Alcohol and cancer

In 2020, approximately 740,000 cases of alcohol-related cancers were identified globally{{Cite web |title=Cancer and Alcohol |url=http://gco.iarc.fr/causes/alcohol/home |access-date=2022-09-14 |website=gco.iarc.fr |language=en}} with

• 58% of cases (430,000) residing in Asia
• 25% of cases (180,000) residing in Europe
• 8% of cases (60,000) residing in North America
• 5% of cases (39,000) residing in Latin America and the Caribbean
• 3% of cases (23,000) residing in Africa
• 1% of cases (7,000) residing in regions termed "other."

More than three-quarters of the 740,000 cases were in men.{{Cite web |date=2021-08-12 |title=Report Details Alcohol's Global Cancer Burden - NCI |url=https://www.cancer.gov/news-events/cancer-currents-blog/2021/cancer-alcohol-global-burden |access-date=2022-09-14 |website=www.cancer.gov |language=en}}

In the United States of America, alcohol-related cancer rates were highest in the following states: Delaware, Colorado, Washington, D.C., New Hampshire, and Alaska.{{cite journal | vauthors = Goding Sauer A, Fedewa SA, Bandi P, Minihan AK, Stoklosa M, Drope J, Gapstur SM, Jemal A, Islami F | display-authors = 6 | title = Proportion of cancer cases and deaths attributable to alcohol consumption by US state, 2013-2016 | journal = Cancer Epidemiology | volume = 71 | issue = Pt A | pages = 101893 | date = April 2021 | pmid = 33477084 | doi = 10.1016/j.canep.2021.101893 | s2cid = 231680583 }} Conversely, alcohol-related cancer rates were lowest in the following states: Kentucky, Arizona, Oklahoma, West Virginia, and Utah.

From 2013 to 2016, approximately 19,000 (4%) cancer-related deaths in the United States were attributed to alcohol consumption each year, with breast cancer and esophageal cancer deaths being the most common in women and men respectively.{{cite journal | vauthors = Nelson DE, Jarman DW, Rehm J, Greenfield TK, Rey G, Kerr WC, Miller P, Shield KD, Ye Y, Naimi TS | display-authors = 6 | title = Alcohol-attributable cancer deaths and years of potential life lost in the United States | journal = American Journal of Public Health | volume = 103 | issue = 4 | pages = 641–648 | date = April 2013 | pmid = 23409916 | pmc = 3673233 | doi = 10.2105/AJPH.2012.301199 }}

An estimated 3.2% of cancer deaths in United States were attributed to alcohol consumption. The distribution of mortality by state were consistent with the distribution of incident cases.

According to, Vivek Murthy, the Surgeon General of the United States, alcohol ranked third among preventable causes of cancer after tobacco and obesity.{{cite news |title=US top doctor calls for cancer warnings on alcohol |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cj90x3np0zpo |agency=BBC}}

Approximately 10% and 3% of cancer diagnoses in European men and women respectively are attributed to alcohol consumption.{{cite journal | vauthors = Scoccianti C, Cecchini M, Anderson AS, Berrino F, Boutron-Ruault MC, Espina C, Key TJ, Leitzmann M, Norat T, Powers H, Wiseman M, Romieu I | display-authors = 6 | title = European Code against Cancer 4th Edition: Alcohol drinking and cancer | journal = Cancer Epidemiology | volume = 45 | pages = 181–188 | date = December 2016 | pmid = 27816465 | doi = 10.1016/j.canep.2016.09.011 | hdl-access = free | doi-access = free | hdl = 10044/1/45292 }}

Europe: A 2011 study found that one in 10 of all cancers in men and one in 33 in women were caused by past or current alcohol intake.{{cite web | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-12999000 | title = Drinking over recommended limit 'raises cancer risk' | work = BBC | date = 8 April 2011 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Schütze M, Boeing H, Pischon T, Rehm J, Kehoe T, Gmel G, Olsen A, Tjønneland AM, Dahm CC, Overvad K, Clavel-Chapelon F, Boutron-Ruault MC, Trichopoulou A, Benetou V, Zylis D, Kaaks R, Rohrmann S, Palli D, Berrino F, Tumino R, Vineis P, Rodríguez L, Agudo A, Sánchez MJ, Dorronsoro M, Chirlaque MD, Barricarte A, Peeters PH, van Gils CH, Khaw KT, Wareham N, Allen NE, Key TJ, Boffetta P, Slimani N, Jenab M, Romaguera D, Wark PA, Riboli E, Bergmann MM | display-authors = 6 | title = Alcohol attributable burden of incidence of cancer in eight European countries based on results from prospective cohort study | journal = BMJ | volume = 342 | pages = d1584 | date = April 2011 | pmid = 21474525 | pmc = 3072472 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.d1584 }}

Australia: A 2009 study found that 2,100 Australians die from alcohol-related cancer each year.{{cite web | url = http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/08/24/2664875.htm | archive-url = https://archive.today/20120720062519/http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/08/24/2664875.htm | url-status = dead | archive-date = 20 July 2012 | title = Study bolsters alcohol-cancer link | work = ABC News | date = 24 August 2009 }}

In 1998, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (Centre International de Recherche sur le Cancer) of the World Health Organization classified alcoholic beverages as a carcinogen. Its evaluation states:{{Cite book |title=Alcohol drinking |publisher=World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer |location=Lyon |year=1988 |isbn=978-92-832-1244-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/alcoholdrinking0044iarc |url-access=registration|pages=258–259 }}

{{Blockquote

|text=There is sufficient evidence for the carcinogenicity of alcoholic beverages in humans. […] Alcoholic beverages are carcinogenic to humans (Group 1).

}}

After more epidemiological evidence connecting alcohol and cancers became available, the IARC reconvened in 2007. Based on epidemiological studies, which revealed cancer risk was independent of the type of alcohol, and animal studies, which showed increased cancer risk with exposure to ethanol alone, the group determined that the ethanol in alcoholic beverages was carcinogenic to humans. Alcohol was determined to increase the risk of developing breast cancer, liver cancer, colorectal cancer, esophageal cancers, pharyngeal cancer, laryngeal cancer, and oral cancer. In 2009, the group determined that acetaldehyde which is a metabolite of ethanol is also carcinogenic to humans.{{cite book | vauthors = Brooks PJ | chapter = Alcohol as a Human Carcinogen |date=2011 |chapter-url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4614-0040-0_1 | title = Alcohol and Cancer |pages=1–4 | veditors = Zakhari S, Vasiliou V, Guo QM |place=New York, NY |publisher=Springer New York |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-0040-0_1 |isbn=978-1-4614-0039-4 |access-date=2022-09-12 }}

The U.S. Department of Health & Human Services' National Toxicology Program (NTP) classified alcoholic beverages as a "known human carcinogen" in their 2000 Report on Carcinogens,National Toxicology Program [https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/roc/content/profiles/alcoholicbeverageconsumption.pdf Alcoholic Beverage Consumption: Known to be a human carcinogen] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100605122604/http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/roc/eleventh/profiles/s007alco.pdf |date=2010-06-05 }} First listed in the Ninth Report on Carcinogens (2000)(PDF) and this classification remains current as of the 15th edition published in 2021.{{Cite report |website=National Toxicology Program (NTP) |title=15th Report on Carcinogens |doi=10.22427/ntp-other-1003|s2cid=245412518 |doi-access=free }} While the report distinguishes between the beverage itself and acetaldehyde (a byproduct of alcohol metabolism), classifying the latter as "reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen," the overall message is clear: consuming alcoholic drinks poses a cancer risk.

A 2001 systematic review did not find a clear safe level of alcohol consumption where there is no increased risk of cancer.{{cite journal | vauthors = de Menezes RF, Bergmann A, Thuler LC | title = Alcohol consumption and risk of cancer: a systematic literature review | journal = Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention | volume = 14 | issue = 9 | pages = 4965–72 | year = 2013 | pmid = 24175760 | doi = 10.7314/apjcp.2013.14.9.4965 | doi-access = free }}

Alcohol metabolism generates genotoxic acetaldehyde and reactive oxygen species.{{cite journal | vauthors = Kruman II, Henderson GI, Bergeson SE | title = DNA damage and neurotoxicity of chronic alcohol abuse | journal = Experimental Biology and Medicine | volume = 237 | issue = 7 | pages = 740–747 | date = July 2012 | pmid = 22829701 | pmc = 3685494 | doi = 10.1258/ebm.2012.011421 }} The possible mechanisms for its carcinogenicity include formation of the possible mutagen acetaldehyde, and the induction of the cytochrome P450 system which is known to produce mutagenic compounds from promutagens.{{cite journal | vauthors = Pöschl G, Seitz HK | title = Alcohol and cancer | journal = Alcohol and Alcoholism | volume = 39 | issue = 3 | pages = 155–65 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15082451 | doi = 10.1093/alcalc/agh057 | url = https://academic.oup.com/alcalc/article-pdf/39/3/155/470412/agh057.pdf }}

Acetaldehyde is a byproduct of ethanol breakdown in the liver, metabolized by Alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), Cytochrome P-450 2E1 and bacterial catalases.{{cite journal | vauthors = Pöschl G, Seitz HK | title = Alcohol and cancer | journal = Alcohol and Alcoholism | volume = 39 | issue = 3 | pages = 155–165 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15082451 | doi = 10.1093/alcalc/agh057 | doi-access = free }} The liver then normally eliminates 99% of the acetaldehyde. ALDH2 converts Acetaldehyde into acetate which is a byproduct that can be excreted through the liver. Those with ADH1B*1 have higher rates of conversion of ethanol into acetaldehyde while, people with ALDH2*2 have a slower conversion rate of acetaldehyde to acetate causing faster build up of acetaldehyde concentrations.{{cite journal | vauthors = Seitz HK, Becker P | title = Alcohol metabolism and cancer risk | journal = Alcohol Research & Health | volume = 30 | issue = 1 | pages = 38–47 | date = 2007 | pmid = 17718399 | pmc = 3860434 }} 28-45% of east Asian populations carry the ALDH2*2 allele. An average liver can process 7 grams of ethanol per hour. For example, it takes 12 hours to eliminate the ethanol in a bottle of wine, giving 12 hours or more of acetaldehyde exposure.

The Acetaldehyde motif can bind DNA to alter its physical shape or block repair and synthesis mechanisms to induce mutations, breaks and exchanges. Acetaldehyde and ethanol both inhibit S-adenosyl-L-methiodine (SAMe) synthesis which is a methyl group transferase.

DNA methylation is the addition of a methyl group to the carbon-5 of nucleotides. the most common methylation site is onto a cystine preceding guanine nucleotides. This methylation is catalyzed by DNA methyltransferase enzymes taking a methyl group from SAMe. Heavy alcohol consumption is thought to cause epigenetic changes by decreasing the availability of SAMe thereby changing the methylation pattern of DNA causing hypo or hypermethylation resulting in alteration of DNA transcription.

Oxidative stress and reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation is a major player in cancer growth. the metabolism of ethanol by CYP450 2E1 into acetaldehyde has a byproduct of ROS. The presence of ROS in the cellular environment causes lipid peroxidation which can lead to exocyclic adducts. ROS in a tumor microenvironment can also act as an intercellular signal leading to up-regulation of vascular endothelial growth factors and monocyte chemotactic protein-1. The accumulation of iron is also found to correlate to alcohol consumption which leads to higher levels of peroxidation and resulting oxidative damage.{{cite journal | vauthors = Purohit V, Khalsa J, Serrano J | title = Mechanisms of alcohol-associated cancers: introduction and summary of the symposium | journal = Alcohol | volume = 35 | issue = 3 | pages = 155–160 | date = April 2005 | pmid = 16054976 | doi = 10.1016/j.alcohol.2005.05.001 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1258700 }}

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons also play a role in alcohol-induced carcinogenesis. Exposure occurs through drinking alcohol aged in charred barrels, flavored with peat smoke, or made with roasted grains.{{cite journal | vauthors = Berrigan D, Freedman ND | title = Invited Perspective: Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons in Alcohol-An Unappreciated Carcinogenic Mechanism? | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 132 | issue = 1 | pages = 11302 | date = January 2024 | pmid = 38241190 | pmc = 10798426 | doi = 10.1289/EHP14255 | bibcode = 2024EnvHP.132a1302B }}

High levels of hormones in serum have been associated with heavy alcohol use. Especially Oesterogen and estradiol which can increase transcriptional activity in ER+ cells which promote cell proliferation.{{cite journal | vauthors = Boffetta P, Hashibe M | title = Alcohol and cancer | journal = The Lancet. Oncology | volume = 7 | issue = 2 | pages = 149–156 | date = February 2006 | pmid = 16455479 | doi = 10.1016/S1470-2045(06)70577-0 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Shield KD, Soerjomataram I, Rehm J | title = Alcohol Use and Breast Cancer: A Critical Review | journal = Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research | volume = 40 | issue = 6 | pages = 1166–1181 | date = June 2016 | pmid = 27130687 | doi = 10.1111/acer.13071 }} Those in pre-menopause using progestin contraceptives have some compensation for the high levels of estradiol, though after menopause those with heavy alcohol consumption have higher risk for breast cancer and estrogen dependent cancers.

Additional mechanisms contribute to cancer risk with alcohol consumption. It is thought that heavy alcohol consumption can cause a decrease in folic acid availability which can decrease the availability of nucleotides for DNA repair. Additionally ethanol can decrease the conversion of homocysteine to methionine which is an essential amino acid that is part of the formation of SAMe.

Increased inflammation due to alcohol consumption can increase various cytokine formations especially NF-κB which is a transcription factor.

Additionally alcohol usage is associated with lower Vitamin A levels which causes a reduction in retinoid conversion and signaling.

Individuals who both smoke and drink are at a much higher risk of developing mouth, tracheal, and esophageal cancer. Ethanol is thought to potentially be a solvent for carcinogenic factors in smoking. Research has shown their risk of developing these cancers is 35 times higher than in individuals who neither smoke nor drink. This evidence may suggest that there is a cocarcinogenic interaction between alcohol and tobacco-related carcinogens.{{Cite journal |year=1993 |title=Alcohol and Cancer |url=http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/aa21.htm |journal=Alcohol Alert |volume=21 |access-date=26 May 2006 |archive-date=23 December 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051223104745/http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/aa21.htm |url-status=dead }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Blot WJ, McLaughlin JK, Winn DM, Austin DF, Greenberg RS, Preston-Martin S, Bernstein L, Schoenberg JB, Stemhagen A, Fraumeni JF | display-authors = 6 | title = Smoking and drinking in relation to oral and pharyngeal cancer | journal = Cancer Research | volume = 48 | issue = 11 | pages = 3282–3287 | date = June 1988 | pmid = 3365707 | url = http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=3365707 }}

The risk of cancer associated with alcohol consumption is higher in tissues in closest contact on ingestion of alcohol, such as the oral cavity, pharynx and esophagus. This is explained by the fact that ethanol is a proven carcinogen and in addition, metabolite of ethanol (acetaldehyde) produced in the liver is highly carcinogenic, thus explaining both local (mouth, throat, esophageal cancers) as well as distant (skin, liver, breast) cancers. It is well known that ethanol causes cell death at the concentrations present in alcoholic beverages. Few cells survive a one-hour exposure to 5–10% ethanol or a 15-second exposure to 30–40% ethanol in cell culture, where surviving cells might undergo genomic changes leading to carcinogenesis. But recent evidence suggests that the cytotoxic effect of ethanol on the cells lining the oral cavity, pharynx and esophagus activates the division of the stem cells located in deeper layers of the mucosa to replace the dead cells.

Every time stem cells divide, they become exposed to unavoidable errors associated with cell division (e.g., mutations arising during DNA replication and chromosomal alterations occurring during mitosis) and also become highly vulnerable to the genotoxic activity of DNA-damaging agents (e.g., acetaldehyde and tobacco carcinogens). Alcohol consumption probably increases the risk of developing cancer of the oral cavity, pharynx and esophagus by promoting the accumulation of cell divisions in the stem cells that maintain these tissues in homeostasis. Because the cytotoxic activity of ethanol is concentration-dependent, the risk of these cancers will not only increase with increasing amounts of ethanol, but also with increasing concentrations; an ounce of whisky is probably more carcinogenic when taken undiluted than when taken mixed with non-alcoholic beverages. The local cytotoxic effect of ethanol may also explain the known synergistic effect of alcohol and tobacco use on the risk of these cancers.{{cite journal | vauthors = López-Lázaro M | title = A local mechanism by which alcohol consumption causes cancer | journal = Oral Oncology | volume = 62 | pages = 149–152 | date = November 2016 | pmid = 27720397 | doi = 10.1016/j.oraloncology.2016.10.001 | hdl = 11441/52478 | hdl-access = free }}

A study found that alcohol stimulates the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), in which ordinary cancer cells change into a more aggressive form and begin to spread throughout the body.{{cite web | work = Rush University Medical Center | url = https://www.rush.edu/news/press-releases/alcohol-activates-cellular-changes-make-tumor-cells-spread | title = Alcohol Activates Cellular Changes That Make Tumor Cells Spread | date = 26 October 2009 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Forsyth CB, Tang Y, Shaikh M, Zhang L, Keshavarzian A | title = Alcohol stimulates activation of Snail, epidermal growth factor receptor signaling, and biomarkers of epithelial-mesenchymal transition in colon and breast cancer cells | journal = Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research | volume = 34 | issue = 1 | pages = 19–31 | date = January 2010 | pmid = 19860811 | pmc = 3689303 | doi = 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.01061.x }}

A study of the influence of alcohol intake on tumor growth of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in patients with type C cirrhosis, found that alcohol influenced tumor volume doubling time (TVDT).{{cite journal | vauthors = Matsuhashi T, Yamada N, Shinzawa H, Takahashi T | title = Effect of alcohol on tumor growth of hepatocellular carcinoma with type C cirrhosis | journal = Internal Medicine | volume = 35 | issue = 6 | pages = 443–448 | date = June 1996 | pmid = 8835593 | doi = 10.2169/internalmedicine.35.443 | quote = In conclusion we found that alcohol intake was closely related to the tumor growth of HCC in patients with type C cirrhosis. | doi-access = free }}

A study of chick embryos suggests that alcohol stimulates their tumor growth by fueling the production of a growth factor that stimulates blood vessel development in tumors.{{cite journal | vauthors = Gu JW, Bailey AP, Sartin A, Makey I, Brady AL | title = Ethanol stimulates tumor progression and expression of vascular endothelial growth factor in chick embryos | journal = Cancer | volume = 103 | issue = 2 | pages = 422–431 | date = January 2005 | pmid = 15597382 | doi = 10.1002/cncr.20781 | s2cid = 17578583 | doi-access = free }} A 2006 study in mice showed moderate drinking resulted in larger and stronger tumors via a process known as angiogenesis.{{cite press release

|title=Equivalent of 2–4 Drinks Daily Fuels Blood Vessel Growth, Encourages Cancer Tumors in Mice |publisher=American Physiological Society |date=3 April 2006 |url=http://www.the-aps.org/press/conference/eb06/8.htm |access-date=26 June 2009 |archive-date=29 June 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060629054504/http://www.the-aps.org/press/conference/eb06/8.htm }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Tan W, Bailey AP, Shparago M, Busby B, Covington J, Johnson JW, Young E, Gu JW | display-authors = 6 | title = Chronic alcohol consumption stimulates VEGF expression, tumor angiogenesis and progression of melanoma in mice | journal = Cancer Biology & Therapy | volume = 6 | issue = 8 | pages = 1211–1217 | date = August 2007 | pmid = 17660711 | doi = 10.4161/cbt.6.8.4383 | doi-access = free }}

A study where high amounts of alcohol were given to mice suggests that it accelerates their cancer growth by speeding up the loss of body fat and depressing immune activity.{{cite journal | vauthors = Núñez NP, Carter PA, Meadows GG | title = Alcohol consumption promotes body weight loss in melanoma-bearing mice | journal = Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research | volume = 26 | issue = 5 | pages = 617–626 | date = May 2002 | pmid = 12045469 | doi = 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2002.tb02583.x | doi-access = free }}

Since acetaldehyde produced from the metabolism of alcohol plays a role in the carcinogenicity induced by alcohol consumption, mutations in the enzymes involved in the production of acetaldehyde can lead to increased cancer risk. These enzymes included Cytochrome P450 2E1 and alcohol dehydrogenase.{{cite journal | vauthors = Pöschl G, Stickel F, Wang XD, Seitz HK | title = Alcohol and cancer: genetic and nutritional aspects | journal = The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society | volume = 63 | issue = 1 | pages = 65–71 | date = February 2004 | pmid = 15070439 | doi = 10.1079/PNS2003323 | s2cid = 7130931 | doi-access = free }} A study found that "the ADH1C*1 allele and genotype ADH1C*1/1 were significantly more frequent in patients with alcohol-related cancers…"{{cite journal | vauthors = Homann N, Stickel F, König IR, Jacobs A, Junghanns K, Benesova M, Schuppan D, Himsel S, Zuber-Jerger I, Hellerbrand C, Ludwig D, Caselmann WH, Seitz HK | display-authors = 6 | title = Alcohol dehydrogenase 1C*1 allele is a genetic marker for alcohol-associated cancer in heavy drinkers | journal = International Journal of Cancer | volume = 118 | issue = 8 | pages = 1998–2002 | date = April 2006 | pmid = 16287084 | doi = 10.1002/ijc.21583 | s2cid = 11716548 | doi-access = free }} A European study has found two gene variants which offer "significant" protection against mouth and throat cancers.{{Cite news|date=25 May 2008 |title=Clues to alcohol cancer mystery |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/7417725.stm |work=BBC News |access-date=29 June 2009}}

Alcohol is a known porphyrinogenic chemical. Several European studies have linked the inherited hepatic porphyrias with a predisposition to hepatocellular carcinoma. Typical risk factors for HCC need not be present with the acute hepatic porphyrias, specifically acute intermittent porphyria, variegate porphyria and hereditary coproporphyria. Porphyria cutanea tarda is also associated with HCC, but with typical risk factors including evidence of hepatotropic viruses, hemochromatosis and alcoholic cirrhosis. Tyrosinemia Type I, an inherited disorder in tyrosine metabolism impacting the second enzyme in the heme metabolic pathway is associated with a high risk of developing HCC in younger populations, including children.{{cite book | chapter=Oculocutaneous tyrosinemia/tyrosine aminotransferase deficiency|date=2011-12-30|pages=164–170|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4441-1225-2|doi=10.1201/b15310-23|title=Atlas of Inherited Metabolic Diseases | edition = 3rd |doi-broken-date=11 November 2024 }}

A 2022 study from the Seoul National University Hospital,

over more than 4.5 million of people, who were screened over 7 years,

found that{{cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2022/08/24/health/increased-alcohol-higher-cancer-risk-korea-wellness/index.html|title=Increased alcohol use linked with higher risk of cancer in new study|date=24 August 2022 |publisher=CNN}}

• those who increased alcohol consumption had a higher cancer risk (including, but not limited to, alcohol-related cancers) than those who kept the same level of alcohol intake;
• non-drinkers who became mild drinkers had a risk increase estimated at between 0 and 6 percent (meaning slightly greater risk, not 6 percent risk), while non-drinkers who became "moderate" drinkers had a risk increase estimated between 2 and 18 percent.{{cite journal | vauthors = Yoo JE, Han K, Shin DW, Kim D, Kim BS, Chun S, Jeon KH, Jung W, Park J, Park JH, Choi KS, Kim JS | display-authors = 6 | title = Association Between Changes in Alcohol Consumption and Cancer Risk | journal = JAMA Network Open | volume = 5 | issue = 8 | pages = e2228544 | date = August 2022 | pmid = 36001313 | pmc = 9403779 | doi = 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.28544 }}

The study also had some limitations. For example, the participants were all registered at the South Korean National Health Insurance Service, but the study did not take into account alcohol metabolism diseases which are commonly found in East Asia.

The participants were not younger than 40.

No data was available to account for positive lifestyle and behaviors held during the screening, that may have influenced the cancer risk, nor for the participants' drinking habits that preceded the screening.

A prior study found that, "Increasing but moderate alcohol consumption in women was determined to be associated with an increased risk of cancers of the oral cavity and pharynx, esophagus, larynx, rectum, breast, and liver…".{{cite journal | vauthors = Allen NE, Beral V, Casabonne D, Kan SW, Reeves GK, Brown A, Green J | title = Moderate alcohol intake and cancer incidence in women | journal = Journal of the National Cancer Institute | volume = 101 | issue = 5 | pages = 296–305 | date = March 2009 | pmid = 19244173 | doi = 10.1093/jnci/djn514 | doi-access = free }}

{{Main|Oral cancer|Esophageal cancer|Head and neck cancer|Laryngeal cancer}}

Image:Esophageal adenoca.jpg image of patient with esophageal adenocarcinoma seen at gastro-esophageal junction]]

Alcohol consumption at any quantity is a risk factor for head and neck cancers, such as cancers of the mouth, esophagus, pharynx and larynx.{{Cite journal |last1=Gormley |first1=Mark |last2=Creaney |first2=Grant |last3=Schache |first3=Andrew |last4=Ingarfield |first4=Kate |last5=Conway |first5=David I. |date=2022-11-11 |title=Reviewing the epidemiology of head and neck cancer: definitions, trends and risk factors |journal=British Dental Journal |language=en |volume=233 |issue=9 |pages=780–786 |doi=10.1038/s41415-022-5166-x |issn=0007-0610 |pmc=9652141 |pmid=36369568}}

The U.S. National Cancer Institute states "Drinking alcohol increases the risk of cancers of the mouth, esophagus, pharynx, larynx, and liver in men and women, … In general, risks increases above baseline with any alcohol intake (mild; <2 glass of wine per week) and increases significantly with moderate alcohol intake (one glass of wine per day) with highest risk in those with greater than 7 glasses of wine per week. (A drink is defined as 12 ounces of regular beer, 5 ounces of wine, or 1.5 ounces of 80-proof liquor.) … Also, using alcohol with tobacco is riskier than using either one alone, because it further increases the chances of getting cancers of the mouth, throat, and esophagus."{{cite web|title=Alcohol Consumption |url=http://www.progressreport.cancer.gov |date=December 2007 |work=Cancer Trends Progress Report – 2007 Update |publisher=National Cancer Institute |access-date=29 June 2009}}

The federal government's Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010 defines moderate alcohol drinking as up to one drink per day for women and up to two drinks per day for men. Heavy alcohol drinking is defined as having more than three drinks on any day or more than seven drinks per week for women and more than four drinks on any day or more than 14 drinks per week for men.

The International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology (INHANCE) Consortium co-ordinated a meta-study on the issue.{{cite web |title=Research Projects: Pooled analysis investigating the effects of beer, wine and liquor consumption on the risk of head and neck cancers |url=http://inhance.iarc.fr/projects.php |publisher=The International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology Consortium |access-date=29 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211194748/http://inhance.iarc.fr/projects.php |archive-date=11 December 2008 }} A study looking at laryngeal cancer and beverage type concluded, "This study thus indicates that in the Italian population characterized by frequent wine consumption, wine is the beverage most strongly related to the risk of laryngeal cancer."{{cite journal | vauthors = Garavello W, Bosetti C, Gallus S, Maso LD, Negri E, Franceschi S, La Vecchia C | title = Type of alcoholic beverage and the risk of laryngeal cancer | journal = European Journal of Cancer Prevention | volume = 15 | issue = 1 | pages = 69–73 | date = February 2006 | pmid = 16374233 | doi = 10.1097/01.cej.0000186641.19872.04 | s2cid = 29247309 }}

A review of the epidemiological literature published from 1966 to 2006 concluded that:

• The risk of esophageal cancer nearly doubled in the first two years following alcohol cessation, a sharp increase that may be due to the fact that some people only stop drinking when they are already experiencing disease symptoms. However, risk then decreased rapidly and significantly after longer periods of abstention.
• Risk of head and neck cancer only reduced significantly after 10 years of cessation.
• After more than 20 years of alcohol cessation, the risks for both cancers were similar to those seen in people who never drank alcohol.{{cite press release|title=Alcohol and cancer: is drinking the new smoking? |publisher=Centre for Addiction and Mental Health |date=26 September 2007 |url=http://www.camh.net/News_events/News_releases_and_media_advisories_and_backgrounders/alcohol_cancer_research.html |access-date=29 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080907043554/http://www.camh.net/News_events/News_releases_and_media_advisories_and_backgrounders/alcohol_cancer_research.html |archive-date=7 September 2008 }}{{cite press release |title=Alcohol And Cancer: Is Drinking The New Smoking? |publisher=Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Science Daily |date=28 September 2007 |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/09/070926094722.htm |access-date=29 June 2009}}

A study concluded that for every additional drink regularly consumed per day, the incidence of oral cavity and pharynx cancers increases by 1 per 1000. The incidence of cancers of the esophagus and larynx increase by 0.7 per 1000.

A 2008 study suggests that acetaldehyde (a breakdown product of alcohol) is implicated in oral cancer.{{cite journal | vauthors = Warnakulasuriya S, Parkkila S, Nagao T, Preedy VR, Pasanen M, Koivisto H, Niemelä O | title = Demonstration of ethanol-induced protein adducts in oral leukoplakia (pre-cancer) and cancer | journal = Journal of Oral Pathology & Medicine | volume = 37 | issue = 3 | pages = 157–165 | date = March 2008 | pmid = 18251940 | doi = 10.1111/j.1600-0714.2007.00605.x }}

Image:BreastCancer.jpg specimen containing a very large cancer of the breast (in this case, an invasive ductal carcinoma)]]

{{Main|Alcohol and breast cancer}}

Alcohol is a risk factor for breast cancer in women.{{cite web |title=What Are the Risk Factors for Breast Cancer? |url=http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_4_2X_What_are_the_risk_factors_for_breast_cancer_5.asp |date=31 May 2009 |publisher=American Cancer Society |access-date=29 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090429042057/http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_4_2X_What_are_the_risk_factors_for_breast_cancer_5.asp |archive-date=29 April 2009}}{{cite web |url=http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/wyntk/breast/page4 |title=What You Need To Know About Breast Cancer |publisher=National Cancer Institute |access-date=24 August 2008 |archive-date=5 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141005055803/http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/wyntk/breast/page4 |url-status=dead }}{{cite web|url=http://www.cancerhelp.org.uk/help/default.asp?page=3293#alcohol |title=Definite breast cancer risks |work=CancerHelp UK |publisher=Cancer Research UK |date=2017-08-30 }}{{cite web |title=Guide to Breast Cancer |url=http://www.cancer.net/patient/Cancer%20Types/Cancer.Net%20Guide%20to%20Cancer%20PDFs/Cancer.Net_Guide_to_Breast_Cancer_PDF.pdf |publisher=American Society of Clinical Oncology |year=2008 |access-date=29 June 2009 |page=6 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902185449/http://www.cancer.net/patient/Cancer%20Types/Cancer.Net%20Guide%20to%20Cancer%20PDFs/Cancer.Net_Guide_to_Breast_Cancer_PDF.pdf |archive-date=2 September 2009 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Room R, Babor T, Rehm J | title = Alcohol and public health | journal = Lancet | volume = 365 | issue = 9458 | pages = 519–530 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15705462 | pmc = 5936368 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)17870-2 | s2cid = 9350950 }}

A woman drinking an average of two units of alcohol per day has an 8% higher risk of developing breast cancer than a woman who drinks an average of one unit of alcohol per day. A study concluded that for every additional drink regularly consumed per day, the incidence of breast cancer increases by 11 per 1000. Approximately 6% (between 3.2% and 8.8%) of breast cancers reported in the UK each year could be prevented if drinking was reduced to a very low level (i.e. less than 1 unit/week).{{cite web | url = http://www.advisorybodies.doh.gov.uk/pdfs/alco04nontech.pdf | author = Committee on Carcinogenicity of Chemicals in Food Consumer Products and the Environment (COC) | title = Non-Technical Summary: Consumption of Alcoholic Beverages and Risk of Breast Cancer in Women | publisher = Food Standards Agency | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060724211538/http://www.advisorybodies.doh.gov.uk/pdfs/alco04nontech.pdf | archive-date = 24 July 2006 }} Moderate to heavy consumption of alcoholic beverages (at least three to four drinks per week) is associated with a 1.3-fold increased risk of the recurrence of breast cancer. Further, consumption of alcohol at any quantity is associated with significantly increased risk of relapse in breast cancer survivors.{{cite web | work = American Association for Cancer Research | url = http://www.aacr.org/home/public--media/aacr-press-releases/press-releases-2009.aspx?d=1703 | title = Alcohol Consumption Increases Risk of Breast Cancer Recurrence | date = 10 December 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100301135740/http://www.aacr.org/home/public--media/aacr-press-releases/press-releases-2009.aspx?d=1703 | archive-date=1 March 2010 }}{{cite web | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/8406273.stm | title = Alcohol link to breast cancer recurrence | work = BBC | date = 11 December 2009 }}

{{Main|Colorectal cancer}}

Image:Colon cancer 2.jpg specimen containing an invasive colorectal carcinoma (the crater-like, reddish, irregularly-shaped tumor)]]

Drinking may be a cause of earlier onset of colorectal cancer.{{cite journal | vauthors = Zisman AL, Nickolov A, Brand RE, Gorchow A, Roy HK | title = Associations between the age at diagnosis and location of colorectal cancer and the use of alcohol and tobacco: implications for screening | journal = Archives of Internal Medicine | volume = 166 | issue = 6 | pages = 629–634 | date = March 2006 | pmid = 16567601 | doi = 10.1001/archinte.166.6.629 | doi-access = free }} The evidence that alcohol is a cause of bowel cancer is convincing in men and probable in women.{{cite web|title=Types of cancer |url=http://www.wcrf-uk.org/research/types_of_cancer.php |publisher=World Cancer Research Fund |access-date=29 June 2009| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090609032152/http://www.wcrf-uk.org/research/types_of_cancer.php| archive-date= 9 June 2009 | url-status= live}}

The National Institutes of Health,{{cite web|title=Colorectal Cancer – Step 1: Find Out About Colorectal Cancer Risk |url=http://understandingrisk.cancer.gov/a_Colon/01.cfm |publisher=National Cancer Institute |access-date=29 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090422141726/http://understandingrisk.cancer.gov/a_Colon/01.cfm |archive-date=22 April 2009 }} the National Cancer Institute,{{cite web|title=Colorectal Cancer Prevention |url=http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/prevention/colorectal/Patient/page3 |publisher=National Cancer Institute |date=7 May 2009 |access-date=29 June 2009}} Cancer Research,{{cite web|title=Food types and bowel cancer |url=http://www.cancerhelp.org.uk/help/default.asp?page=2813 |publisher=Cancer Research |date=19 September 2008 |access-date=29 June 2009}} the American Cancer Society,{{cite web|title=What Are the Risk Factors for Colorectal Cancer? |url=http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_4_2X_What_are_the_risk_factors_for_colon_and_rectum_cancer.asp |date=18 May 2009 |publisher=American Cancer Society |access-date=26 June 2009| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080419135519/http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_4_2X_What_are_the_risk_factors_for_colon_and_rectum_cancer.asp| archive-date = 19 April 2008}} the Mayo Clinic,{{cite web|title=Colon Cancer: Risk factors |url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/colon-cancer/DS00035/DSECTION=risk%2Dfactors |publisher=Mayo Clinic |date=2 May 2008 |access-date=29 June 2009}} and the Colorectal Cancer Coalition,{{cite web |title=Assessing Your Risk for Colorectal Cancer |url=http://fightcolorectalcancer.org/awareness/patients/prevention/risk |date=9 January 2009 |publisher=Colorectal Cancer Coalition |access-date=29 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090427085627/http://fightcolorectalcancer.org/awareness/patients/prevention/risk |archive-date=27 April 2009 }} American Society of Clinical Oncology{{cite web |url= http://www.guildfordent.co.uk/alcohol/ |title=Alcohol | publisher = Guildford ENT Ltd. |date=3 November 2015 }} and the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center{{cite web | url = http://www.mskcc.org/mskcc/html/310.cfm | work = Sloan-Kettering | title = Colorectal Cancer: Risk Reduction | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20030622165500/http://www.mskcc.org/mskcc/html/310.cfm | archive-date = 22 June 2003 }} list alcohol as a risk factor.

A WCRF panel report finds the evidence "convincing" that alcoholic drinks increase the risk of colorectal cancer in men at consumption levels above 30 grams of absolute alcohol daily.{{Cite book|author=World Cancer Research Fund |author2=American Institute for Cancer Research |title=Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective |publisher=American Institute for Cancer Research |location=Washington, D.C. |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-9722522-2-5 |url=http://www.dietandcancerreport.org/downloads/Second_Expert_Report.pdf |access-date=29 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325235446/http://www.dietandcancerreport.org/downloads/Second_Expert_Report.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2009 |author2-link=American Institute for Cancer Research |author-link=World Cancer Research Fund }}{{Page needed|date=August 2010}} The National Cancer Institute states, "Heavy alcohol use may also increase the risk of colorectal cancer"{{cite web | work = National Cancer Institute (NCI) | title = Cancer Trends Progress Report: Alcohol Consumption | url = http://progressreport.cancer.gov/doc_detail.asp?pid=1&did=2007&chid=71&coid=706&mid= | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121216012546/http://progressreport.cancer.gov/doc_detail.asp?pid=1&did=2007&chid=71&coid=706&mid= | archive-date = 16 December 2012 }}

A 2011 meta-analysis found that alcohol consumption was associated with an increased risk of colorectal cancer.{{cite journal | vauthors = Fedirko V, Tramacere I, Bagnardi V, Rota M, Scotti L, Islami F, Negri E, Straif K, Romieu I, La Vecchia C, Boffetta P, Jenab M | display-authors = 6 | title = Alcohol drinking and colorectal cancer risk: an overall and dose-response meta-analysis of published studies | journal = Annals of Oncology | volume = 22 | issue = 9 | pages = 1958–1972 | date = September 2011 | pmid = 21307158 | doi = 10.1093/annonc/mdq653 | doi-access = free }}

{{Main|Liver cancer}}

Image:hepatocellular carcinoma 1.jpg positive. Autopsy specimen.]]

Alcohol is a risk factor for liver cancer, through cirrhosis.{{cite web | url = https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/alcohol/alcohol-fact-sheet | title = Alcohol and Cancer Risk | work = cancer.gov | date = 14 July 2021 }}{{cite web | url = http://www.cancer.org/Cancer/LiverCancer/DetailedGuide/liver-cancer-risk-factors | title = Liver Cancer Risk Factors | work = cancer.org | access-date = 25 November 2010 | archive-date = 16 January 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140116023346/http://www.cancer.org/cancer/livercancer/detailedguide/liver-cancer-risk-factors | url-status = dead }}{{cite web | url = http://www.umgcc.org/gi_program/adult_liver-risk.htm | title = Liver Cancer Risk Factors | work = umgcc.or | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090223181822/http://www.umgcc.org/gi_program/adult_liver-risk.htm | archive-date = 23 February 2009 }} "Cirrhosis results from scar formation within the liver, most commonly due to chronic alcohol use."{{cite web | url = http://www.oncolink.org/types/article.cfm?c=5&s=15&ss=113&id=9495 | title = Liver Cancer: The Basics | work = oncolink.org | access-date = 29 June 2009 | archive-date = 13 January 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160113042100/http://www.oncolink.org/types/article.cfm?c=5&s=15&ss=113&id=9495 | url-status = dead }}

"Approximately 5 percent of people with cirrhosis develop liver cancer. Cirrhosis is a disease that develops when liver cells are replaced with scar tissue after damage from alcohol abuse, …"{{cite web | url = http://www.utmedicalcenter.org/cms/Liver+Cancer==/571.html | title = Liver Cancer | work = utmedicalcenter.org | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110728151812/http://www.utmedicalcenter.org/cms/Liver%2BCancer%3D%3D/571.html | archive-date = 28 July 2011 }}

The NIAAA reports that "Prolonged, heavy drinking has been associated in many cases with primary liver cancer." However, it is liver cirrhosis, whether caused by alcohol or another factor, that is thought to induce the cancer."{{Cite book| vauthors = Takada A, Takase S, Tsutsumi M |chapter=Alcohol and Hepatic Carcinogenesis | veditors = Yirmiya R, Taylor AN |year=1992 |title=Alcohol, Immunity, and Cancer |location=Boca Raton, Florida |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-8493-5761-9 |pages=187–209}}{{Cite book| vauthors = Villa E, Melegari M, Manenti F |chapter=Alcohol, Viral Hepatitis, and Hepatocellular Carcinoma |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=81V5y-LOxg0C&pg=PA151 | veditors = Watson RR |year=1992 |location=Boca Raton, Florida |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-8493-7938-3 |pages=151–165 |title=Alcohol and cancer}}

"The chances of getting liver cancer increase markedly with five or more drinks per day" (NCI).

A study concluded that for every additional drink regularly consumed per day, the incidence of liver cancer increases by 0.7 per 1000.

In the United States, liver cancer is relatively uncommon, affecting approximately 2 people per 100,000, but excessive alcohol consumption is linked to as many as 36% of these cases by some investigators.Duffy, S.W., and Sharples, L.D. Alcohol and cancer risk. In: Duffy, J.L., ed. Alcohol and Illness: The Epidemiological Viewpoint. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1992. pp. 64–127.' "Overall, 61% of HCC were attributable to HCV [hepatitis C virus], 13% to HBV [hepatitis B virus], and 18% to heavy alcohol drinking."{{cite journal | vauthors = Franceschi S, Montella M, Polesel J, La Vecchia C, Crispo A, Dal Maso L, Casarin P, Izzo F, Tommasi LG, Chemin I, Trépo C, Crovatto M, Talamini R | display-authors = 6 | title = Hepatitis viruses, alcohol, and tobacco in the etiology of hepatocellular carcinoma in Italy | journal = Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention | volume = 15 | issue = 4 | pages = 683–689 | date = April 2006 | pmid = 16614109 | doi = 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-05-0702 | doi-access = free }} A study in the province of Brescia, northern Italy concluded, "On the basis of population attributable risks (AR), heavy alcohol intake seems to be the single most relevant cause of HCC in this area (AR: 45%), followed by HCV (AR: 36%), and HBV (AR: 22%) infection."{{cite journal | vauthors = Donato F, Tagger A, Chiesa R, Ribero ML, Tomasoni V, Fasola M, Gelatti U, Portera G, Boffetta P, Nardi G | display-authors = 6 | title = Hepatitis B and C virus infection, alcohol drinking, and hepatocellular carcinoma: a case-control study in Italy. Brescia HCC Study | journal = Hepatology | volume = 26 | issue = 3 | pages = 579–584 | date = September 1997 | pmid = 9303486 | doi = 10.1002/hep.510260308 | s2cid = 73143125 | doi-access = free }}

{{Main|Lung cancer}}

Alcohol intake of more than 2 drinks per day is associated with a small increased risk of lung cancer.{{cite journal | vauthors = Freudenheim JL, Ritz J, Smith-Warner SA, Albanes D, Bandera EV, van den Brandt PA, Colditz G, Feskanich D, Goldbohm RA, Harnack L, Miller AB, Rimm E, Rohan TE, Sellers TA, Virtamo J, Willett WC, Hunter DJ | display-authors = 6 | title = Alcohol consumption and risk of lung cancer: a pooled analysis of cohort studies | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 82 | issue = 3 | pages = 657–667 | date = September 2005 | pmid = 16155281 | doi = 10.1093/ajcn.82.3.657 | doi-access = free }} Commenting on a study by Freudenheim et al., R. Curtis Ellison MD writes, "This study, like others, suggests a weak, positive association between consuming larger amounts of alcohol (>2 drinks a day) and lung cancer risk."{{cite web | work = Boston University | url = http://www.bu.edu/act/alcoholandhealth/issues/issue_jan06/ellison_freudenheim.htm | title = Alcohol Consumption and Lung Cancer: Are They Connected? | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060920231715/http://www.bu.edu/act/alcoholandhealth/issues/issue_jan06/ellison_freudenheim.htm | archive-date =20 September 2006 }} However, studies on the relationship between alcohol consumption and lung cancer have yielded conflicting results. Studies are typically impacted by confounding due to factors like smoking which is one of the most significant risk factors for the development of lung cancer. The association of alcohol consumption with lung cancer is unclear.{{cite journal | vauthors = Fehringer G, Brenner DR, Zhang ZF, Lee YA, Matsuo K, Ito H, Lan Q, Vineis P, Johansson M, Overvad K, Riboli E, Trichopoulou A, Sacerdote C, Stucker I, Boffetta P, Brennan P, Christiani DC, Hong YC, Landi MT, Morgenstern H, Schwartz AG, Wenzlaff AS, Rennert G, McLaughlin JR, Harris CC, Olivo-Marston S, Orlow I, Park BJ, Zauderer M, Barros Dios JM, Ruano Raviña A, Siemiatycki J, Koushik A, Lazarus P, Fernández-Somoano A, Tardon A, Le Marchand L, Brenner H, Saum KU, Duell EJ, Andrew AS, Szeszenia-Dabrowska N, Lissowska J, Zaridze D, Rudnai P, Fabianova E, Mates D, Foretova L, Janout V, Bencko V, Holcatova I, Pesatori AC, Consonni D, Olsson A, Straif K, Hung RJ | display-authors = 6 | title = Alcohol and lung cancer risk among never smokers: A pooled analysis from the international lung cancer consortium and the SYNERGY study | journal = International Journal of Cancer | volume = 140 | issue = 9 | pages = 1976–1984 | date = May 2017 | pmid = 28120396 | pmc = 5356930 | doi = 10.1002/ijc.30618 }}

{{Main|Melanoma}}

Results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and nutrition (EPIC) cohort indicated a positive association between alcohol consumption and skin cancer. Baseline alcohol intake as well as lifetime alcohol consumption were associated with an increased risk of the development of squamous cell carcinoma, basal cell carcinoma, and melanoma in men. There was also an increased risk of these skin cancers in women, but the association wasn't as strong as that seen in men.{{cite journal | vauthors = Mahamat-Saleh Y, Al-Rahmoun M, Severi G, Ghiasvand R, Veierod MB, Caini S, Palli D, Botteri E, Sacerdote C, Ricceri F, Lukic M, Sánchez MJ, Pala V, Tumino R, Chiodini P, Amiano P, Colorado-Yohar S, Chirlaque MD, Ardanaz E, Bonet C, Katzke V, Kaaks R, Schulze MB, Overvad K, Dahm CC, Antoniussen CS, Tjønneland A, Kyrø C, Bueno-de-Mesquita B, Manjer J, Jansson M, Esberg A, Mori N, Ferrari P, Weiderpass E, Boutron-Ruault MC, Kvaskoff M | display-authors = 6 | title = Baseline and lifetime alcohol consumption and risk of skin cancer in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition cohort (EPIC) | journal = International Journal of Cancer | volume = 152 | issue = 3 | pages = 348–362 | date = February 2023 | pmid = 36053839 | pmc = 10087036 | doi = 10.1002/ijc.34253 | s2cid = 251706941 | doi-access = free }} Any alcohol intake is associated with the development of malignant melanoma.{{cite journal | vauthors = Millen AE, Tucker MA, Hartge P, Halpern A, Elder DE, Guerry D, Holly EA, Sagebiel RW, Potischman N | display-authors = 6 | title = Diet and melanoma in a case-control study | journal = Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention | volume = 13 | issue = 6 | pages = 1042–1051 | date = June 2004 | pmid = 15184262 | doi = 10.1158/1055-9965.1042.13.6 | s2cid = 2489716 | doi-access = free }}

{{Main|Stomach cancer}}

"Statistically significant increases in risk also existed for cancers of the stomach, colon, rectum, liver, female breast, and ovaries."

"While alcohol has been extensively studied as a cause of stomach cancer there is no conclusive evidence that it increases risk. However, results from at least three studies suggest that heavy alcohol consumption may increase the risk of stomach cancer in heavy smokers."{{cite journal | vauthors = Chen MJ, Chiou YY, Wu DC, Wu SL | title = Lifestyle habits and gastric cancer in a hospital-based case-control study in Taiwan | journal = The American Journal of Gastroenterology | volume = 95 | issue = 11 | pages = 3242–3249 | date = November 2000 | pmid = 11095349 | doi = 10.1111/j.1572-0241.2000.03260.x | s2cid = 23570395 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0002927000020530 |doi-broken-date=12 Nov 2024| url-access = subscription }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Inoue M, Tajima K, Hirose K, Kuroishi T, Gao CM, Kitoh T | title = Life-style and subsite of gastric cancer--joint effect of smoking and drinking habits | journal = International Journal of Cancer | volume = 56 | issue = 4 | pages = 494–499 | date = February 1994 | pmid = 8112885 | doi = 10.1002/ijc.2910560407 | s2cid = 21402545 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Sjödahl K, Lu Y, Nilsen TI, Ye W, Hveem K, Vatten L, Lagergren J | title = Smoking and alcohol drinking in relation to risk of gastric cancer: a population-based, prospective cohort study | journal = International Journal of Cancer | volume = 120 | issue = 1 | pages = 128–132 | date = January 2007 | pmid = 17036324 | doi = 10.1002/ijc.22157 | s2cid = 26972976 | doi-access = free }}{{cite web | url = http://info.cancerresearchuk.org/cancerstats/types/stomach/riskfactors/ | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080512052004/http://info.cancerresearchuk.org/cancerstats/types/stomach/riskfactors/ | archive-date = 12 May 2008 | title = Stomach Cancer risk factors | work = Cancer Research UK }}

A Taiwanese study concluded, "…cigarette smoking may play the most harmful role in the initial development of gastric cancer, and that drinking alcohol may promote the process."

A Norwegian study found that, "No statistically significant associations between various degrees of exposure to alcohol and risk of gastric cancer was revealed, but combined high use of cigarettes (>20/day) and alcohol (>5 occasions/14 days) increased the risk of noncardia gastric cancer nearly 5-fold (HR = 4.90 [95% CI = 1.90–12.62]), compared to nonusers."

{{Main|Endometrial cancer}}

Image:Endometrial adenocarcinoma gross.jpg

Alcohol has been identified as a risk factor for endometrial cancer.{{cite journal | vauthors = Tinelli A, Vergara D, Martignago R, Leo G, Malvasi A, Tinelli R | title = Hormonal carcinogenesis and socio-biological development factors in endometrial cancer: a clinical review | journal = Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica | volume = 87 | issue = 11 | pages = 1101–1113 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18607816 | doi = 10.1080/00016340802160079 | s2cid = 1910334 }} Data however, on the association of alcohol intake and endometrial cancer is conflicting. Where data exists for an association low to moderate intake of alcohol, (less than two drinks per day) is not associated with an increased risk but an association has been suggested for higher alcohol intake.{{cite web | work = UK Department of Health | url = http://www.advisorybodies.doh.gov.uk/pdfs/alcend.pdf | title = Review of Alcohol: Association with Endometrial Cancer | page = 8 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20040624102721/http://www.advisorybodies.doh.gov.uk/pdfs/alcend.pdf | archive-date = 24 June 2004 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Newcomb PA, Trentham-Dietz A, Storer BE | title = Alcohol consumption in relation to endometrial cancer risk | journal = Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention | volume = 6 | issue = 10 | pages = 775–778 | date = October 1997 | pmid = 9332758 | url = http://cebp.aacrjournals.org/cgi/reprint/6/10/775 }} "Our results suggest that only alcohol consumption equivalent to 2 or more drinks per day increases risk of endometrial cancer in postmenopausal women."{{cite journal | vauthors = Setiawan VW, Monroe KR, Goodman MT, Kolonel LN, Pike MC, Henderson BE | title = Alcohol consumption and endometrial cancer risk: the multiethnic cohort | journal = International Journal of Cancer | volume = 122 | issue = 3 | pages = 634–638 | date = February 2008 | pmid = 17764072 | pmc = 2667794 | doi = 10.1002/ijc.23072 }} "In conclusion, our results suggest that low alcohol consumption (up to one drink per day) is unlikely to substantially influence risk of endometrial cancer."{{cite journal | vauthors = Friberg E, Wolk A | title = Long-term alcohol consumption and risk of endometrial cancer incidence: a prospective cohort study | journal = Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention | volume = 18 | issue = 1 | pages = 355–358 | date = January 2009 | pmid = 19124521 | doi = 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-08-0993 | doi-access = free }}

{{Main|Gallbladder cancer}}

Alcohol has been suggested as a risk factor for gallbladder cancer.{{cite journal | vauthors = Moerman CJ, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB | title = The epidemiology of gallbladder cancer: lifestyle related risk factors and limited surgical possibilities for prevention | journal = Hepato-Gastroenterology | volume = 46 | issue = 27 | pages = 1533–1539 | year = 1999 | pmid = 10430290 }} Evidence suggests that a high intake of alcohol is associated with gallbladder cancer.{{cite journal | vauthors = Ji J, Couto E, Hemminki K | title = Incidence differences for gallbladder cancer between occupational groups suggest an etiological role for alcohol | journal = International Journal of Cancer | volume = 116 | issue = 3 | pages = 492–493 | date = September 2005 | pmid = 15800949 | doi = 10.1002/ijc.21055 | s2cid = 32298422 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Pandey M, Shukla VK | title = Lifestyle, parity, menstrual and reproductive factors and risk of gallbladder cancer | journal = European Journal of Cancer Prevention | volume = 12 | issue = 4 | pages = 269–272 | date = August 2003 | pmid = 12883378 | doi = 10.1097/00008469-200308000-00005 | s2cid = 32148865 }} Men may be at a higher risk of alcohol-related gallbladder cancer than women.{{cite journal | vauthors = Yagyu K, Kikuchi S, Obata Y, Lin Y, Ishibashi T, Kurosawa M, Inaba Y, Tamakoshi A | display-authors = 6 | title = Cigarette smoking, alcohol drinking and the risk of gallbladder cancer death: a prospective cohort study in Japan | journal = International Journal of Cancer | volume = 122 | issue = 4 | pages = 924–929 | date = February 2008 | pmid = 17955487 | doi = 10.1002/ijc.23159 | s2cid = 29223553 | doi-access = free }}

{{Main|Ovarian cancer}}

"Thus, the results of this study suggest that relatively elevated alcohol intake (of the order of 40 g per day or more) may cause a modest increase of epithelial ovarian cancer risk.".{{cite journal | vauthors = La Vecchia C, Negri E, Franceschi S, Parazzini F, Gentile A, Fasoli M | title = Alcohol and epithelial ovarian cancer | journal = Journal of Clinical Epidemiology | volume = 45 | issue = 9 | pages = 1025–1030 | date = September 1992 | pmid = 1432017 | doi = 10.1016/0895-4356(92)90119-8 }} "Associations were also found between alcohol consumption and cancers of the ovary and prostate, but only for 50 g and 100 g a day."

"Statistically significant increases in risk also existed for cancers of the stomach, colon, rectum, liver, female breast, and ovaries."{{cite journal | vauthors = Bagnardi V, Blangiardo M, La Vecchia C, Corrao G | title = Alcohol consumption and the risk of cancer: a meta-analysis | journal = Alcohol Research & Health | volume = 25 | issue = 4 | pages = 263–270 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11910703 | pmc = 6705703 | url = http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh25-4/263-270.htm | access-date = 25 June 2009 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190620155512/https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh25-4/263-270.htm | archive-date = 20 June 2019 }}

"Thus, this pooled analysis does not provide support for an association between moderate alcohol intake and ovarian cancer risk."{{cite journal | vauthors = Genkinger JM, Hunter DJ, Spiegelman D, Anderson KE, Buring JE, Freudenheim JL, Goldbohm RA, Harnack L, Hankinson SE, Larsson SC, Leitzmann M, McCullough ML, Marshall J, Miller AB, Rodriguez C, Rohan TE, Schatzkin A, Schouten LJ, Wolk A, Zhang SM, Smith-Warner SA | display-authors = 6 | title = Alcohol intake and ovarian cancer risk: a pooled analysis of 10 cohort studies | journal = British Journal of Cancer | volume = 94 | issue = 5 | pages = 757–762 | date = March 2006 | pmid = 16495916 | pmc = 2361197 | doi = 10.1038/sj.bjc.6603020 }}

{{Main|Prostate cancer}}

"Data from the Health Professionals Follow-Up Study showed only a weak association between overall alcohol intake and prostate cancer risk, and no association at all between red wine intake and prostate cancer risk."{{cite journal | vauthors = Yip I, Heber D, Aronson W | title = Nutrition and prostate cancer | journal = The Urologic Clinics of North America | volume = 26 | issue = 2 | pages = 403–11, x | date = May 1999 | pmid = 10361562 | doi = 10.1016/S0094-0143(05)70079-3 | url = http://www.prostatecancerfoundation.org/atf/cf/%7B705B3273-F2EF-4EF6-A653-E15C5D8BB6B1%7D/Nutrition_Guide.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090521064838/http://www.prostatecancerfoundation.org/atf/cf/%7B705B3273-F2EF-4EF6-A653-E15C5D8BB6B1%7D/Nutrition_Guide.pdf | archive-date = 2009-05-21 }}

A meta-analysis published in 2001 found a small but significant increased risk for men drinking more than 50 g/day of alcohol, with a slightly higher risk for men consuming more than 100 g/day.{{cite journal | vauthors = Bagnardi V, Blangiardo M, La Vecchia C, Corrao G | title = A meta-analysis of alcohol drinking and cancer risk | journal = British Journal of Cancer | volume = 85 | issue = 11 | pages = 1700–1705 | date = November 2001 | pmid = 11742491 | pmc = 2363992 | doi = 10.1054/bjoc.2001.2140 }} Since that analysis, cohort studies in America have found increased risks for men drinking moderate amounts of spirits, and for 'binge drinkers,{{cite journal | vauthors = Platz EA, Leitzmann MF, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Giovannucci E | title = Alcohol intake, drinking patterns, and risk of prostate cancer in a large prospective cohort study | journal = American Journal of Epidemiology | volume = 159 | issue = 5 | pages = 444–453 | date = March 2004 | pmid = 14977640 | doi = 10.1093/aje/kwh062 | doi-access = free }} but moderate consumption of beer or wine has not been linked to an increased risk.{{cite journal | vauthors = Sesso HD, Paffenbarger RS, Lee IM | title = Alcohol consumption and risk of prostate cancer: The Harvard Alumni Health Study | journal = International Journal of Epidemiology | volume = 30 | issue = 4 | pages = 749–755 | date = August 2001 | pmid = 11511598 | doi = 10.1093/ije/30.4.749 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Schoonen WM, Salinas CA, Kiemeney LA, Stanford JL | title = Alcohol consumption and risk of prostate cancer in middle-aged men | journal = International Journal of Cancer | volume = 113 | issue = 1 | pages = 133–140 | date = January 2005 | pmid = 15386436 | doi = 10.1002/ijc.20528 | s2cid = 19513583 | doi-access = free }}{{cite web | work = Cancer Research UK | url = http://info.cancerresearchuk.org/cancerstats/types/prostate/riskfactors/ | title = Prostate Cancer risk factors }}

Alcohol consumption of 50 g and 100 g per day is also associated with cancers of the ovary and prostate.{{cite web | url = http://www.medicine.ox.ac.uk/bandolier/booth/hliving/alccan.html | title = Alcohol consumption and cancer risk | archive-url = https://archive.today/20121223045708/http://www.medicine.ox.ac.uk/bandolier/booth/hliving/alccan.html | archive-date=23 December 2012 }} However, one study concludes, that moderate alcohol consumption increases the risk of prostate cancer. Liquor, but not wine or beer, consumption was positively associated with prostate cancer."

The Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center found that men who consumed four or more glasses of red wine per week had a 50 percent reduction in the risk of developing prostate cancer. They "found no significant effects – positive nor negative – associated with the consumption of beer or hard liquor and no consistent risk reduction with white wine, which suggests that there must be a beneficial compound in red wine that other types of alcohol lack. That compound … may be an antioxidant called resveratrol, which is abundant in the skins of red grapes.".{{cite web | work = Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center | url = http://www.fhcrc.org/about/ne/news/2004/09/22/red_wine.html | title = Press release: A Glass of Red Wine a Day May Keep Prostate Cancer Away }}

A meta analysis of studies published in 2009 found that consumption of only 2 standard drinks per day increased the cancer risk by 20%.{{cite journal | vauthors = Middleton Fillmore K, Chikritzhs T, Stockwell T, Bostrom A, Pascal R | title = Alcohol use and prostate cancer: a meta-analysis | journal = Molecular Nutrition & Food Research | volume = 53 | issue = 2 | pages = 240–255 | date = February 2009 | pmid = 19156715 | doi = 10.1002/mnfr.200800122 | s2cid = 28921992 }}{{Cite news|date=14 March 2009 |title=Study links alcohol, prostate cancer |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/03/14/2516235.htm |work=ABC News |access-date=29 June 2009| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090620054154/http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/03/14/2516235.htm| archive-date= 20 June 2009 | url-status= dead}}

Image:Duodenal adenocarcinoma.png of duodenum seen in the post-bulbar duodenum]]

{{Main|Small intestine cancer}}

A study of small intestine cancer patients reported that alcohol consumption was associated with adenocarcinomas and malignant carcinoid tumors.{{cite journal | vauthors = Chen CC, Neugut AI, Rotterdam H | title = Risk factors for adenocarcinomas and malignant carcinoids of the small intestine: preliminary findings | journal = Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention | volume = 3 | issue = 3 | pages = 205–207 | date = 1 April 1994 | pmid = 8019367 | url = http://cebp.aacrjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=8019367 }}

"In men and women combined, a significant 3-fold increased risk in heavy drinkers (80+g ethanol/day) relative to more moderate

drinkers and non-drinkers was observed."{{cite journal | vauthors = Wu AH, Yu MC, Mack TM | title = Smoking, alcohol use, dietary factors and risk of small intestinal adenocarcinoma | journal = International Journal of Cancer | volume = 70 | issue = 5 | pages = 512–517 | date = March 1997 | pmid = 9052748 | doi = 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0215(19970304)70:5<512::AID-IJC4>3.0.CO;2-0 | doi-access = free }}

"Alcohol and tobacco consumption did not increase the risk of adenocarcinoma of the small intestine. … While the present data are inconsistent with a major effect of tobacco or alcohol, a moderate association between these factors and small bowel cancer may have been obscured by the play of chance."{{cite journal | vauthors = Negri E, Bosetti C, La Vecchia C, Fioretti F, Conti E, Franceschi S | title = Risk factors for adenocarcinoma of the small intestine | journal = International Journal of Cancer | volume = 82 | issue = 2 | pages = 171–174 | date = July 1999 | pmid = 10389747 | doi = 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0215(19990719)82:2<171::AID-IJC3>3.0.CO;2-T | s2cid = 29812362 | doi-access = free }}

{{Main|Leukemia}}

Intake of alcohol during pregnancy has been associated with childhood leukemia.{{cite journal | vauthors = Infante-Rivard C, El-Zein M | title = Parental alcohol consumption and childhood cancers: a review | journal = Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part B: Critical Reviews | volume = 10 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 101–129 | year = 2007 | pmid = 18074306 | doi = 10.1080/10937400601034597 | bibcode = 2007JTEHB..10..101I | s2cid = 22394372 }} A review published by the National Cancer Institute placed maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy in the category of "suggestive" but concluded that the risk was not important.

;Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia (ALL)

For ALL in children, maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy is "unlikely to be an important risk factor for ALL"{{cite book | veditors = Ries LA, Smith MA, Gurney JG, Linet M, Tamra T, Young JL, Bunin GR | title = Cancer incidence and survival among children and adolescents: United States SEER Program 1975-1995. | publisher = National Cancer Institute, SEER Program. | id = NIH Pub. No. 99-4649 | location = Bethesda, MD | date = 1999 | url = http://seer.cancer.gov/publications/childhood/leukemia.pdf }}

;Acute myeloid leukemia (AML)

{{Main|Acute myeloid leukemia}}

A study concluded, "In conclusion, even though our study did not show a clear association between alcohol intake and leukemia risk, some of the patterns of the risk estimates (a possible J-shaped dose-response curve between alcohol intake and ALL, AML, and CLL risks, and the positive association between alcohol and CML), may be suggestive."{{cite journal | vauthors = Gorini G, Stagnaro E, Fontana V, Miligi L, Ramazzotti V, Nanni O, Rodella S, Tumino R, Crosignani P, Vindigni C, Fontana A, Vineis P, Costantini AS | display-authors = 6 | title = Alcohol consumption and risk of leukemia: A multicenter case-control study | journal = Leukemia Research | volume = 31 | issue = 3 | pages = 379–386 | date = March 2007 | pmid = 16919329 | doi = 10.1016/j.leukres.2006.07.002 }}

;Childhood AML

"Three studies have reported an increased risk (approximately 1.5-2 fold) in mothers who drank alcoholic beverages during pregnancy. These associations have been particularly apparent in children diagnosed younger than three years of age.". "Maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy increases the risk of infant leukemia, especially AML."{{cite journal | vauthors = Shu XO, Ross JA, Pendergrass TW, Reaman GH, Lampkin B, Robison LL | title = Parental alcohol consumption, cigarette smoking, and risk of infant leukemia: a Childrens Cancer Group study | journal = Journal of the National Cancer Institute | volume = 88 | issue = 1 | pages = 24–31 | date = January 1996 | pmid = 8847721 | doi = 10.1093/jnci/88.1.24 | doi-access = free }}

;Acute non-lymphocytic leukemia (ANLL)

A study found that intrauterine exposure to alcohol doubled the risk for childhood ANLL.{{cite journal | vauthors = van Duijn CM, van Steensel-Moll HA, Coebergh JW, van Zanen GE | title = Risk factors for childhood acute non-lymphocytic leukemia: an association with maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy? | journal = Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention | volume = 3 | issue = 6 | pages = 457–460 | date = September 1994 | pmid = 8000294 | url = http://cebp.aacrjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=8000294 }}

;Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)

{{Main|Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia}}

A study concluded, "In conclusion, even though our study did not show a clear association between alcohol intake and leukemia risk, some of the patterns of the risk estimates (a possible J-shaped dose-response curve between alcohol intake and ALL, AML, and CLL risks, and the positive association between alcohol and CML), may be suggestive."

;Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML)

{{Main|Chronic myelogenous leukemia}}

A population-based case-control study in Italy found a non-significant positive association between drinking and CML.

;Hairy cell leukemia

{{Main|Hairy cell leukemia}}

A study concluded, "There was no association found for cigarette smoking, alcohol or coffee consumption and hairy cell leukemia."{{cite journal | vauthors = Oleske D, Golomb HM, Farber MD, Levy PS | title = A case-control inquiry into the etiology of hairy cell leukemia | journal = American Journal of Epidemiology | volume = 121 | issue = 5 | pages = 675–683 | date = May 1985 | pmid = 4014159 | doi = 10.1093/aje/121.5.675 }}

{{Main|Multiple myeloma}}

Alcohol has been suggested as a possible cause of multiple myeloma,{{cite journal | vauthors = Kyle RA, Rajkumar SV | title = Epidemiology of the plasma-cell disorders | journal = Best Practice & Research. Clinical Haematology | volume = 20 | issue = 4 | pages = 637–664 | date = December 2007 | pmid = 18070711 | doi = 10.1016/j.beha.2007.08.001 }} although a study found no association between MM in a comparison study between drinkers and non-drinkers.{{cite journal | vauthors = Gorini G, Stagnaro E, Fontana V, Miligi L, Ramazzotti V, Amadori D, Rodella S, Tumino R, Crosignani P, Vindigni C, Fontana A, Vineis P, Seniori Costantini A | display-authors = 6 | title = Alcohol consumption and risk of Hodgkin's lymphoma and multiple myeloma: a multicentre case-control study | journal = Annals of Oncology | volume = 18 | issue = 1 | pages = 143–148 | date = January 2007 | pmid = 17047000 | doi = 10.1093/annonc/mdl352 | doi-access = free }}

Whilst the association between alcohol abuse and pancreatitis is well established the association between alcohol consumption and pancreatic cancer is less clear. Overall the evidence suggests a slightly increased risk of pancreatic cancer with chronic heavy alcohol consumption but the evidence remains conflicting with a number of studies finding no association.,{{cite journal | vauthors = Ye W, Lagergren J, Weiderpass E, Nyrén O, Adami HO, Ekbom A | title = Alcohol abuse and the risk of pancreatic cancer | journal = Gut | volume = 51 | issue = 2 | pages = 236–239 | date = August 2002 | pmid = 12117886 | pmc = 1773298 | doi = 10.1136/gut.51.2.236 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Silverman DT, Brown LM, Hoover RN, Schiffman M, Lillemoe KD, Schoenberg JB, Swanson GM, Hayes RB, Greenberg RS, Benichou J | display-authors = 6 | title = Alcohol and pancreatic cancer in blacks and whites in the United States | journal = Cancer Research | volume = 55 | issue = 21 | pages = 4899–4905 | date = November 1995 | pmid = 7585527 }} but no increased risk for people consuming up to 30g of alcohol a day{{cite journal | vauthors = Michaud DS, Giovannucci E, Willett WC, Colditz GA, Fuchs CS | title = Coffee and alcohol consumption and the risk of pancreatic cancer in two prospective United States cohorts | journal = Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention | volume = 10 | issue = 5 | pages = 429–437 | date = May 2001 | pmid = 11352851 }}

Overall, the association is consistently weak and the majority of studies have found no association.{{cite journal | vauthors = Villeneuve PJ, Johnson KC, Hanley AJ, Mao Y | title = Alcohol, tobacco and coffee consumption and the risk of pancreatic cancer: results from the Canadian Enhanced Surveillance System case-control project. Canadian Cancer Registries Epidemiology Research Group | journal = European Journal of Cancer Prevention | volume = 9 | issue = 1 | pages = 49–58 | date = February 2000 | pmid = 10777010 | doi = 10.1097/00008469-200002000-00007 }} Although drinking alcohol excessively is a major cause of chronic pancreatitis, which in turn predisposes to pancreatic cancer, chronic pancreatitis associated with alcohol consumption is less frequently a precursor for pancreatic cancer than other types of chronic pancreatitis.{{cite web | url = http://www.cancerhelp.org.uk/help/default.asp?page=3102#alcohol | title = Pancreatic cancer risks and causes | work = Cancer Research UK | date = 30 August 2017 }}

Some studies suggest a relationship,{{cite journal | vauthors = Ahlgren JD | title = Epidemiology and risk factors in pancreatic cancer | journal = Seminars in Oncology | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 241–250 | date = April 1996 | pmid = 8623060 }} the risk increasing with increasing amount of alcohol intake.{{cite journal | vauthors = Cuzick J, Babiker AG | title = Pancreatic cancer, alcohol, diabetes mellitus and gall-bladder disease | journal = International Journal of Cancer | volume = 43 | issue = 3 | pages = 415–421 | date = March 1989 | pmid = 2925272 | doi = 10.1002/ijc.2910430312 | s2cid = 35777641 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Harnack LJ, Anderson KE, Zheng W, Folsom AR, Sellers TA, Kushi LH | title = Smoking, alcohol, coffee, and tea intake and incidence of cancer of the exocrine pancreas: the Iowa Women's Health Study | journal = Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention | volume = 6 | issue = 12 | pages = 1081–1086 | date = December 1997 | pmid = 9419407 }} The risk is greatest in heavy drinkers,{{cite book | veditors = Schottenfeld D, Fraumeni Jr JF | date = 1996 | title = Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention | edition = 2nd | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford}} {{Page needed|date=September 2010}} mostly on the order of four or more drinks per day.{{cite journal | vauthors = Olsen GW, Mandel JS, Gibson RW, Wattenberg LW, Schuman LM | title = A case-control study of pancreatic cancer and cigarettes, alcohol, coffee and diet | journal = American Journal of Public Health | volume = 79 | issue = 8 | pages = 1016–1019 | date = August 1989 | pmid = 2751016 | pmc = 1349898 | doi = 10.2105/AJPH.79.8.1016 }} There appears to be no increased risk for people consuming up to 30g of alcohol a day,{{cite web|url=http://info.cancerresearchuk.org/cancerstats/types/pancreas/riskfactors/ |title=Pancreatic cancer risk factors |publisher=Info.cancerresearchuk.org |date=2008-11-04 |access-date=2009-09-15}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Genkinger JM, Spiegelman D, Anderson KE, Bergkvist L, Bernstein L, van den Brandt PA, English DR, Freudenheim JL, Fuchs CS, Giles GG, Giovannucci E, Hankinson SE, Horn-Ross PL, Leitzmann M, Männistö S, Marshall JR, McCullough ML, Miller AB, Reding DJ, Robien K, Rohan TE, Schatzkin A, Stevens VL, Stolzenberg-Solomon RZ, Verhage BA, Wolk A, Ziegler RG, Smith-Warner SA | display-authors = 6 | title = Alcohol intake and pancreatic cancer risk: a pooled analysis of fourteen cohort studies | journal = Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention | volume = 18 | issue = 3 | pages = 765–776 | date = March 2009 | pmid = 19258474 | pmc = 2715951 | doi = 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-08-0880 | quote = In summary, a weak positive association between alcohol intake during adulthood and pancreatic cancer risk was observed in the highest category of intake (≥30g/day or approximately 2 alcoholic beverages/day). Associations with alcohol intake were stronger among individuals who were normal weight. Thus, our findings are consistent with a modest increase in risk of pancreatic cancer for alcohol intakes of at least 30 grams/day. }} which is approximately 2 alcoholic beverages/day, so most people who take alcohol do so at a level that "is probably not a risk factor for pancreatic cancer". A pooled analysis concluded, "Our findings are consistent with a modest increase in risk of pancreatic cancer with consumption of 30 or more grams of alcohol per day".

Several studies caution that their findings could be due to confounding factors.{{cite journal | vauthors = Zatonski WA, Boyle P, Przewozniak K, Maisonneuve P, Drosik K, Walker AM | title = Cigarette smoking, alcohol, tea and coffee consumption and pancreas cancer risk: a case-control study from Opole, Poland | journal = International Journal of Cancer | volume = 53 | issue = 4 | pages = 601–607 | date = February 1993 | pmid = 8436433 | doi = 10.1002/ijc.2910530413 | s2cid = 39084516 }} Even if a link exists, it "could be due to the contents of some alcoholic beverages"{{cite journal | vauthors = Durbec JP, Chevillotte G, Bidart JM, Berthezene P, Sarles H | title = Diet, alcohol, tobacco and risk of cancer of the pancreas: a case-control study | journal = British Journal of Cancer | volume = 47 | issue = 4 | pages = 463–470 | date = April 1983 | pmid = 6849792 | pmc = 2011343 | doi = 10.1038/bjc.1983.75 }} other than the alcohol itself. One Dutch study even found that drinkers of white wine had lower risk.{{cite journal | vauthors = Bueno de Mesquita HB, Maisonneuve P, Moerman CJ, Runia S, Boyle P | title = Lifetime consumption of alcoholic beverages, tea and coffee and exocrine carcinoma of the pancreas: a population-based case-control study in The Netherlands | journal = International Journal of Cancer | volume = 50 | issue = 4 | pages = 514–522 | date = February 1992 | pmid = 1537615 | doi = 10.1002/ijc.2910500403 | s2cid = 23170705 }}

"About 7 out of 10 cases of chronic pancreatitis are due to long term heavy drinking. Chronic pancreatitis is a known risk factor for cancer of the pancreas. But chronic pancreatitis that is due to alcohol doesn't increase risk as much as other types of chronic pancreatitis. So if there is a link with alcohol and pancreatic cancer risk, it is only very slight."

"Our findings indicate that alcohol drinking at the levels typically consumed by the general population of the United States is probably not a risk factor for pancreatic cancer. Our data suggest, however, that heavy alcohol drinking may be related to pancreatic cancer risk."

"Relative risks of pancreatic cancer increased with the amount of alcohol consumed (Ptrend = 0.11) after adjustment for age, smoking status, and pack-years of smoking."{{cite journal | vauthors = Harnack LJ, Anderson KE, Zheng W, Folsom AR, Sellers TA, Kushi LH | title = Smoking, alcohol, coffee, and tea intake and incidence of cancer of the exocrine pancreas: the Iowa Women's Health Study | journal = Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention | volume = 6 | issue = 12 | pages = 1081–1086 | date = December 1997 | pmid = 9419407 }}

"Alcoholics had only a modest 40% excess risk of pancreatic cancer … The excess risk for pancreatic cancer among alcoholics is small and could conceivably be attributed to confounding by smoking."

"It was shown that the relative risk of cancer of the pancreas increases with fat and alcohol intakes, … Alcohol may be not directly involved in the aetiology of cancer of the pancreas: its effect could be due to the contents of some alcoholic beverages."{{cite journal | vauthors = Durbec JP, Chevillotte G, Bidart JM, Berthezene P, Sarles H | title = Diet, alcohol, tobacco and risk of cancer of the pancreas: a case-control study | journal = British Journal of Cancer | volume = 47 | issue = 4 | pages = 463–470 | date = April 1983 | pmid = 6849792 | pmc = 2011343 | doi = 10.1038/bjc.1983.75 }}

"When compared with data from non-drinkers, the cumulative lifetime consumption of all types of alcohol in grams of ethanol… beer, spirits, red wine and fortified wine was not related to risk. The consumption of white wine was inversely associated with risk…. The uniformly reduced risk estimates for the lifetime number of drinks of white wine were based on small numbers…."{{cite journal | vauthors = Bueno de Mesquita HB, Maisonneuve P, Moerman CJ, Runia S, Boyle P | title = Lifetime consumption of alcoholic beverages, tea and coffee and exocrine carcinoma of the pancreas: a population-based case-control study in The Netherlands | journal = International Journal of Cancer | volume = 50 | issue = 4 | pages = 514–522 | date = February 1992 | pmid = 1537615 | doi = 10.1002/ijc.2910500403 | s2cid = 23170705 }}

"For the most part, consumption of total alcohol, wine, liquor and beer was not associated with pancreatic cancer."{{cite journal | vauthors = Villeneuve PJ, Johnson KC, Hanley AJ, Mao Y | title = Alcohol, tobacco and coffee consumption and the risk of pancreatic cancer: results from the Canadian Enhanced Surveillance System case-control project. Canadian Cancer Registries Epidemiology Research Group | journal = European Journal of Cancer Prevention | volume = 9 | issue = 1 | pages = 49–58 | date = February 2000 | pmid = 10777010 | doi = 10.1097/00008469-200002000-00007 }}

"Data from these two large cohorts do not support any overall association between coffee intake or alcohol intake and risk of pancreatic cancer."

"Our findings are consistent with a modest increase in risk of pancreatic cancer with consumption of 30 or more grams of alcohol per day."

This section lists cancers where alcohol is not listed as a risk factor and where papers have been published.

{{Main|Astrocytoma}}

A study concluded that foetal exposure to alcohol is not associated with childhood astrocytoma.{{cite journal | vauthors = Kuijten RR, Bunin GR, Nass CC, Meadows AT | title = Gestational and familial risk factors for childhood astrocytoma: results of a case-control study | journal = Cancer Research | volume = 50 | issue = 9 | pages = 2608–2612 | date = May 1990 | pmid = 2328486 | url = http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/cgi/reprint/50/9/2608.pdf }}

{{Main|Bile duct cancer}}

A review of the literature found that there is no association between alcohol use and bile duct cancer.{{cite journal | vauthors = Ben-Menachem T | title = Risk factors for cholangiocarcinoma | journal = European Journal of Gastroenterology & Hepatology | volume = 19 | issue = 8 | pages = 615–617 | date = August 2007 | pmid = 17625428 | doi = 10.1097/MEG.0b013e328224b935 | s2cid = 25306939 | doi-access = free }}

{{Main|Bladder cancer}}

"Epidemiological data on alcohol drinking and bladder cancer are suggestive of no association, although findings were not always consistent. For both habits, an explanation of the moderate increase in risk observed in some investigations might be attributed to residual confounding by smoking, or to an association between alcohol, coffee, and yet unidentified risk factors for bladder cancer."{{cite journal | vauthors = Pelucchi C, La Vecchia C | title = Alcohol, coffee, and bladder cancer risk: a review of epidemiological studies | journal = European Journal of Cancer Prevention | volume = 18 | issue = 1 | pages = 62–68 | date = February 2009 | pmid = 19077567 | doi = 10.1097/CEJ.0b013e32830c8d44 }}

{{Main|Cervical cancer}}

A study concluded "that alcoholic women are at high risk for in situ and invasive cervical cancer" but attributed this to indirect, lifestyle-related reasons.{{cite journal | vauthors = Weiderpass E, Ye W, Tamimi R, Trichopolous D, Nyren O, Vainio H, Adami HO | title = Alcoholism and risk for cancer of the cervix uteri, vagina, and vulva | journal = Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention | volume = 10 | issue = 8 | pages = 899–901 | date = August 2001 | pmid = 11489758 }}

"DCIS patients and control subjects did not differ with respect to oral contraceptive use, hormone replacement therapy, alcohol consumption or smoking history, or breast self-examination. Associations for LCIS were similar."{{cite journal | vauthors = Claus EB, Stowe M, Carter D | title = Breast carcinoma in situ: risk factors and screening patterns | journal = Journal of the National Cancer Institute | volume = 93 | issue = 23 | pages = 1811–1817 | date = December 2001 | pmid = 11734598 | doi = 10.1093/jnci/93.23.1811 | s2cid = 13818666 | doi-access = free }}

{{Main|Ependymoma}}

A review of the basic literature{{cite journal | vauthors = Kuijten RR, Bunin GR | title = Risk factors for childhood brain tumors | journal = Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention | volume = 2 | issue = 3 | pages = 277–288 | date = 1 May 1993 | pmid = 8318881 }} found that consumption of beer was associated with increased risk in one study{{cite journal | vauthors = Howe GR, Burch JD, Chiarelli AM, Risch HA, Choi BC | title = An exploratory case-control study of brain tumors in children | journal = Cancer Research | volume = 49 | issue = 15 | pages = 4349–4352 | date = August 1989 | pmid = 2743324 }} but not in another{{cite journal | vauthors = Preston-Martin S, Yu MC, Benton B, Henderson BE | title = N-Nitroso compounds and childhood brain tumors: a case-control study | journal = Cancer Research | volume = 42 | issue = 12 | pages = 5240–5245 | date = December 1982 | pmid = 7139628 }}

{{See also|Uveal melanoma}}

A study found no association between alcohol and uveal melanoma.{{cite journal | vauthors = Stang A, Ahrens W, Anastassiou G, Jöckel KH | title = Phenotypical characteristics, lifestyle, social class and uveal melanoma | journal = Ophthalmic Epidemiology | volume = 10 | issue = 5 | pages = 293–302 | date = December 2003 | pmid = 14566630 | doi = 10.1076/opep.10.5.293.17319 | s2cid = 1592701 }}

{{Main|Nasopharyngeal carcinoma}}

A systematic review found evidence that light drinking may decrease the risk of nasopharyngeal carcinoma whereas high intake of alcohol may increase the risk.{{cite journal | vauthors = Chen L, Gallicchio L, Boyd-Lindsley K, Tao XG, Robinson KA, Lam TK, Herman JG, Caulfield LE, Guallar E, Alberg AJ | display-authors = 6 | title = Alcohol consumption and the risk of nasopharyngeal carcinoma: a systematic review | journal = Nutrition and Cancer | volume = 61 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–15 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19116871 | pmc = 3072894 | doi = 10.1080/01635580802372633 }}

{{Main|Neuroblastoma}}

A few studies have indicated an increased risk of neuroblastoma with use of alcohol during pregnancy.{{cite journal | vauthors = Heck JE, Ritz B, Hung RJ, Hashibe M, Boffetta P | title = The epidemiology of neuroblastoma: a review | journal = Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 125–143 | date = March 2009 | pmid = 19159399 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-3016.2008.00983.x }}

{{Main|Salivary gland cancer}}

Alcohol use is associated with an increased risk of salivary gland cancer.{{cite journal | vauthors = Actis AB, Eynard AR | title = Influence of environmental and nutritional factors on salivary gland tumorigenesis with a special reference to dietary lipids | journal = European Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 54 | issue = 11 | pages = 805–810 | date = November 2000 | pmid = 11114673 | doi = 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601077 | doi-access = free }}

{{Main|Testicular cancer}}

A review concluded that "There is no firm evidence of a causal relation between behavior risks [tobacco, alcohol and diet] and testicular cancer."{{Cite journal|doi=10.1159/000106534 |title=Tobacco, Alcohol and Dietary Consumption: Behavior Risks Associated with Testicular Cancer? |year=2007 |author1=van Hemelrijck |author2=Mieke J.J. |journal=Current Urology |volume=1 |pages=57–63|issue=2|s2cid=71608840 |doi-access=free }}

{{Main|Thyroid cancer}}

A 2009 review found that alcohol intake does not affect the risk of developing thyroid cancer.{{cite journal | vauthors = Dal Maso L, Bosetti C, La Vecchia C, Franceschi S | title = Risk factors for thyroid cancer: an epidemiological review focused on nutritional factors | journal = Cancer Causes & Control | volume = 20 | issue = 1 | pages = 75–86 | date = February 2009 | pmid = 18766448 | doi = 10.1007/s10552-008-9219-5 | s2cid = 25427265 }} However, a 2009 study of 490,000 men and women concluded that alcohol may reduce the risk of thyroid cancer.{{cite journal | vauthors = Meinhold CL, Park Y, Stolzenberg-Solomon RZ, Hollenbeck AR, Schatzkin A, Berrington de Gonzalez A | title = Alcohol intake and risk of thyroid cancer in the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study | journal = British Journal of Cancer | volume = 101 | issue = 9 | pages = 1630–1634 | date = November 2009 | pmid = 19862001 | pmc = 2778506 | doi = 10.1038/sj.bjc.6605337 }} A 2009 study of 1,280,296 women in the United Kingdom concluded, "The decreased risk for thyroid cancer that we find to be associated with alcohol intake is consistent with results from some studies, although a meta-analysis of 10 case–control studies and two other cohort studies reported no statistically significant associations."

{{Main|Vaginal cancer}}

A Danish study found that "Abstinence from alcohol consumption was associated with low risk for both VV-SCC_vagina and VV-SCC_vulva in our study."{{cite journal | vauthors = Madsen BS, Jensen HL, van den Brule AJ, Wohlfahrt J, Frisch M | title = Risk factors for invasive squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva and vagina--population-based case-control study in Denmark | journal = International Journal of Cancer | volume = 122 | issue = 12 | pages = 2827–2834 | date = June 2008 | pmid = 18348142 | doi = 10.1002/ijc.23446 | s2cid = 11542729 | doi-access = free }}

A study concluded that alcoholic women are at high risk for cancer of the vagina. In both studies, indirect, lifestyle-related reasons were cited.

{{Main|Vulvar cancer}}

One study reported "No consistent association emerged between milk, meat, liver, alcohol and coffee consumption and risk of vulvar cancer."{{cite journal | vauthors = Parazzini F, Moroni S, Negri E, La Vecchia C, Dal Pino D, Cavalleri E | title = Selected food intake and risk of vulvar cancer | journal = Cancer | volume = 76 | issue = 11 | pages = 2291–2296 | date = December 1995 | pmid = 8635034 | doi = 10.1002/1097-0142(19951201)76:11<2291::AID-CNCR2820761117>3.0.CO;2-W | s2cid = 19693085 | doi-access = free }} A Danish study found the reverse, that alcohol consumption is significantly associated with VV-SCC_vagina and VV-SCC_vulva cancer. A Swedish study concluded that alcoholic women are at no higher risk for cancer of the vulva.

{{Main|Hodgkin's lymphoma}}

A study concluded, "The results of this large-scale European study … suggested a protective effect of alcohol on development of NHL for men and in non-Mediterranean countries."{{cite journal | vauthors = Besson H, Brennan P, Becker N, Nieters A, De Sanjosé S, Font R, Maynadié M, Foretova L, Cocco PL, Staines A, Vornanen M, Boffetta P | display-authors = 6 | title = Tobacco smoking, alcohol drinking and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: A European multicenter case-control study (Epilymph) | journal = International Journal of Cancer | volume = 119 | issue = 4 | pages = 901–908 | date = August 2006 | pmid = 16557575 | doi = 10.1002/ijc.21913 | s2cid = 41632578 }} A population based case-control study in Germany found that alcohol reduced the risk of HL for both men and women but more so for men, whose risk was lowered by 53%.{{cite journal | vauthors = Nieters A, Deeg E, Becker N | title = Tobacco and alcohol consumption and risk of lymphoma: results of a population-based case-control study in Germany | journal = International Journal of Cancer | volume = 118 | issue = 2 | pages = 422–430 | date = January 2006 | pmid = 16080191 | doi = 10.1002/ijc.21306 | s2cid = 9532867 | doi-access = free }}

A population-based case-control study in Italy reported a protective effect of alcohol consumption on risk of HL among non-smokers. Analysis of data from a series of case-control studies in Northern Italy revealed a modest positive effect of alcohol on lowering risk of HL among both smokers and non-smokers.{{cite journal | vauthors = Deandrea S, Bertuccio P, Chatenoud L, Franceschi S, Serraino D, La Vecchia C | title = Reply to 'Alcohol consumption and risk of Hodgkin's lymphoma and multiple myeloma: a multicentre case-control study' by Gorini et al | journal = Annals of Oncology | volume = 18 | issue = 6 | pages = 1119–1121 | date = June 2007 | pmid = 17586754 | doi = 10.1093/annonc/mdm203 | doi-access = free }}

A study considering more than 1 million American women found that increasing levels of alcohol consumption were associated with a decreased risk of Hodgkin's Lymphoma.

{{Main|Renal cell carcinoma}}

"Moderate alcohol consumption was associated with a lower risk of renal cell cancer among both women and men in this pooled analysis"{{cite journal | vauthors = Lee JE, Hunter DJ, Spiegelman D, Adami HO, Albanes D, Bernstein L, van den Brandt PA, Buring JE, Cho E, Folsom AR, Freudenheim JL, Giovannucci E, Graham S, Horn-Ross PL, Leitzmann MF, McCullough ML, Miller AB, Parker AS, Rodriguez C, Rohan TE, Schatzkin A, Schouten LJ, Virtanen M, Willett WC, Wolk A, Zhang SM, Smith-Warner SA | display-authors = 6 | title = Alcohol intake and renal cell cancer in a pooled analysis of 12 prospective studies | journal = Journal of the National Cancer Institute | volume = 99 | issue = 10 | pages = 801–810 | date = May 2007 | pmid = 17505075 | doi = 10.1093/jnci/djk181 | doi-access = free }} "This pooled analysis found an inverse association between alcohol drinking and RCC. Risks continued to decrease even above eight drinks per day (i.e. >100 g/day) of alcohol intake, with no apparent levelling in risk."{{cite journal | vauthors = Pelucchi C, Galeone C, Montella M, Polesel J, Crispo A, Talamini R, Negri E, Ramazzotti V, Grimaldi M, Franceschi S, La Vecchia C | display-authors = 6 | title = Alcohol consumption and renal cell cancer risk in two Italian case-control studies | journal = Annals of Oncology | volume = 19 | issue = 5 | pages = 1003–1008 | date = May 2008 | pmid = 18187482 | doi = 10.1093/annonc/mdm590 | doi-access = free }}

A study concluded, "Results from our prospective cohort study of middle-aged and elderly women indicate that moderate alcohol consumption may be associated with decreased risk of RCC."{{cite journal | vauthors = Rashidkhani B, Akesson A, Lindblad P, Wolk A | title = Alcohol consumption and risk of renal cell carcinoma: a prospective study of Swedish women | journal = International Journal of Cancer | volume = 117 | issue = 5 | pages = 848–853 | date = December 2005 | pmid = 15957170 | doi = 10.1002/ijc.21231 | s2cid = 38418551 }} Researchers who conducted a study in Iowa reported that "In this population-based case-control investigation, we report further evidence that alcohol consumption decreases the risk of RCC among women but not among men. Our ability to show that the association remains after multivariate adjustment for several new confounding factors (i.e., diet, physical activity, and family history) strengthens support for a true association.{{cite journal | vauthors = Parker AS, Cerhan JR, Lynch CF, Ershow AG, Cantor KP | title = Gender, alcohol consumption, and renal cell carcinoma | journal = American Journal of Epidemiology | volume = 155 | issue = 5 | pages = 455–462 | date = March 2002 | pmid = 11867357 | doi = 10.1093/aje/155.5.455 | doi-access = free }}

Another study found no relationship between alcohol consumption and risk of kidney cancer among either men or women.{{cite journal | vauthors = Pelucchi C, La Vecchia C, Negri E, Talamini R, Franceschi S | title = Alcohol drinking and renal cell carcinoma in women and men | journal = European Journal of Cancer Prevention | volume = 11 | issue = 6 | pages = 543–545 | date = December 2002 | pmid = 12457106 | doi = 10.1097/00008469-200212000-00006 | s2cid = 45637355 }}

A Finnish study concluded, "These data suggest that alcohol consumption is associated with decreased risk of RCC in male smokers. Because most of the risk reductions were seen at the highest quartile of alcohol intake and alcohol is a risk factor for a number of cancers particularly among smokers, these data should be interpreted with caution."{{cite journal | vauthors = Mahabir S, Leitzmann MF, Virtanen MJ, Virtamo J, Pietinen P, Albanes D, Taylor PR | title = Prospective study of alcohol drinking and renal cell cancer risk in a cohort of finnish male smokers | journal = Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention | volume = 14 | issue = 1 | pages = 170–175 | date = January 2005 | pmid = 15668492 | doi = 10.1158/1055-9965.170.14.1 | s2cid = 3141532 | doi-access = free }} "Our data suggest an inverse association between alcohol intake and risk of renal cell cancer…"{{cite journal | vauthors = Lee JE, Giovannucci E, Smith-Warner SA, Spiegelman D, Willett WC, Curhan GC | title = Total fluid intake and use of individual beverages and risk of renal cell cancer in two large cohorts | journal = Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention | volume = 15 | issue = 6 | pages = 1204–1211 | date = June 2006 | pmid = 16775182 | doi = 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-05-0889 | doi-access = free }} Compared with nondrinkers, men who drank one or more drinks per day had a 31% lower risk of kidney cancer among 161,126 Hawaii-Los Angeles Multiethnic Cohort participants.{{cite journal | vauthors = Setiawan VW, Stram DO, Nomura AM, Kolonel LN, Henderson BE | title = Risk factors for renal cell cancer: the multiethnic cohort | journal = American Journal of Epidemiology | volume = 166 | issue = 8 | pages = 932–940 | date = October 2007 | pmid = 17656615 | doi = 10.1093/aje/kwm170 | doi-access = free }}

A study considering more than 1 million American women found that increasing levels of alcohol consumption were associated with a decreased risk of renal cancer.

{{Main|Non-Hodgkin lymphoma}}

A study concluded, "People who drink alcoholic beverages might have a lower risk of NHL than those who do not, and this risk might vary by NHL subtype."{{cite journal | vauthors = Morton LM, Zheng T, Holford TR, Holly EA, Chiu BC, Costantini AS, Stagnaro E, Willett EV, Dal Maso L, Serraino D, Chang ET, Cozen W, Davis S, Severson RK, Bernstein L, Mayne ST, Dee FR, Cerhan JR, Hartge P | display-authors = 6 | title = Alcohol consumption and risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma: a pooled analysis | journal = The Lancet. Oncology | volume = 6 | issue = 7 | pages = 469–476 | date = July 2005 | pmid = 15992695 | doi = 10.1016/S1470-2045(05)70214-X }} "Compared with nondrinkers, alcohol consumers had a lower risk for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma overall … and for its main subtypes."{{cite journal | vauthors = Lim U, Morton LM, Subar AF, Baris D, Stolzenberg-Solomon R, Leitzmann M, Kipnis V, Mouw T, Carroll L, Schatzkin A, Hartge P | display-authors = 6 | title = Alcohol, smoking, and body size in relation to incident Hodgkin's and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma risk | journal = American Journal of Epidemiology | volume = 166 | issue = 6 | pages = 697–708 | date = September 2007 | pmid = 17596266 | doi = 10.1093/aje/kwm122 | doi-access = free }} A study concluded, "Nonusers of alcohol had an elevated NHL risk compared with users…"{{cite journal | vauthors = Lim U, Schenk M, Kelemen LE, Davis S, Cozen W, Hartge P, Ward MH, Stolzenberg-Solomon R | display-authors = 6 | title = Dietary determinants of one-carbon metabolism and the risk of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: NCI-SEER case-control study, 1998-2000 | journal = American Journal of Epidemiology | volume = 162 | issue = 10 | pages = 953–964 | date = November 2005 | pmid = 16221809 | doi = 10.1093/aje/kwi310 | doi-access = free }}

Some studies have found a protective effect on NHL of drinking some forms of alcoholic beverage or in some demographic groups. A study of men in the US found that consumption of wine, but not beer or spirits, was associated with a reduced NHL risk{{cite journal | vauthors = Briggs NC, Levine RS, Bobo LD, Haliburton WP, Brann EA, Hennekens CH | title = Wine drinking and risk of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma among men in the United States: a population-based case-control study | journal = American Journal of Epidemiology | volume = 156 | issue = 5 | pages = 454–462 | date = September 2002 | pmid = 12196315 | doi = 10.1093/aje/kwf058 | doi-access = free }} and a large European study found a protective effect of alcohol among men and in non-Mediterranean countries.."{{cite journal | vauthors = Besson H, Brennan P, Becker N, De Sanjosé S, Nieters A, Font R, Maynadié M, Foretova L, Cocco PL, Staines A, Vornanen M, Boffetta P | display-authors = 6 | title = Tobacco smoking, alcohol drinking and Hodgkin's lymphoma: a European multi-centre case-control study (EPILYMPH) | journal = British Journal of Cancer | volume = 95 | issue = 3 | pages = 378–384 | date = August 2006 | pmid = 16819547 | pmc = 2360649 | doi = 10.1038/sj.bjc.6603229 }} A study of older women in Iowa found alcohol to reduce the risk of NHL and the amount of alcohol consumed, rather than the type of alcoholic beverages, appeared to be the main determinant in reducing risk."{{cite journal | vauthors = Chiu BC, Cerhan JR, Gapstur SM, Sellers TA, Zheng W, Lutz CT, Wallace RB, Potter JD | display-authors = 6 | title = Alcohol consumption and non-Hodgkin lymphoma in a cohort of older women | journal = British Journal of Cancer | volume = 80 | issue = 9 | pages = 1476–1482 | date = July 1999 | pmid = 10424754 | pmc = 2363074 | doi = 10.1038/sj.bjc.6690547 }} A possible mechanism has been suggested.{{cite journal | vauthors = Hagner PR, Mazan-Mamczarz K, Dai B, Corl S, Zhao XF, Gartenhaus RB | title = Alcohol consumption and decreased risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma: role of mTOR dysfunction | journal = Blood | volume = 113 | issue = 22 | pages = 5526–5535 | date = May 2009 | pmid = 19293424 | doi = 10.1182/blood-2008-11-191783 | doi-access = free }}

Some studies have not found a protective effect from drinking. British research found no association between frequency of drinking and NHL{{cite journal | vauthors = Willett EV, Smith AG, Dovey GJ, Morgan GJ, Parker J, Roman E | title = Tobacco and alcohol consumption and the risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma | journal = Cancer Causes & Control | volume = 15 | issue = 8 | pages = 771–780 | date = October 2004 | pmid = 15456990 | doi = 10.1023/B:CACO.0000043427.77739.60 | s2cid = 37360569 }} and research in Sweden found that total beer, wine, or liquor intake was not associated with any major subtype of NHL examined, apart from an association between high wine consumption and increased risk of chronic lymphocytic leukemia.."{{cite journal | vauthors = Chang ET, Smedby KE, Zhang SM, Hjalgrim H, Melbye M, Ost A, Wolk A, Adami HO, Glimelius B | display-authors = 6 | title = Alcohol intake and risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma in men and women | journal = Cancer Causes & Control | volume = 15 | issue = 10 | pages = 1067–1076 | date = December 2004 | pmid = 15801490 | doi = 10.1007/s10552-004-2234-2 | s2cid = 38550648 }}

One study of NHL patients concluded, "Our findings strongly encourage physicians to advise NHL patients to stop smoking and diminish alcohol consumption to obtain improvements in the course of NHL."{{cite journal | vauthors = Talamini R, Polesel J, Spina M, Chimienti E, Serraino D, Zucchetto A, Zanet E, Franceschi S, Tirelli U | display-authors = 6 | title = The impact of tobacco smoking and alcohol drinking on survival of patients with non-Hodgkin lymphoma | journal = International Journal of Cancer | volume = 122 | issue = 7 | pages = 1624–1629 | date = April 2008 | pmid = 18059029 | doi = 10.1002/ijc.23205 | s2cid = 12974079 | doi-access = free }}

A study considering more than 1 million American women found that increasing levels of alcohol consumption were associated with a decreased risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma.

{{Main|Alcohol consumption recommendations}}

As outlined above, there is no recommended alcohol intake with respect to cancer risk alone as it varies with each individual cancer. See Alcohol consumption recommendations for a list of governments' guidances on alcohol intake which, for a healthy man, range from 140–280g per week.

One meta-analysis suggests that risks of cancers may start below the recommended levels. "Risk increased significantly for drinkers, compared with non-drinkers, beginning at an intake of 25 g (< 2 standard drinks) per day for the following: cancers of the oral cavity and pharynx (relative risk, RR, 1.9), esophagus (RR 1.4), larynx (RR 1.4), breast (RR 1.3), liver (RR 1.2), colon (RR 1.1), and rectum (RR 1.1)"{{cite web | url = http://www.bu.edu/act/alcoholandhealth/issues/issue_sept04/html/92004saitz_corrao.html | title = Alcohol and Serious Consequences: Risks Increase Even With "Moderate" Intake | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060920232028/http://www.bu.edu/act/alcoholandhealth/issues/issue_sept04/html/92004saitz_corrao.html | archive-date=20 September 2006 | work = Boston University Medical Campus }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Corrao G, Bagnardi V, Zambon A, La Vecchia C | title = A meta-analysis of alcohol consumption and the risk of 15 diseases | journal = Preventive Medicine | volume = 38 | issue = 5 | pages = 613–619 | date = May 2004 | pmid = 15066364 | doi = 10.1016/j.ypmed.2003.11.027 }}

World Cancer Research Fund recommends that people aim to limit consumption to less than two drinks a day for a man and less than one drink a day for a woman. It defines a "drink" as containing about 10–15 grams of ethanol.{{cite web | work = World Cancer Research Fund | title = Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective | url = http://www.dietandcancerreport.org/ }}

A study published in 2017 has found that front organisations set up by the world's leading alcohol companies are actively misleading the public about the risk of cancer due to alcohol consumption. The study drew parallels with the long-standing activities of the tobacco industry. It also claimed that there was a particular focus on misleading women drinkers, because much of the misinformation about cancer produced by these companies was found to be focused on breast cancer.{{cite journal | vauthors = Petticrew M, Maani Hessari N, Knai C, Weiderpass E | title = How alcohol industry organisations mislead the public about alcohol and cancer | journal = Drug and Alcohol Review | volume = 37 | issue = 3 | pages = 293–303 | date = March 2018 | pmid = 28881410 | doi = 10.1111/dar.12596 | s2cid = 892691 | doi-access = free }}

The alcohol industry around the world has also campaigned to remove laws that require alcoholic beverages to have cancer warning labels.{{cite web | vauthors = Chaudhuri S |title=Lawmakers, Alcohol Industry Tussle Over Cancer Labels on Booze |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/lawmakers-alcohol-industry-tussle-over-cancer-labels-on-booze-1518174001 |work=The Wall Street Journal|date=9 February 2018}}

A 2019 survey conducted by the American Institute for Cancer Research (AICR) showed that only 45% of Americans were aware of the associated risk of cancer due to alcohol consumption, up from 39% in 2017.{{Cite journal |date=2019 |title=2019 AICR Cancer Risk Awareness Survey |url=https://www.aicr.org/assets/can-prevent/docs/2019-Survey.pdf |journal=AICR 2019 Cancer Risk Awareness Survey}} The AICR believes that alcohol-related advertisements about the healthy cardiovascular benefits of modest alcohol overshadow messages about the increased cancer risks.

• Health benefits of quitting alcohol
• Long-term effects of alcohol

{{Reflist|30em}}

• International: International Agency for Research on Cancer [http://www.iarc.fr/ home page]
• International Agency for Research on Cancer. [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927120656/http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol44/volume44.pdf IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Volume 44 Alcohol Drinking: Summary of Data Reported and Evaluation]
• IARC [https://web.archive.org/web/20081207015515/http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Meetings/96-alcohol.pdf Alcoholic beverages (Group 1) Ethanol in alcoholic beverages (Group 1) VOL.: 96 5. Summary of Data Reported]
• Australia: Cancer Control Bulletin [https://web.archive.org/web/20120204213010/http://www.sesiahs.health.nsw.gov.au/publications/cancerControl/26%20Alcohol.PDF Alcohol and cancer risk]
• Australia: [https://web.archive.org/web/20110706102645/http://www.cancercouncil.com.au/html/healthprofessionals/nutrition_physical/downloads/positionstatement_alcohol_cancer.pdf POSITION STATEMENT: Alcohol and Cancer Prevention]
• Australia: Cancer Institute NSW: [https://web.archive.org/web/20080721105356/http://www.cancerinstitute.org.au/cancer_inst/publications/pdfs/pm-2008-03_alcohol-as-a-cause-of-cancer.pdf Alcohol as a cause of Cancer] (PDF format)
• Canada: Public Health Agency of Canada / Agence de santé publique du Canada [https://web.archive.org/web/20050218123404/http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/publicat/cbci-iccs01/index.html Review of Lifestyle and Environmental Risk Factors for Breast Cancer] (Contents and Introduction) [https://web.archive.org/web/20130528091425/http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/publicat/cbci-iccs01/pdf/cbci_summary_report.pdf PDF] (full report in PDF format)
• UK: Committee on Carcinogenicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products [https://web.archive.org/web/20080829143414/http://www.advisorybodies.doh.gov.uk/coc/alco04.htm Consumption of alcoholic beverages and risk of breast cancer]
• UK: Committee on Carcinogenicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products [https://web.archive.org/web/20101025085624/http://www.advisorybodies.doh.gov.uk/alcbrst.htm Evidence for association between consumption of alcoholic beverages and breast cancer]
• UK: [http://www.nhs.uk/news/2009/02February/Pages/Alcoholcancerrisk.aspx Cancer risk of drinking] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303204413/http://www.nhs.uk/news/2009/02February/Pages/Alcoholcancerrisk.aspx |date=3 March 2016 }}
• US: National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism [http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/aa21.htm Alcohol Alert No. 21-1993 Alcohol and cancer] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051223104745/http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/aa21.htm |date=23 December 2005 }}
• US: [http://www.cancer.gov/ National Cancer Institute]
• US: National Toxicology Program Report on Carcinogens, Eleventh Edition [https://web.archive.org/web/20100605122604/http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/roc/eleventh/profiles/s007alco.pdf Alcoholic Beverage Consumption] (PDF)
• US: Ohio Department of Health [https://web.archive.org/web/20120204213011/http://www.odh.ohio.gov/ASSETS/8BF4AFA3FB6849749452C92F4BCD1B45/Alcohol.pdf Alcohol and cancer] (PDF format)

;Other sites

• Toronto Cancer Prevention Coalition Alcohol Work Group [https://web.archive.org/web/20070929062534/http://www.apolnet.ca/resources/pubs/rpt_Alcohol%26Cancer.pdf Report on the Links between Alcohol and Cancer] (PDF format)
• [https://archive.today/20121223045708/http://www.medicine.ox.ac.uk/bandolier/booth/hliving/alccan.html Alcohol consumption and cancer risk]
• [https://www.theguardian.com/science/2009/feb/24/alcohol-cancer-risk-drinking Even small amounts of alcohol increase a woman's risk of cancer]

;Science and medical sites

• Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center [http://www.fhcrc.org/about/ne/news/2003/10/30/alcohol.html Alcohol Use Increases the Risk of Hormonally Sensitive Breast Cancers in Postmenopausal Women]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20090228071851/http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/djp006 Alcohol, Cardiovascular Disease, and Cancer: Treat With Caution]

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