Abies alba
{{Short description|Species of conifer tree}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Speciesbox
|name = Silver fir
| image = Abies_alba_Wisła_1.jpg
| image_caption = In Silesian Beskids, Poland
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| taxon = Abies alba
| authority = Mill.{{ThePlantList | access-date = 12 October 2016}}
| range_map = Abies alba range.svg
| range_map_caption = Distribution map:
:{{Color box|#70A800}} ✖ Native range and isolated population.
:{{Color box|#FFD37F}} ▲ Introduced and naturalized (synanthropic) area and isolated population.
| synonyms = {{collapsible list|bullets=on
|Abies argentea {{Au|Chambray}}
|Abies baldensis {{Au|(Zuccagni) Zucc. ex Nyman}}
|Abies candicans {{Au|Fisch. ex Endl.}}
|Abies chlorocarpa {{Au|Purk. ex Nyman}}
|Abies duplex {{Au|Hormuz. ex Beissn.}}
|Abies metensis {{Au|Gordon}}
|Abies miniata {{Au|Knight ex Gordon}}
|Abies minor {{Au|Gilib.}}
|Abies nobilis {{Au|A.Dietr.}}
|Abies pardei {{Au|Gaussen}}
|Abies rinzii {{Au|K.Koch}}
|Abies taxifolia {{Au|Duhamel}}
|Abies taxifolia {{Au|Desf.}}
|Abies taxifolia {{Au|Raf.}}
|Abies tenuirifolia {{Au|Beissn.}}
|Abies vulgaris {{Au|Poir.}}
|Peuce abies {{Au|Rich.}}
|Picea kukunaria {{Au|Wender.}}
|Picea metensis {{Au|Gordon}}
|Picea pectinata {{Au|(Lam.) Loudon}}
|Picea pyramidalis {{Au|Gordon}}
|Picea rinzi {{Au|Gordon}}
|Picea tenuifolia {{Au|Beissn.}}
|Pinus baldensis {{Au|Zuccagni}}
|Pinus heterophylla {{Au|K.Koch}}
|Pinus lucida {{Au|Salisb.}}
|Pinus pectinata {{Au|Lam.}}
|Pinus picea {{Au|L.}}}}
}}
Abies alba, the European silver fir or silver fir,{{cite book|title=Simon & Schuster's Guide to Herbs and Spices|editor=Stanley Schuler|isbn=978-0-671-73489-3|author=Gualtiero Simonetti|year=1990|publisher=Simon & Schuster, Inc.|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/simonschustersgu0000simo}} is a fir native to the mountains of Europe, from the Pyrenees north to Normandy, east to the Alps and the Carpathians, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia, and south to Italy, Bulgaria, Kosovo, Albania and northern Greece.
File:European Silver-fir Vallombrosa (FI), Italy.jpg
Description
Abies alba is a large evergreen coniferous tree growing to {{convert|40|–|50|m|abbr=on}} tall and with a trunk diameter up to {{convert|1.5|m|abbr=on}}. The largest measured tree was {{convert|60|m|abbr=on}} tall and had a trunk diameter of {{convert|3.8|m|abbr=on}}. It occurs at altitudes of {{convert|300|-|1700|m|abbr=on}} (mainly over {{convert|500|m|abbr=on}}), on mountains with rainfall over {{convert|1000|mm}} per year.{{cite book|author =Rushforth, K.|year=1987|title=Conifers|publisher=Helm|isbn=0-7470-2801-X}}
The leaves are needle-like, flattened, {{convert|1.8|–|3.0|cm|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|2.0|mm|abbr=on}} wide by {{convert|0.5|mm|abbr=on}} thick, glossy dark green above, and with two greenish-white bands of stomata below. The leaf is usually slightly notched at the tip. The cones are {{convert|9|–|17|cm|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|3|–|4|cm|abbr=on}} broad, with about 150-200 scales, each scale with an exserted bract and two winged seeds; they disintegrate when mature to release the seeds. The wood is white, leading to the species name alba.
In the forest the evergreen tends to form stands with Norway spruce, Scots pine, and European beech. It is closely related to Bulgarian fir (Abies borisii-regis) further to the southeast in the Balkan Peninsula, Spanish fir (Abies pinsapo) of Spain and Morocco and Sicilian fir (Abies nebrodensis) in Sicily, differing from these and other related Euro-Mediterranean firs in the sparser foliage, with the leaves spread either side of the shoot, leaving the shoot readily visible from above. Some botanists treat Bulgarian fir and Sicilian fir as varieties of silver fir, as A. alba var. acutifolia and A. alba var. nebrodensis, respectively.{{cite book| first=Farjon|last= A|year=1990|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=KFuxQgAACAAJ|title=Pinaceae. Drawings and Descriptions of the Genera|publisher=Koeltz Scientific Books| isbn=3-87429-298-3}}
Ecology
Silver fir is an important component species in the dinaric calcareous block fir forest in the western Balkan Peninsula.{{Citation needed|date=August 2011}}
In Italy, the silver fir is an important component of the mixed broadleaved-coniferous forest of the Apennine Mountains, especially in northern Apennine. The fir prefer a cold and humid climate, in northern exposition, with a high rainfall (over 1500 mm per year). In the oriental Alps of Italy, silver firs grow in mixed forests with Norway spruce, beech, and other trees.
Its cone scales are eaten by the caterpillars of the tortrix moth Cydia illutana, while C. duplicana feeds on the bark around injuries or canker.{{Citation needed|date=August 2011}}
Chemistry and pharmacology
The bark and wood of silver fir are rich in antioxidative polyphenols.{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1080/02773813.2017.1340958|title = Identification, in vitro and in vivo Antioxidant Activity, and Gastrointestinal Stability of Lignans from Silver Fir (Abies alba) Wood Extract|year = 2017|last1 = Tavčar Benković|first1 = Eva|last2 = Žigon|first2 = Dušan|last3 = Mihailović|first3 = Vladimir|last4 = Petelinc|first4 = Tanja|last5 = Jamnik|first5 = Polona|last6 = Kreft|first6 = Samo|journal = Journal of Wood Chemistry and Technology|volume = 37|issue = 6|pages = 467–477|s2cid = 90833072}}Vasincu A, Creţu E, Geangalău I, Amalinei RL, Miron A. Polyphenolic content and antioxidant activity of an extractive fraction from Abies alba bark. Rev Med Chir Soc Med Nat Iasi. 2013 Apr-Jun;117(2):545-50. Six phenolic acids were identified (gallic, homovanillic, protocatechuic, p-hydroxybenzoic, vanillic and p-coumaric), three flavonoids (catechin, epicatechin and catechin tetramethyl ether) and eight lignans (taxiresinol, 7-(2-methyl-3,4-dihydroxytetrahydropyran-5-yloxy)-taxiresinol, secoisolariciresinol, lariciresinol, hydroxymatairesinol, isolariciresinol, matairesinol and pinoresinol).{{cite journal | last1 = Tavčar Benković | first1 = Eva | last2 = Grohar | first2 = Tina | last3 = Žigon | first3 = Dušan | last4 = Švajger | first4 = Urban | last5 = Janeš | first5 = Damjan | last6 = Kreft | first6 = Samo | last7 = Štrukelj | first7 = Borut | year = 2014 | title = Chemical composition of the silver fir (Abies alba) bark extract Abigenol and its antioxidant activity | journal = Industrial Crops and Products | volume = 52 | pages = 23–28 | doi = 10.1016/j.indcrop.2013.10.005 }}
The extract from the trunk was shown to prevent atherosclerosis in guinea pigs{{cite journal | last1 = Drevenšek | first1 = Gorazd | last2 = Lunder | first2 = Mojca | last3 = Tavčar Benković | first3 = Eva | last4 = Mikelj | first4 = Ana | last5 = Štrukelj | first5 = Borut | last6 = Kreft | first6 = Samo | year = 2015| title = Silver fir (Abies alba) trunk extract protects guinea pig arteries from impaired functional responses and morphology due to an atherogenic diet | journal = Phytomedicine | volume = 22| issue = 9| pages = 856–861| doi = 10.1016/j.phymed.2015.06.004 | pmid = 26220633 }} and to have cardioprotective effect in isolated rat hearts.{{Cite journal |doi = 10.3402/fnr.v60.29623|pmid = 27756448|pmc = 5069298|title = Cardioprotective effects of silver fir (Abies alba) extract in ischemic-reperfused isolated rat hearts|year = 2016|last1 = Drevenšek|first1 = Gorazd|last2 = Lunder|first2 = Mojca|last3 = Benković|first3 = Eva Tavčar|last4 = Štrukelj|first4 = Borut|last5 = Kreft|first5 = Samo|journal = Food & Nutrition Research|volume = 60|pages = 29623}} Silver fir wood extract was found to reduce the post-prandial glycemic response (concentration of sugar in the blood after the meal) in healthy volunteers.Debeljak, J.; Ferk, P.; Čokolič, M.; Zavratnik, A.; Tavč Benković, E.; Kreft, S.; Štrukelj, B.: Randomised, double blind, cross-over, placebo and active controlled human pharmacodynamic study on the influence of silver fir wood extract (Belinal) on post-prandial glycemic response. Die Pharmazie - An International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Volume 71, Number 10, October 2016, pp. 566-569(4)
Uses
In Roman times the wood was used to make wooden casks to store and transport wine and other substances.Kilby, Kenneth (1977), The cooper and his trade, Fresno, California, Linden Publishing, p.99. {{ISBN|0941936163}}
A resinous essential oil can be extracted. This pine-scented oil is used in perfumes, bath products, and aerosol inhalants. Its branches (including the leaves, bark and wood) were used for production of spruce beer.{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TPQaAQAAMAAJ |title=The London Medical Gazette |date=1837 |publisher=Longman |language=en}}
Silver fir is the species first used as a Christmas tree, but has been largely replaced by Nordmann fir (which has denser, more attractive foliage), Norway spruce (which is much cheaper to grow), and other species. When cultivated on Christmas Tree plantations, the tree naturally forms a symmetrical conical shape. The trees are full and dense with a resinous fragrance, and are known to be one of the longest lasting after being cut. As well as in its native area, it is also grown on Christmas tree plantations in the northeast region of North America spanning New England in the USA to the Maritime Provinces of Canada.
The wood is strong, lightweight, light-coloured, fine grained, even-textured and long fibred. The timber is mainly used as construction wood, furniture, plywood, pulpwood and paper manufacture.{{cite journal|last1=Wolf|first1=Heino|title=Silver fir - Abies alba|journal=EUFORGEN Technical Guidelines for Genetic Conservation and Use|url=http://www.euforgen.org/fileadmin/templates/euforgen.org/upload/Publications/Technical_guidelines/925_Technical_guidelines_for_genetic_conservation_and_use_for_for_silver_fir__Abies_alba_.pdf|access-date=18 October 2016|archive-date=23 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170123035636/http://www.euforgen.org/fileadmin/templates/euforgen.org/upload/Publications/Technical_guidelines/925_Technical_guidelines_for_genetic_conservation_and_use_for_for_silver_fir__Abies_alba_.pdf|url-status=dead}}
The honeydew which is produced by aphids sitting on the silver fir is collected by honey bees. The resulting honey is marketed as "fir honey".{{cite web | url=https://melisseon.com/fir/ | title=Fir Honey }}
Etymology
Abies is derived from Latin, meaning 'rising one'. The name was used to refer to tall trees or ships.Gledhill, David (2008). "The Names of Plants". Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|9780521866453}} (hardback), {{ISBN|9780521685535}} (paperback). pp 32, 41
References
{{Reflist}}
- {{cite book |first1=Alp |last1=Kunkar |first2=Ennio |last2=Kunkar |title=Le piante officinali della Calabria |year=2000 |publisher=Laruffa Editore |isbn=978-88-7221-140-3 |language=it}}
External links
{{Commons category}}
- [http://www.conifers.org/pi/Abies_alba.php conifers.org: Abies alba]
- [http://botany.cz/en/abies-alba/ botany.cz: Abies alba Mill]
- [https://web.archive.org/web/20150402111042/http://www.photomazza.com/?Abies-alba-3933 photomazza.com: Abies alba]
- [https://web.archive.org/web/20150402093330/http://conifersaroundtheworld.com/blog/abies_alba_european_white_fir conifersaroundtheworld.com: Abies alba - European White Fir].
- [http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Abies+alba pfaf.org: Abies alba Mill.]
- [http://www.monumentaltrees.com/en/trees/europeansilverfir/records/ monumentaltrees.com: The thickest, tallest, and oldest European silver fir trees (Abies alba)]
- [http://www.baumkunde.de/Abies_alba/ baumkunde.de: Weiß-Tanne (Abies alba)] | In German
- [http://www.euforgen.org/species/abies-alba/ Abies alba]. Distribution map, genetic conservation units and related resources. European Forest Genetic Resources Programme (EUFORGEN)
{{Taxonbar|from=Q146992}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Flora of the Pyrenees
Category:Flora of the Carpathians