African vulture crisis
{{Short description|Ecological disaster in Africa}}
File:Grifone.jpg found in the Moroccan Atlas Mountains, 1991]]
The African vulture crisis is an ongoing population decline in several Old World vulture species across Africa. Steep population declines have been reported from many locations across the continent since the early 2000s. The causes are mainly poisoning from baited animal carcasses, and the illegal trade in vulture body parts for traditional medicine.{{Cite journal |last1=Ogada |first1=Darcy |last2=Shaw |first2=Phil |last3=Beyers |first3=Rene |last4=Buji |first4=Ralph |last5=Murn |first5=Campbell |last6=Thiollay |first6=Jean Marc |last7=Beale |first7=Colin |last8=Holdo |first8=Ricardo |last9=Pomeroy |first9=Derek |last10=Baker |first10=Neil |last11=Krüger |first11=Sonja |date=2015 |title=Another Continental Vulture Crisis: Africa's Vultures Collapsing Toward Extinction |journal=Conservation Letters |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=89–97 |doi=10.1111/conl.12182 |s2cid=54684268 |doi-access=free |hdl=10023/8817 |hdl-access=free }} Available data suggest that the African vulture crisis may be similar in scale to the Indian vulture crisis, but more protracted and less well documented.
Causes
= Poisoning =
file: Vultures scavenge on an elephant kill - journal.pone.0060797.g001-D.png
Animal carcasses may be poisoned with toxic pesticide. This may be from deliberate targeting of vultures -- for example, poachers of elephants and rhinos will target vultures to eliminate their tell-tale overhead circling that might expose their illegal activities. Carcasses are also poisoned to kill carnivores blamed for predation of livestock, herbivores blamed for crop destruction{{Cite journal |last1=Safford |first1=Roger |last2=Andevski |first2=Jovan |last3=Botha |first3=Andre |last4=Bowden |first4=Christopher G. R. |last5=Crockford |first5=Nicola |last6=Garbett |first6=Rebecca |last7=Margalida |first7=Antoni |last8=Ramírez |first8=Iván |last9=Shobrak |first9=Mohammed |last10=Tavares |first10=José |last11=Williams |first11=Nick P. |date=March 2019 |title=Vulture conservation: the case for urgent action |journal=Bird Conservation International |language=en |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1017/S0959270919000042 |s2cid=91384130 |issn=0959-2709|doi-access=free |hdl=10261/217387 |hdl-access=free }} and to control feral dog numbers.
Vultures are particularly vulnerable to poisoning because of their foraging behaviors and life history traits.{{Citation |last=Houston |first=David C. |title=The Effect of Altered Environments on Vultures |date=1996 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-012100130-8/50033-x |work=Raptors in Human Landscapes |pages=327–335 |publisher=Elsevier |doi=10.1016/b978-012100130-8/50033-x |isbn=9780121001308 |access-date=2022-07-10}} They are obligate scavengers that primarily consume animal carcasses and waste products. Most vulture species forage in large groups, so many individual birds may be poisoned by a single carcass.{{Cite journal |last1=Tsiakiris |first1=Rigas |last2=Halley |first2=John M. |last3=Stara |first3=Kalliopi |last4=Monokrousos |first4=Nikos |last5=Karyou |first5=Chryso |last6=Kassinis |first6=Nicolaos |last7=Papadopoulos |first7=Minas |last8=Xirouchakis |first8=Stavros M. |date=2021-10-18 |title=Models of poisoning effects on vulture populations show that small but frequent episodes have a larger effect than large but rare ones |url=https://we.copernicus.org/articles/21/79/2021/ |journal=Web Ecology |language=English |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=79–93 |doi=10.5194/we-21-79-2021 |s2cid=239045468 |issn=2193-3081|doi-access=free }} Even if a poisoned carcass does not kill vultures it can have a harmful effect. Sublethal exposure can affect their reproductive success, behavior, physical characteristics, and immune response.{{Cite journal |last1=Gangoso |first1=Laura |last2=Álvarez-Lloret |first2=Pedro |last3=Rodríguez-Navarro |first3=Alejandro. A.B. |last4=Mateo |first4=Rafael |last5=Hiraldo |first5=Fernando |last6=Donázar |first6=José Antonio |date=February 2009 |title=Long-term effects of lead poisoning on bone mineralization in vultures exposed to ammunition sources |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0269749108004478 |journal=Environmental Pollution |language=en |volume=157 |issue=2 |pages=569–574 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2008.09.015|pmid=18995938 }} Their long life spans and high trophic level also make them vulnerable to bioaccumulation of poisons over time.
= Trade in body parts for traditional medicine =
Vulture body parts are used in some cultures to treat physical and mental illnesses. The prices of vulture meat and body parts have been rising, possibly due to an increased demand for these products or a reduced supply of vultures.{{Cite journal |last1=Saidu |first1=Yohanna |last2=Buij |first2=Ralph |date=2018-03-29 |title=Traditional medicine trade in vulture parts in northern Nigeria |url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/vulnew/article/view/168913 |journal=Vulture News |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=4 |doi=10.4314/vulnew.v65i1.1 |issn=1606-7479|doi-access=free }} The African Vulture trade for belief uses varies in importance across the continent with different African cultures participating or not depending on the value of body parts and meat to their traditional medicinal practices. The current level of trade is not sustainable and is contributing to the decline of vulture populations.{{Cite journal |last1=McKean |first1=Steven |last2=Mander |first2=Myles |last3=Diederichs |first3=Nicci |last4=Ntuli |first4=Lungile |last5=Mavundla |first5=Khulile |last6=Williams |first6=Vivienne |last7=Wakelin |first7=James |date=2013 |title=The impact of traditional use on vultures in South Africa |url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/vulnew/article/view/168914 |journal=Vulture News |language=en |volume=65 |pages=15–36 |doi=10.4314/vulnew.v65i1.2 |issn=1606-7479|doi-access=free }}
= Electrocution =
Vulture collisions with energy infrastructure and electrocution are relatively common, especially in southern and northern Africa. Efforts to meet United Nations Sustainable Development Goals have led to expansion of electrification programs. However, these do not always implement bird-safe designs that would limit the risks of electrocution and collision.{{Cite journal |last1=Oppel |first1=Steffen |last2=Ruffo |first2=Alazar Daka |last3=Bakari |first3=Samuel |last4=Tesfaye |first4=Million |last5=Mengistu |first5=Solomon |last6=Wondafrash |first6=Mengistu |last7=Endris |first7=Ahmed |last8=Pourchier |first8=Cloé |last9=Ngari |first9=Alex |last10=Arkumarev |first10=Volen |last11=Nikolov |first11=Stoyan C. |date=June 2022 |title=Pursuit of 'sustainable' development may contribute to the vulture crisis in East Africa |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bird-conservation-international/article/abs/pursuit-of-sustainable-development-may-contribute-to-the-vulture-crisis-in-east-africa/EFB3135BF83D940BBB2E6E311E50887E |journal=Bird Conservation International |language=en |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=173–187 |doi=10.1017/S0959270921000307 |s2cid=243002738 |issn=0959-2709}}
= Other causes =
Other threats that contribute to the decline in African vulture populations include habitat degradation and fragmentation, disturbance of nest sites, declines in vulture food supply, and bushmeat consumption by humans. Vulture deaths have also been caused by them visiting wells to drink then becoming waterlogged and drowning. In one incident in Morocco, 15 Eurasian griffons drowned in a well.{{cite web |title=Fifteen Griffon Vultures found dead in a well in Morocco |url=https://4vultures.org/blog/fifteen-griffon-vultures-found-dead-in-a-well-in-morocco/ |publisher=Vulture Conservation Foundation |access-date=10 July 2020}}
Regions affected
=North Africa=
File: NovitatesZoologicae18 532 Gypaetus barbatus nestling.png]]
Excluding vagrants, three vulture species still exist in North Africa: the griffon vulture, lammergeier, and Egyptian vulture. Two other species (the cinereous vulture and lappet-faced vulture) have now died out from the region.{{cite web|url= https://magornitho.org/2014/08/maghreb-vultures/ | title= Vultures of Northwest Africa: a complete list| date= 21 August 2014|publisher=MaghrebOrnitho|accessdate=May 17, 2022}}
The Egyptian vulture is found across North Africa, while the Eurasian griffon is restricted to the Atlas Mountains. The lammergeier is eradicated from the region except Morocco, where it is considered critically endangered.{{cite web |title=Status of Bearded Vulture in Morocco |url=https://magornitho.org/2011/11/status-gypaetus-barbatus-morocco/ |website=MaghrebOrnitho| date= 28 November 2011 |access-date=5 September 2022}}
The most affected species is the Eurasian griffon,{{cite web |last1=Garrido |first1=Jose Rafael |title=Poisoning of vultures in Morocco. International Workshop African Vultures & Poison --- Ronda, Málaga, Spain 8--11 April 2014 |url=https://www.academia.edu/6963427 |publisher=Academia| date= April 2014 |access-date=5 September 2022}} though it is apparently common in much of Europe and Asia. Many poisonings in the region are attributed to the use of strychnine, which is heavily regulated by the Moroccan government.{{cite journal |last1=Amezian |first1=Mohamed |last2=El Khamlichi |first2=Rachid |title=Significant population of Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus found in Morocco |journal=Ostrich |date=2016 |volume=87 |issue=1 |pages=73–76 |doi=10.2989/00306525.2015.1089334 |s2cid=85701482 |url=https://magornitho.org/files/2016/03/amezian-elkhamlichi-2016-egyptian-vulture.pdf}}
=West Africa=
File: Vultures and dog - The Gambia. West Africa (32740095391).jpg in Gambia. Their importance in their ecological niche is ridding it of corpses]]
Seven vulture species live in West African countries: the Egyptian vulture, hooded vulture, lappet-faced vulture, palm-nut vulture, Rüppell's vulture, white-backed vulture and white-headed vulture.{{cite journal |last1=Di Vittorio |first1=M. |last2=Hema |first2=E.M. |last3=Dendi |first3=D |last4=Akani |first4=G.C. |display-authors=3 |title=The conservation status of West African vultures: An updated review and a strategy for conservation |journal=Vie et Milieu-Life and Environment |date=2018 |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=33–43}}
West Africa saw some of the largest decreases in vulture numbers, with up to 61% of vultures inside parks and 70% outside parks disappearing in the 30 years between 1970 and 2000.{{cite journal |last1=Henriques |first1=Mohamed |last2=Buij |first2=Ralph |last3=Monteiro |first3=Hamilton |last4=Sá |first4=Joaozinho |title=Deliberate poisoning of Africa's vultures |journal=Science |date=2020 |volume=370 |issue=6514 |page=304|doi=10.1126/science.abd1862 |pmid=33060355 |s2cid=222412291 }} Some populations have declined by almost 97%.{{cite web |title=Tackling vulture population declines in West Africa |url=https://www.birdlife.org/news/2021/10/28/tackling-vulture-populations-declines-in-west-africa/ |website=Bird Life International| date= 28 October 2021 |access-date=5 September 2022}} In 2020, around 50 hooded vultures were poisoned in Gambia, and between September 2019 and March 2020, 2000 were killed in Guinea-Bissau for traditional medicine. Conservation programs were initiated in these countries and in Senegal, surveying the vulture populations and raising public awareness.
=Southern Africa=
Southern Africa has the highest species diversity of vultures in the continent, comprising nine species which are the aforementioned Egyptian vulture, bearded vulture, hooded vulture, white-backed vulture, white-headed vulture, Rüppell's griffon vulture, lappet-faced vulture, palmnut vulture and the endemic Cape Vulture.
Whilst conservation action has been taking place in the region, {{cite web|url=https://projectvulture.org.za/support-the-cause/ | title=Vulture conservation in South Africa|accessdate=21 September 2022|work=projectvulture}} the sporadic nature of poisonings and their large death count have dealt heavy blows to vultures in the region.
A recent incident in Kruger National Park involved the poisoned carcass of an African buffalo somewhere in mid-August 2022. It was estimated that 104 White-backed vultures were fatally poisoned, while 20 were harmed. A hyena had also succumbed from the poisoning.{{cite web |title=More than 100 vultures and a hyena poisoned to death at South Africa's Kruger National Park |url=https://animalsurvival.org/trade-and-legislation/more-than-100-vultures-and-a-hyena-poisoned-to-death-at-south-africas-kruger-national-park/ |website=Animal Survival International |access-date=8 October 2022 |date=16 August 2022}} It was believed that the poisoning was intentional to collect vulture parts. Currently, the number of white-backed vultures sits at about 7,500 individuals, down from a population that numbered tens of thousands.{{cite news |last1=Nyambura |first1=Helen |title=Poachers poison scores of vultures for use in traditional drugs |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-08-19/poachers-poison-scores-of-vultures-for-use-in-traditional-drugs |access-date=8 October 2022 |work=Bloomberg |date=19 August 2022}}
An environmental catastrophe effectively occurred in the Chobe National Park, Botswana in 2019, involving the carcasses of three poisoned African bush elephants. A total 537 vultures perished, 468 white-backed vultures, 28 hooded vultures, 17 white-headed vultures, 14 lappet-faced vultures, and 10 cape vultures. Furthermore, 2 tawny eagles succumbed to the poison. For such slow-breeding and long-lived birds, this was a very heavy blow to their population and a major setback to any conservation efforts.
Consequences and implications
Vultures play an essential ecological role in Africa. As a primary scavenger they contribute to the destruction of harmful pathogens and removal of decaying corpses form the environment, which may limit water contamination and the spread of disease from animal carcasses.{{Cite journal |last1=Ogada |first1=Darcy L. |last2=Keesing |first2=Felicia |last3=Virani |first3=Munir Z. |date=February 2012 |title=Dropping dead: causes and consequences of vulture population declines worldwide: Worldwide decline of vultures |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06293.x |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=1249 |issue=1 |pages=57–71 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06293.x|pmid=22175274 |s2cid=23734331 }} Falls in vulture numbers in India led to increased numbers of feral dogs and increased rabies incidence,{{cite web |last1=Bindra |first1=Prerna Singh |title=Declining vulture population can cause a health crisis |url=https://india.mongabay.com/2018/02/declining-vulture-population-can-cause-a-health-crisis/#:~:text=India's%20three%20vulture%20species%20saw,and%20increased%20incidence%20of%20rabies. |access-date=5 September 2022}} showing a potential threat for human health in Africa.
