of racism occurred as perceived foreigners were targeted in supermarkets, on buses and on street corners, and told to leave the country immediately.{{cite news |last1=Lyons |first1=Kate |title=Racist incidents feared to be linked to Brexit result |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/jun/26/racist-incidents-feared-to-be-linked-to-brexit-result-reported-in-england-and-wales |access-date=26 June 2016 |work=The Guardian |date=26 June 2016}} All such incidents were widely condemned by politicians and religious leaders.{{cite news |last=Sherwood |first=Harriet|date=27 June 2016 |title=Cameron condemns xenophobic and racist abuse after Brexit vote |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/jun/27/sadiq-khan-muslim-council-britain-warning-of-post-brexit-racism?subid=17310058&CMP=EMCNEWEML6619I2 |newspaper=The Guardian |location=London, UK |access-date=28 June 2016}}

By September 2016, it was reported, according to the LGBT anti-violence charity Galop, that attacks on LGBT people in the United Kingdom had risen by 147% in the three months after the referendum.{{cite news|last1=Townsend|first1=Mark|title=Homophobic attacks in UK rose 147% in three months after Brexit vote|url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2016/oct/08/homophobic-attacks-double-after-brexit-vote|access-date=10 October 2016|work=The Guardian|date=8 October 2016}} However some gay commentators dismissed the claim of a link between Brexit and an increase in attacks on members of the LGBTQ community.{{cite web|url=https://blogs.spectator.co.uk/2016/10/try-turn-whole-life-one-big-hate-crime/|title=Why are some trying to turn life into one big hate-crime?|date=10 October 2016|website=Coffee House|access-date=2 December 2018|archive-date=1 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181201043906/https://blogs.spectator.co.uk/2016/10/try-turn-whole-life-one-big-hate-crime/}}

The killing of a Polish national Arkadiusz Jozwik in Harlow, Essex in August 2016{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-essex-40718651|title=Polish man killed with 'superman punch'|date=25 July 2017|work=BBC News|access-date=27 September 2017}} was widely, but falsely,{{cite news|last1=Gayle|first1=Damien|title=Teenager who killed Polish man with a punch sentenced to three years|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2017/sep/08/teenager-killed-polish-man-arkadiusz-jozwik-harlow-essex-detained|access-date=27 September 2017|work=The Guardian|date=8 September 2017}} speculated to be linked to the Leave result. A BBC Newsnight report by John Sweeney showed an interview with someone who knew the victim who then claimed that Leading Brexit campaigner Nigel Farage had "blood on his hands".{{Citation|last=BBC Newsnight|title=Harlow: A town in shock over killing of Arkadiusz Jozwik – BBC Newsnight|date=1 September 2016|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x8CSVCAIayc|access-date=27 September 2017}} It was mentioned in the European Parliament by the EU Commissioner Jean-Claude Juncker who said: "We Europeans can never accept Polish workers being harassed, beaten up or even murdered on the streets of Harlow."{{Cite news|url=https://news.sky.com/story/polish-ex-mp-juncker-right-to-raise-essex-hate-crime-murder-10578278|title=Polish ex-MP: Juncker right to raise Essex 'hate crime' murder|publisher=Sky News|access-date=27 September 2017}} A teenager was subsequently convicted of manslaughter and sentenced to three and a half years in a young offender institution but the trial did not conclude that the altercation resulting in Jozwik's death was a hate crime. Nigel Farage criticised the "sensationalist" reporting of the issue and complained to the BBC about broadcasting the "blood on his hands" remark.{{Cite news|url=http://talkradio.co.uk/news/nigel-farage-blood-his-hands-controversy-media-monitor-blasts-sensationalist-bbc-17091318463|title=Nigel Farage 'blood on his hands' controversy: Media monitor blasts 'sensationalist' BBC|access-date=27 September 2017}}{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/09/19/bbcs-slur-has-caused-family-misery/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/09/19/bbcs-slur-has-caused-family-misery/ |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=The BBC's slur has caused my family misery|last=Farage|first=Nigel|date=19 September 2017|work=The Daily Telegraph|access-date=27 September 2017|issn=0307-1235}}{{cbignore}}

File:Manchester anti-Brexit protest for Conservative conference, October 1, 2017 IMG 2869.jpg in October 2017]]

Within hours of the result's announcement, a petition, entitled "EU Referendum Rules triggering a 2nd EU Referendum" and calling for a second referendum to be held in the event that a result was secured with less than 60% of the vote and on a turnout of less than 75%, attracted tens of thousands of new signatures. The petition had actually been initiated by someone favouring an exit from the EU, one William Oliver Healey of the English Democrats on 24 May 2016, when the Remain faction had been leading in the polls, and had received 22 signatures prior to the referendum result being declared.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-eu-referendum-36634407 |title=Second EU referendum petition investigated for fraud |work=BBC News |date=26 June 2016 |access-date=26 June 2016}}{{cite news|first=Chris |last=York |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/william-oliver-healey-referendum-petition_uk_576f8b28e4b0232d331e1b39 |title=Second EU Referendum Petition Started By Leave Voter William Oliver Healey |work=HuffPost |publisher=Verizon |date=26 June 2016 |access-date=26 June 2016}}{{cite news|first=Clive |last=Coleman |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-uk-leaves-the-eu-36671629 |title=Can the law stop Brexit? |work=BBC News |date=30 June 2016 |access-date=2 July 2016}} On 26 June, Healey made it clear on his Facebook page that the petition had actually been started to favour an exit from the EU and that he was a strong supporter of the Vote Leave and Grassroots Out campaigns. Healey also claimed that the petition had been "hijacked by the remain campaign".

{{cite web |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/brexit-referendum/brexit-redux-petition-second-eu-vote-hits-3-million-signatures-n599156 |title=Brexit Redux? Petition for Second EU Vote Hits 3 Million Signatures |last=Marker |first=Christina |date=26 June 2016 |work=NBC News |access-date=26 June 2016 |quote=In an ironic twist, it emerged Sunday that the petition's creator was in fact in favor of so-called Brexit. In a message posted to Facebook, William Oliver Healey sought to distance himself from the petition, saying it had been hijacked by those in favor of remaining in the EU.}} English Democrats chairman Robin Tilbrook suggested those who had signed the petition were experiencing "sour grapes" about the result of the referendum.{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/06/26/europe/uk-second-referendum-petition/ |title=Brexit: Petition calling for second EU vote was created by Leave backer |first=Tim |last=Hume |publisher=CNN |access-date=26 June 2016}} It attracted more than four million signatures, meaning it was considered for debate in Parliament;{{cite news|first=Christopher |last=Hooton |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/brexit-petition-for-second-eu-referendum-so-popular-the-government-sites-crashing-a7099996.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220501/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/brexit-petition-for-second-eu-referendum-so-popular-the-government-sites-crashing-a7099996.html |archive-date=1 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Brexit: Petition for second EU referendum so popular the government site's crashing |newspaper=The Independent |publisher=Independent Print Limited |date=24 June 2016 |access-date=24 June 2016}}{{cbignore}}{{cite news|first=Adam |last=Boult |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/06/24/petition-for-second-eu-referendum-attracts-thousands-of-signatur/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/06/24/petition-for-second-eu-referendum-attracts-thousands-of-signatur/ |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Petition for second EU referendum attracts thousands of signatures |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph |date=26 June 2016 |access-date=26 June 2016}}{{cbignore}}

this debate took place on 5 September 2016.{{cite web|url=http://parliamentlive.tv/Event/Index/cb2f33f6-f9fe-463e-a6d5-40eca4b614c0|title=Parliamentlive.tv|publisher=parliamentlive.tv |date=5 September 2016 |access-date=9 September 2016}}

On 27 June 2016, David Cameron's spokesperson stated that holding another vote on Britain's membership of the European Union was "not remotely on the cards".{{cite news |first=Charlie |last=Cooper |title=David Cameron rules out second EU referendum after Brexit |date=27 June 2016 |newspaper=The Independent |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/brexit-what-is-eu-referendum-petition-david-cameron-a7105596.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220501/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/brexit-what-is-eu-referendum-petition-david-cameron-a7105596.html |archive-date=1 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=28 June 2016}}{{cbignore}} Home Secretary Theresa May made the following comment when announcing her candidacy to replace Cameron as Conservative leader (and hence as Prime Minister) on 30 June: "The campaign was fought ... and the public gave their verdict. There must be no attempts to remain inside the EU ... and no second referendum. ... Brexit means Brexit."{{cite news |author= |title=Theresa May's Tory Leadership Launch Statement |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/theresa-mays-tory-leadership-launch-statement-full-text-a7111026.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220501/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/theresa-mays-tory-leadership-launch-statement-full-text-a7111026.html |archive-date=1 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |newspaper=The Independent |date=30 June 2016 |access-date=30 June 2016}}{{cbignore}} The petition was rejected by the government on 9 July. Its response said that the referendum vote "must be respected" and that the government "must now prepare for the process to exit the EU".{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-36754376 |title=Brexit: Petition for second EU referendum rejected |date=9 July 2016 |work=BBC News |access-date=9 July 2016}}

{{further|2016 Conservative Party leadership election}}

File:David Cameron announces resignation.jpg announced his resignation following the outcome of the referendum.]]

File:Theresa May in Tallin crop.jpg succeeded David Cameron as Prime Minister following the vote.]]

On 24 June, the Conservative Party leader and Prime Minister David Cameron announced that he would resign by October because the Leave campaign had been successful in the referendum. The leadership election was scheduled for 9 September. The new leader would be in place before the autumn conference set to begin on 2 October.{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-36640889 |title=New Tory leader 'should be in place by 9 September' |author= |date=28 June 2016 |work=BBC News |access-date=29 June 2016}} Unexpectedly, Boris Johnson, who had been a leading figure for Vote Leave, declined to be nominated shortly before the deadline for nominations. On 13 July, almost three weeks after the vote, Theresa May succeeded Cameron as Prime Minister.

{{further|2016 Labour Party leadership election (UK)}}

The Labour Party leader Jeremy Corbyn faced growing criticism from his party, which had supported remaining within the EU, for poor campaigning.{{cite web|url=http://news.sky.com/story/1716177/labour-out-votes-heap-pressure-on-corbyn|title=Labour 'Out' Votes Heap Pressure on Corbyn|work=Sky News }} On 26 June 2016, Corbyn sacked Hilary Benn (the shadow foreign secretary) for apparently leading a coup against him. This led to a string of Labour MPs quickly resigning their roles in the party.{{cite news|title=Labour in crisis: Tom Watson criticises Hilary Benn sacking|work=The Guardian|author=Asthana A|author2=Syal, R.|access-date=26 June 2016|date=26 June 2016|url=https://www.msn.com/en-gb/news/uknews/labour-in-crisis-tom-watson-criticises-hilary-benn-sacking/ar-AAhDKv3?li=BBoPWjQ&ocid=SL5MDHP|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160813144637/http://www.msn.com/en-gb/news/uknews/labour-in-crisis-tom-watson-criticises-hilary-benn-sacking/ar-AAhDKv3?li=BBoPWjQ&ocid=SL5MDHP|archive-date=13 August 2016}}{{cite news |title=Jeremy Corbyn's new-look shadow cabinet |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/06/28/labour-crisis-vote-jeremy-corbyn-leadership-david-cameron-brexit/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/06/28/labour-crisis-vote-jeremy-corbyn-leadership-david-cameron-brexit/ |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph |location=London, UK |date=27 June 2016 |access-date=28 June 2016}}{{cbignore}} A no confidence motion was held on 28 June; Corbyn lost the motion with more than 80% (172) of MPs voting against him.{{cite news|title=Jeremy Corbyn Loses Vote of No Confidence|publisher=Sky News|date=28 June 2016|access-date=28 June 2016|url=https://www.msn.com/en-gb/news/uknews/jeremy-corbyn-loses-vote-of-no-confidence/ar-AAhJ3KO?li=BBoPWjQ&ocid=SL5MDHP|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160701173053/http://www.msn.com/en-gb/news/uknews/jeremy-corbyn-loses-vote-of-no-confidence/ar-AAhJ3KO?li=BBoPWjQ&ocid=SL5MDHP|archive-date=1 July 2016}} Corbyn responded with a statement that the motion had no "constitutional legitimacy" and that he intended to continue as the party's leader. The vote did not require the party to call a leadership election{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-eu-wrapup-idUSKCN0ZE11Y |title=EU leaders tell Britain to exit swiftly, market rout halts |last1=Holden |first1=Michael |last2=Piper |first2=Elizabeth |date=28 June 2016 |work=Reuters |access-date=28 June 2016 |quote=the confidence vote does not automatically trigger a leadership election and Corbyn, who says he enjoys strong grassroots support, refused to quit. 'I was democratically elected leader of our party for a new kind of politics by 60 per cent of Labour members and supporters, and I will not betray them by resigning,' he said.}} but after Angela Eagle and Owen Smith launched leadership challenges to Corbyn, the 2016 Labour Party leadership election was triggered. Corbyn won the contest, with a larger share of the vote than in 2015.

On 4 July 2016 Nigel Farage stood down as the leader of UKIP, stating that his "political ambition has been achieved" following the result of the referendum.{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-36702468 |title=UKIP leader Nigel Farage stands down |work=BBC News |date=4 July 2016|access-date=4 July 2016}} Following the resignation of the party leader Diane James, Farage became an interim leader on 5 October 2016.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-37561065|title=Nigel Farage steps back in at UKIP as Diane James quits|work=BBC News|date=5 October 2016|access-date=18 October 2016}} He was succeeded by Paul Nuttall on 28 November 2016.

{{Main|Proposed second Scottish independence referendum}}

Scottish First Minister Nicola Sturgeon said on 24 June 2016 that it was "clear that the people of Scotland see their future as part of the European Union" and that Scotland had "spoken decisively" with a "strong, unequivocal" vote to remain in the European Union.{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-36615177|title=EU referendum: Sturgeon says Scotland sees its future in European Union|website=BBC Scotland|date=24 June 2016|access-date=26 March 2018}} On the same day, the Scottish Government announced that officials would plan for a "highly likely" second referendum on independence from the United Kingdom and start preparing legislation to that effect.{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/brexit-referendum/scotland-could-seek-independence-again-after-u-k-brexit-vote-n598166|title='Brexit' Triggers New Bid for Scottish Independence|work=NBC News|last=Jamieson|first=Alastair|date=24 June 2016}} Former First Minister Alex Salmond said that the vote was a "significant and material change" in Scotland's position within the United Kingdom, and that he was certain his party would implement its manifesto on holding a second referendum.{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/jun/24/alex-salmond-second-scottish-independence-referendum-is-certain|title=Nicola Sturgeon prepares for second Scottish independence poll|first=Severin|last=Carrell|website=TheGuardian.com|date=24 June 2016}} Sturgeon said she will communicate to all EU member states that "Scotland has voted to stay in the EU and I intend to discuss all options for doing so."{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/live/2016/jun/23/eu-referendum-result-live-counting-leave-remain-brain-in-europe|title=Nicola Sturgeon says second Scottish referendum 'highly likely' – as it happened|date=24 June 2016|work=The Guardian}}

In reaction to the lack of a unified pro-EU voice following the referendum, the Liberal Democrats and others discussed the launch of a new centre-left political movement.{{cite news|last=Wintour|first=Patrick|title=Liberals, celebrities and EU supporters set up progressive movement|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/jul/19/liberals-celebrities-and-eu-supporters-set-up-progressive-movement|access-date=24 July 2016|date=19 July 2016}} This was officially launched on 24 July 2016 as More United.{{cite news|last=Shead|first=Sam|title=Paddy Ashdown has launched a tech-driven political startup called More United that will crowdfund MPs across all parties|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/paddy-ashdown-has-launched-a-tech-driven-political-startup-called-more-united-2016-7|access-date=24 July 2016|date=24 July 2016|work=Business Insider UK}}

{{main|Economic effects of Brexit}}

On the morning of 24 June, the pound sterling fell to its lowest level against the US dollar since 1985.{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/live/uk-politics-36570120|title=Corbyn ballot challenge ruling & Boris Johnson in Paris talks|work=BBC News }} The drop over the day was 8% – the biggest one-day fall in the pound since the introduction of floating exchange rates following the collapse of the Bretton Woods system in 1971.{{cite news |last= McGeever |first= Jamie |date= 7 July 2016|title= Sterling's post-Brexit fall is biggest loss in a hard currency|url= https://uk.reuters.com/article/us-britain-markets-sterling/sterlings-post-brexit-fall-is-biggest-loss-in-a-hard-currency-idUKKCN0ZN1R0 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171013013239/https://uk.reuters.com/article/us-britain-markets-sterling/sterlings-post-brexit-fall-is-biggest-loss-in-a-hard-currency-idUKKCN0ZN1R0 |archive-date= 13 October 2017 |access-date=9 October 2017}}

The FTSE 100 initially fell 8%, then recovered to be 3% down by the close of trading on 24 June.{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-36611512|title=Pound plunges after Leave vote|date=24 June 2016|work=BBC News}} The FTSE 100 index fully recovered by 29 June and subsequently rose above its pre-referendum levels.{{cite news|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-stocks-idUKKCN0ZK0I7|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160705141328/http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-stocks-idUKKCN0ZK0I7|archive-date=5 July 2016|title=FTSE 100 rises to build on post-Brexit recovery|author=Sudip Kar-Gupta|date=4 July 2016|access-date=4 July 2016|work=Reuters}}

The referendum result also had an immediate impact on some other countries. The South African rand experienced its largest single-day decline since 2008, dropping over 8% against the United States dollar.{{cite news | url=http://www.iol.co.za/business/markets/currencies/rand-slumps-more-than-8-against-dollar-2038150 | title=Rand slumps more than 8% against dollar | agency=Reuters | date=24 June 2016 | access-date=26 June 2016}}{{cite news | url=http://qz.com/715710/brexit-could-be-terrible-for-africas-largest-economies/ | title=Brexit will be terrible for Africa's largest economies | work=Quartz | date=24 June 2016 | access-date=26 June 2016 |author=Kuo, Lily |author2=Kazeem, Yomi}} Other countries affected included Canada, whose stock exchange fell 1.70%,{{cite news | url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/business/brexit-vote-business-impact-1.3650553 | title=Loonie loses more than a penny, TSX sheds 239 points after Britons vote to quit EU | publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation | date=24 June 2016 | access-date=26 June 2016 | author=Evans, Pete}} Nigeria and Kenya.

On 28 June 2016, former governor of Bank of England Mervyn King said that current governor Mark Carney would help to guide Britain through the next few months, adding that the BOE would undoubtedly lower the temperature of the post-referendum uncertainty, and that British citizens should keep calm, wait and see.{{cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-06-28/king-says-carney-calm-will-guide-u-k-through-brexit-uncertainty|title=King Says Carney Calm Will Guide U.K. Through Brexit Uncertainty|publisher=Bloomberg|date=28 June 2016|access-date=26 December 2016}}

On 5 January 2017, Andy Haldane, chief economist and the executive director of monetary analysis and statistics at the Bank of England, admitted that the bank's forecasts (predicting an economic downturn should the referendum favour Brexit) had proved inaccurate given the subsequent strong market performance. He stated that the bank's models "were rather narrow and fragile [and] ill-equipped to making sense of behaviours that were deeply irrational" and said that his "profession is to some degree in crisis" due to this and the unforeseen 2007{{ndash}}2008 crisis.{{cite news | last1=Inman | first1=Phillip | title=Chief Economist of Bank of England Admits Errors in Brexit Forecasting | url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2017/jan/05/chief-economist-of-bank-of-england-admits-errors | date=5 January 2017 | newspaper=The Guardian | access-date=18 January 2017}}{{cite news | last1=Swinford | first1=Steven | title=Bank of England Admits 'Michael Fish' Moment with Dire Brexit Predictions | url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/01/05/bank-england-admits-michael-fish-moment-dire-brexit-predictions/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/01/05/bank-england-admits-michael-fish-moment-dire-brexit-predictions/ |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live | date=6 January 2017 | newspaper=The Daily Telegraph | access-date=18 January 2017}}{{cbignore}}

In August 2016, the Electoral Reform Society published a highly critical report on the referendum and called for a review of how future events are run. Contrasting it very unfavourably with the 'well-informed grassroots' campaign for Scottish independence, Katie Ghose described it as "dire" with "glaring democratic deficiencies" which left voters bewildered. Ghose noted a generally negative response to establishment figures with 29% of voters saying David Cameron made them more likely to vote leave whereas only 14% said he made them want to vote remain. Looking ahead, the society called for an official organisation to highlight misleading claims and for Office of Communications (Ofcom) to define the role that broadcasters were expected to play.{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/sep/01/electoral-reform-campaigners-slam-dire-eu-referendum-debate|title=Electoral reform campaigners slam 'dire' EU referendum debate |work=Guardian newspapers|author=Rajeev Syal|date=1 September 2016|access-date=1 September 2016}}

The BBC, ITV and Sky News all provided live coverage of the counts and the reaction to the result. The BBC's coverage, presented by David Dimbleby, Laura Kuenssberg and John Curtice, was simulcast domestically on BBC One and the BBC News Channel, and internationally on BBC World News. ITV's coverage was presented by Tom Bradby, Robert Peston and Allegra Stratton.

The BBC called the referendum result for Leave with its projected forecast at 04:40 BST on 24 June. David Dimbleby announced it with the words:

{{cquote|Well, at twenty minutes to five, we can now say the decision taken in 1975 by this country to join the Common Market has been reversed by this referendum to leave the EU. We are absolutely clear now that there is no way that the Remain side can win. It looks as if the gap is going to be something like 52 to 48, so a four-point lead for leaving the EU, and that is the result of this referendum, which has been preceded by weeks and months of argument and dispute and all the rest of it. The British people have spoken and the answer is: we're out!}}

(The remark about 1975 was technically incorrect; the UK had joined the Common Market in 1973 and the 1975 referendum was on whether to remain in it.)

{{main|Allegations of unlawful campaigning in the 2016 EU referendum}}

File:Cambridge Analytica protest Parliament Square1.jpg allegations, 29 March 2018]]

On 9 May 2016, Leave.EU was fined £50,000 by the UK Information Commissioner's Office 'for failing to follow the rules about sending marketing messages': they sent people text messages without having first gained their permission to do so.'[https://ico.org.uk/media/action-weve-taken/mpns/1624135/mpn-better-for-the-country-20160509.pdf Data Protection Act 1998 Supervisory Powers of the Information Commissioner Monetary Penalty Notice] (9 May 2016).{{cite web |title=EU campaign firm fined for sending spam texts |url=https://ico.org.uk/about-the-ico/news-and-events/news-and-blogs/2016/05/eu-campaign-firm-fined-for-sending-spam-texts/ |publisher=Information Commissioner's Office |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705124856/https://ico.org.uk/about-the-ico/news-and-events/news-and-blogs/2016/05/eu-campaign-firm-fined-for-sending-spam-texts/ |archive-date=5 July 2017 |date=11 May 2016 }}

In February 2017, the Electoral Commission announced that it was investigating the spending of Stronger in and Vote Leave, along with smaller parties, as they had not submitted all the necessary invoices, receipts, or details to back up their accounts.[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/02/24/election-watchdog-probes-spending-eu-referendum-campaign-groups/ Election watchdog probes spending by EU referendum campaign groups], The Daily Telegraph (24 February 2017). In April 2017, the Commission specified that 'there were reasonable grounds to suspect that potential offences under the law may have occurred' in relation to Leave.EU.[http://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/i-am-a/journalist/electoral-commission-media-centre/news-releases-referendums/electoral-commission-statement-on-investigation-into-leave.eu Electoral Commission statement on investigation into Leave.EU], Electoral Commission (21 April 2017).

On 4 March 2017, the Information Commissioner's Office also reported that it was 'conducting a wide assessment of the data-protection risks arising from the use of data analytics, including for political purposes' in relation to the Brexit campaign. It was specified that among the organisations to be investigated was Cambridge Analytica and its relationship with the Leave.EU campaign.Jamie Doward, Carole Cadwalladr and Alice Gibbs, '[https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/mar/04/cambridge-analytics-data-brexit-trump Watchdog to launch inquiry into misuse of data in politics]', The Observer (4 March 2017).Carole Cadwalladr, '[https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/may/07/the-great-british-brexit-robbery-hijacked-democracy The great British Brexit robbery: how our democracy was hijacked]', The Observer (Sunday 7 May 2017).

File:Investigation into the use of data analytics in political campaigns.pdf

In May 2017, The Irish Times reported that £425,622 donated by the Constitutional Research Council to the Democratic Unionist Party for spending during the referendum may have originated in Saudi Arabia.O'Toole, Fintan (16 May 2017) [https://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/what-connects-brexit-the-dup-dark-money-and-a-saudi-prince-1.3083586 "What connects Brexit, the DUP, dark money and a Saudi prince?"]. The Irish Times.

In November 2017, the Electoral Commission said that it was investigating allegations that Arron Banks, an insurance businessman and the largest single financial supporter of Brexit, violated campaign spending laws.Henry Mance, [https://www.ft.com/content/308043a6-c026-382a-9e4a-5e694a89dd72 Brexit-backer Arron Banks to be investigated over campaign spending], Financial Times (1 November 2017). The commission's investigation focuses on both Banks and Better for the Country Limited, a company of which Banks is a director and majority shareholder.Holly Watt, [https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/nov/01/electoral-commission-to-investigate-arron-banks-brexit-donations-eu-referendum Electoral Commission to investigate Arron Banks' Brexit donations: Watchdog to consider whether leave campaigner broke campaign finance rules in run-up to EU referendum], The Guardian (1 November 2017). The company donated £2.4 million to groups supporting British withdrawal from the EU. The investigation began after the Commission found "initial grounds to suspect breaches of electoral law".Henry Mance, [https://www.ft.com/content/8d532c46-beff-11e7-b8a3-38a6e068f464 Arron Banks investigated for Brexit campaign spending], Financial Times (1 November 2017). The Commission specifically seeks to determine "whether or not Mr Banks was the true source of loans reported by a referendum campaigner in his name" and "whether or not Better for the Country Limited was the true source of donations made to referendum campaigners in its name, or if it was acting as an agent".

In December 2017, the Electoral Commission announced several fines related to breaches of campaign finance rules during the referendum campaign.Maidment, Jack (19 December 2017) [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/12/19/liberal-democrats-fined-18000-breaching-campaign-finance-rules/amp/ "Liberal Democrats fined £18,000 for breaching campaign finance rules relating to EU referendum"]. The Daily Telegraph. The Liberal Democrats were fined £18,000 and Open Britain (formerly Britain Stronger in Europe) paid £1,250 in fines. The maximum possible fine was £20,000.

In March 2018, Deutsche Welle reported that Canadian whistleblower Christopher Wylie "told UK lawmakers during a committee hearing...that a firm linked to Cambridge Analytica helped the official Vote Leave campaign [the official pro-Brexit group headed by Boris Johnson and Michael Gove] circumvent campaign financing laws during the Brexit referendum"."[http://www.dw.com/en/what-role-did-cambridge-analytica-play-in-the-brexit-vote/a-43151460 What role did Cambridge Analytica play in the Brexit vote?]". Deutsche Welle. 27 March 2018.

In May 2018, the Electoral Commission fined Leave.EU £70,000 for unlawfully overspending by a minimum of £77,380 – exceeding the statutory spending limit by more than 10%, inaccurately reporting three loans it had received from Aaron Banks totalling £6 million including "a lack of transparency and incorrect reporting around who provided the loans, the dates the loans were entered into, the repayment date and the interest rate", and failing to provide the required invoices for "97 payments of over £200, totalling £80,224". The Electoral Commission's director of political finance and regulation and legal counsel said that the "level of fine we have imposed has been constrained by the cap on the commission's fines".{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/may/11/leaveeu-fined-70k-breaches-of-electoral-law-eu-referendum|title=Leave.EU fined £70k over breaches of electoral law|last=Weaver|first=Matthew|date=11 May 2018|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=11 May 2018}}[https://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/i-am-a/journalist/electoral-commission-media-centre/party-and-election-finance-to-keep/leave.eu-fined-for-multiple-breaches-of-electoral-law-following-investigation "Leave.EU fined for multiple breaches of electoral law following investigation"]. The Electoral Commission. 11 May 2018 In the same month, the Electoral Commission issued a £2,000 fine to the pro-EU campaign group Best for Our Future Limited; it also fined Unison £1,500 for inaccurately reporting a donation to Best for Our Future and failing to pay an invoice; and it fined GMB £500 for inaccurately reporting a donation to Best for Our Future.[https://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/i-am-a/journalist/electoral-commission-media-centre/news-releases-donations/campaigners-and-political-parties-fined-for-breaching-political-finance-rules "Campaigners and political parties fined for breaching political finance rules"]{{Dead link|date=January 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. The Electoral Commission. 15 May 2018

In July 2018, the Electoral Commission fined Vote Leave £61,000 for not declaring £675,000 incurred under a common plan with BeLeave, unlawfully overspending by £449,079, inaccurately reporting 43 items of spending totalling £236,501, failing to provide the required invoices for "8 payments of over £200, totalling £12,850", and failing to comply with an investigation notice issued by the commission. Darren Grimes representing BeLeave was fined £20,000, the maximum permitted individual fine, for exceeding its spending limit as an unregistered campaigner by more than £660,000 and delivering an inaccurate and incomplete spending return. Veterans for Britain was also fined £250 for inaccurately reporting a donation it received from Vote Leave.[https://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/i-am-a/journalist/electoral-commission-media-centre/party-and-election-finance-to-keep/vote-leave-fined-and-referred-to-the-police-for-breaking-electoral-law "Vote Leave fined and referred to the police for breaking electoral law"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190729202449/https://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/i-am-a/journalist/electoral-commission-media-centre/party-and-election-finance-to-keep/vote-leave-fined-and-referred-to-the-police-for-breaking-electoral-law |date=29 July 2019 }}. The Electoral Commission. 17 July 2018 The Electoral Commission referred the matter to the police. On 14 September 2018, following a High Court of Justice case, the court found that Vote Leave had received incorrect advice from the UK Electoral Commission, but confirmed that the overspending had been illegal. Vote Leave subsequently said they would not have paid it without the advice.{{cite news|last=Smout|first=Alistair|title=UK court rules against electoral watchdog in Brexit spending row|url=https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-eu-voteleave/uk-court-rules-against-electoral-watchdog-in-brexit-spending-row-idUKKCN1LU1HS|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180914133702/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-eu-voteleave/uk-court-rules-against-electoral-watchdog-in-brexit-spending-row-idUKKCN1LU1HS|archive-date=14 September 2018|date=14 September 2018|work=Reuters|access-date=1 October 2018}}{{cite news|last=Coates|first=Sam|title=Electoral Commission suffers High Court defeat over Brexit expenses advice|url=https://www.thetimes.com/uk/crime/article/electoral-commission-suffers-high-court-defeat-over-brexit-expenses-advice-jhnx7hpf6|date=15 September 2018|newspaper=The Times|access-date=1 October 2018}}

In February 2019, the Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Select Committee's 18-month investigation into disinformation and fake news published its final report,{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2019/feb/18/facebook-fake-news-investigation-report-regulation-privacy-law-dcms|title=Facebook labelled 'digital gangsters' by report on fake news |first=David |last=Pegg |date=18 February 2019 |access-date=18 February 2019 |work=The Guardian}} calling for an inquiry to establish, in relation to the referendum, "what actually happened with regard to foreign influence, disinformation, funding, voter manipulation, and the sharing of data, so that appropriate changes to the law can be made and lessons can be learnt for future elections and referenda".{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/brexit-vote-investigate-law-breaking-influence-manipulation-theresa-may-facebook-a8783746.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220501/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/brexit-vote-investigate-law-breaking-influence-manipulation-theresa-may-facebook-a8783746.html |archive-date=1 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Theresa May must investigate 'foreign influence and voter manipulation' in Brexit vote, say MPs |date=18 February 2019 |newspaper=The Independent |access-date=18 February 2019}}{{cbignore}}

{{Main|Russian interference in the 2016 Brexit referendum}}

In the run-up to the Brexit referendum, Russian President Vladimir Putin refrained from taking a public position on Brexit,{{cite news |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922081138/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-eu-referendum-36461020 |url-status=live |title=EU referendum: Would Brexit make Putin happy? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-eu-referendum-36461020 |work=BBC News |date=7 June 2016}} but Prime Minister David Cameron suggested that "Putin might be happy" with Britain leaving the EU,{{cite news |first=Vince |last=Chadwick |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/david-cameron-isil-happy-brexit-news-vladmir-putin-isis-islamic-state-eu/ |title=David Cameron: Putin and ISIL would be happy with Brexit |website=politico.eu |date=17 May 2016 |access-date=22 September 2023 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922080220/https://www.politico.eu/article/david-cameron-isil-happy-brexit-news-vladmir-putin-isis-islamic-state-eu/ |url-status=live |quote="Who would be happy if we left?" Cameron asked the audience during a World Economic Forum event in London. "Putin might be happy.}} while the Remain campaign accused the Kremlin of secretly backing a "Leave" vote in the referendum.{{cite news |first=Steve |last=Rosenberg |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-36629146 |title=EU referendum: What does Russia gain from Brexit? |publisher=BBC News |date=26 June 2016 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922080958/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-36629146 |url-status=live}} Russian Foreign Ministry spokesperson Maria Zakharova denied these allegations, saying that "Russia is blamed for everything. Not only in the UK but all over the world. (...) But Russia has nothing to do with Brexit at all. We're not involved in this process." Steve Rosenberg, the Moscow correspondent for BBC News, suggested on 26 June 2016 that the Russian government stood to gain from Brexit in several ways: (1) enabling Russian state media "to contrast post-referendum upheaval and uncertainty abroad with a picture of 'stability' back home and images of a 'strong' President Putin at the helm" in a way that bolstered the ruling United Russia party; (2) to place the value of the British pound under pressure and thereby exact retaliation for sanctions against Russia imposed after its occupation of Crimea; (3) to "make the European Union more friendly towards Russia" in the absence of British membership; and (4) to force the resignation of Cameron, who had been critical of Russian actions. After the referendum result Putin said that Brexit brought "positives and negatives".

In December 2016, MP Ben Bradshaw speculated in Parliament that Russia may have interfered in the referendum.{{cite news |first=Joe |last=Watts |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/russian-interference-brexit-highly-probable-referendum-hacking-putin-a7472706.html |title=Highly probable' that Russia interfered in Brexit referendum, Labour MP says |work=The Independent |date=13 December 2016 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922082322/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/russian-interference-brexit-highly-probable-referendum-hacking-putin-a7472706.html |url-status=live}} In February 2017, he called on the GCHQ intelligence service to reveal the information it had on Russian interference.{{cite news |first1=Jake |last1=Kanter |first2=Adam |last2=Bienkov |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/labour-mp-ben-bradshaw-suspicious-russian-interference-brexit-2017-2?op=1 |title=Labour MPs think the government is hiding info about Russia interfering with Brexit|url-access=subscription |publisher=Business Insider |date=23 February 2016}} In April 2017, the House of Commons Public Administration and Constitutional Affairs Select Committee (PACAC) issued a report suggesting that there were technical indications that a June 2016 crash of the voter-registration website was caused by a distributed denial-of-service attack using botnets.{{cite news |first=Rajeev |last=Syal |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/apr/12/foreign-states-may-have-interfered-in-brexit-vote-report-says |title=Brexit: foreign states may have interfered in vote, report says |work=The Guardian |date=12 April 2017 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922082952/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/apr/12/foreign-states-may-have-interfered-in-brexit-vote-report-says}} The Cabinet Office, in response, stated that it did not believe that "malign intervention" had caused the crash, and instead attributed the crash "to a spike in users just before the registration deadline".

In October 2017, MP Damian Collins, chairman of the House of Commons Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee, sent a letter to Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg requesting documents relating to possible Russian government manipulation of Facebook during the Brexit referendum and the general election the following year.{{cite news|first=Joseph|last=Cox|url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/britain-requests-facebooks-russian-ad-data-from-run-up-to-brexit-election|title=Britain Requests Facebook's Russian Ad Data From Run-Up to Brexit, Election|date=24 October 2017|newspaper=The Daily Beast}}

In October 2017, a study by researchers at City, University of London was published in the journal Social Science Computer Review. The article identified 13,493 Twitter accounts that posted a total of about 65,000 messages in the last four weeks of the Brexit referendum campaign, the vast majority campaigning for a "Leave" vote; they were deleted shortly after the referendum.{{cite news|first=David D. |last=Kirkpatrick |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/03/world/europe/uk-twitter-russia-brexit.html |url-access=subscription |title=Parliament Asks Twitter About Russian Meddling in Brexit Vote |work=The New York Times |date=3 November 2017}}{{cite news |url=https://www.citystgeorges.ac.uk/news-and-events/news/2017/10/13500-strong-twitter-bot-army-disappeared-shortly-after-eu-referendum-research-reveals|title=13,500-strong Twitter bot army disappeared shortly after EU referendum, research reveals |work=City |location=University of London Northampton Square |date=20 October 2017}} A further 26,538 Twitter accounts suddenly changed their username. The research findings "raised questions about the possibility that a coordinated 'bot army' was deployed, and also about the possibility that Twitter itself may have detected and removed them without disclosing the manipulation".

In November 2017, the Electoral Commission told The Times that it had launched an inquiry to "examine the growing role of social media in election campaigns amid concerns from the intelligence and security agencies that Russia is trying to destabilise the democratic process in Britain".{{cite news |first1=Oliver |last1=Wright |first2=Lucy |last2=Fisher |first3=Sean |last3=O'Neill |url=https://www.thetimes.com/business-money/money/article/watchdog-starts-inquiry-into-russia-brexit-links-lnf7h86t0 |title=Watchdog starts inquiry into Russia Brexit links |work=The Times |date=2 November 2017|url-access=subscription}} The commission was in contact with Facebook and Twitter as part of the inquiry.

According to Facebook, Russian-based operatives spent 97 cents to place three adverts on the social network in the run-up to the referendum, which were viewed 200 times.{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-eu-facebook/facebook-says-russian-linked-accounts-spent-just-97-cents-on-ads-over-brexit-idUSKBN1E72AL|title=Facebook says Russian-linked accounts spent just 97 cents on ads over Brexit|date=13 December 2017|work=Reuters|access-date=22 December 2017 |first1=Kate |last1=Holton |first2=Paul |last2=Sandle |editor-first=Stephen |editor-last=Addison |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922085445/https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-eu-facebook/facebook-says-russian-linked-accounts-spent-just-97-cents-on-ads-over-brexit-idUSKBN1E72AL |archive-date=22 September 2023 |url-status=live}}

On 10 June 2018, The Guardian reported that investigators from The Observer had seen evidence that Leave.EU funder Arron Banks had met Russian officials "multiple times" from 2015 to 2017 and had discussed "a multibillion dollar opportunity to buy Russian goldmines".{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/jun/09/arron-banks-russia-brexit-meeting|last1=Cadwalladr|first1=Carole|last2=Jukes|first2=Peter|title=Arron Banks 'met Russian officials multiple times before Brexit vote'|date=10 June 2018|work=The Guardian|access-date=12 June 2018}}

In July 2020, the Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament published a report on Russian interference in British politics, which concluded that the government "had not seen or sought evidence of successful interference in UK democratic processes" and criticised the government for failing to conduct an assessment of Russian attempts to interfere in the Brexit referendum.{{cite news |first1=Dan |last1=Sabbagh |first2=Luke |last2=Harding |first3=Andrew |last3=Roth |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jul/21/russia-report-reveals-uk-government-failed-to-address-kremlin-interference-scottish-referendum-brexit |title=Russia report reveals UK government failed to investigate Kremlin interference |work=The Guardian |date=21 July 2020 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922084522/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jul/21/russia-report-reveals-uk-government-failed-to-address-kremlin-interference-scottish-referendum-brexit |url-status=live}} Three months later, Information Commissioner Elizabeth Denham, who had decided to look into potential unlawful marketing involving repurposing of data during the referendum, produced her final report. She concluded that she had found no evidence of Russian involvement in the referendum.{{cite news|url=https://www.thetimes.com/uk/politics/article/the-brexit-data-chancers-fooled-left-and-right-alike-lfn60l23h|title=The Brexit data chancers fooled left and right alike|last=Glancy|first=Josh|date=11 October 2020|work=The Times|access-date=23 January 2023|url-access=subscription}}{{cite news|url=https://www.ft.com/content/43962679-b1f9-4818-b569-b028a58c8cd2|title=ICO's final report into Cambridge Analytica invites regulatory questions|last=Kaminska|first=Izabella|date=8 October 2020|work=Financial Times|access-date=23 January 2023}}

• 1982 Greenlandic European Communities membership referendum
• 2024 Moldovan European Union membership constitutional referendum
• Acts of Parliament of the United Kingdom relating to the European Communities and the European Union
• Allegations of unlawful campaigning in the 2016 EU referendum
• European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 2) Act 2019
• Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit
• Effect of Brexit on Gibraltar
• European Union Bill 2004–2005
• Law of the European Union
• European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018
• European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2019 ("Cooper–Letwin Act")
• Opinion polling on the United Kingdom's membership of the European Union (2016–2020)
• Potential re-accession of the United Kingdom to the European Union
• Proposed referendum on the Brexit withdrawal agreement
• Referendums in the United Kingdom
• Referendums related to the European Union
• Treaty of Accession 1972

{{Reflist||group=note}}

{{Reflist|30em}}

{{refbegin}}

• {{cite journal | last = George | first = Stephen | title = Britain: anatomy of a Eurosceptic state | journal = Journal of European Integration | volume = 22 | issue = 1 | pages = 15–33 | doi= 10.1080/07036330008429077 | date = January 2000 | s2cid = 143485501 }}
• {{cite journal | last = Usherwood | first = Simon | title = Proximate factors in the mobilization of anti-EU groups in France and the UK: the European Union as first-order politics | journal = Journal of European Integration | volume = 29 | issue = 1 | pages = 3–21 | doi= 10.1080/07036330601144177 | date = March 2007 | s2cid = 144805763 }}
• {{cite journal | last = Emerson | first = Michael | title = The Economics of a Brexit | journal = Intereconomics | volume = 51 | issue = 2 | pages = 46–47 | doi= 10.1007/s10272-016-0574-2 | date = April 2016 | url = http://archive.intereconomics.eu/year/2016/2/the-economics-of-a-brexit/ | doi-access = free | hdl = 10419/141414 | hdl-access = free }}
• LSE Library (March 2017), "[https://digital.library.lse.ac.uk/collections/list/collections/20 Collection of campaigning leaflets from the referendum]"
• [https://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/CBP-7597 Brexit and the UN Security Council]

{{refend}}

• [http://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-7639/CBP-7639.pdf House of Commons Briefings: 2016 European Union Referendum]
• [https://digital.library.lse.ac.uk/collections/list/collections/20 Examples of leaflets used during the referendum campaign]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20160522195834/http://www.aboutmyvote.co.uk/uk-voters Electoral Commission guide to the EU Referendum]
• [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/politics/eu_referendum BBC News – EU Referendum]
• [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b07k08xd BBC Radio 4 Why Did People Vote to Leave]
• [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b07pgw3k BBC Radio 4 How We Voted Brexit]
• [https://www.conservativehome.com/platform/2019/03/lord-ashcroft-how-the-united-kingdom-voted-on-eu-referendum-day-and-why.html How Britain Voted, analysis of poll survey on referendum day, published 17 March 2019]
• [http://theconversation.com/the-un-security-council-in-a-post-brexit-world-france-and-germany-take-the-lead-113078 The UN Security Council in a post-Brexit world: France and Germany take the lead]

{{2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum|state=collapsed}}{{Nigel Farage}}{{David Cameron}}{{Navboxes

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