American ginseng

Panax quinquefolius is a herbaceous perennial plant. Its aromatic root resembles a small parsnip that forks as it matures. The plant grows {{cvt|6|to|18|in|cm|0}} tall, usually bearing three compound leaves (sometimes called "prongs"), each with three to five leaflets, {{cvt|2|to|5|in|cm|0}} long.

Panax quinquefolius is sometimes confused with wild sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis), another member of the ivy family (Araliaceae). The two species may be distinguished by their leaves. Panax quinquefolius has palmately compound leaves (with leaflets radiating from a single point) while Aralia nudicaulis has pinnately compound leaves (with leaflets arranged on either side of a central stalk).{{r|Firestone 2022}}

File:protopanaxadiol.svg]]

Like Asian ginseng (Panax ginseng), American ginseng contains dammarane-type ginsenosides, or saponins, as the major biologically active constituents. Dammarane-type ginsenosides include two classifications: 20(S)-protopanaxadiol (PPD) and 20(S)-protopanaxatriol (PPT). American ginseng contains high levels of Rb1, Rd (PPD classification), and Re (PPT classification) ginsenosides—higher than that of P. ginseng in one study.{{cite journal | last1 = Zhu | first1 = S. | last2 = Zou | first2 = K. | last3 = Fushimi | first3 = H. | last4 = Cai | first4 = S. | last5 = Komatsu | first5 = K. | title = Comparative study on triterpene saponins of ginseng drugs | journal = Planta Medica | year = 2004 | volume = 70 | issue = 7 | pages = 666–677 | pmid = 15303259 | doi = 10.1055/s-2004-827192 | bibcode = 2004PlMed..70..666Z | s2cid = 260251856 }}

When taken orally, PPD-type ginsenosides are mostly metabolized by intestinal bacteria (anaerobes) to PPD monoglucoside, 20-O-beta-D-glucopyranosyl-20(S)-protopanaxadiol (M1).{{cite journal | last1 = Hasegawa | first1 = H. | last2 = Sung | first2 = J.-H. | last3 = Matsumiya | first3 = S. | last4 = Uchiyama | first4 = M. | title = Main ginseng saponin metabolites formed by intestinal bacteria | journal = Planta Medica | year = 1996 | volume = 62 | issue = 5 | pages = 453–457 | pmid = 8923812 | doi = 10.1055/s-2006-957938 | bibcode = 1996PlMed..62..453H | s2cid = 260252578 }} In humans, M1 is detected in plasma starting seven hours after intake of PPD-type ginsenosides and in urine starting 12 hours after intake. These findings indicate M1 is the final metabolite of PPD-type ginsenosides.{{cite journal | title = Degradation of ginsenosides in humans after oral administration | journal = Drug Metabolism and Disposition | year = 2003 | volume = 31 | issue = 8 | pages = 1065–1071 | pmid = 12867496 | doi = 10.1124/dmd.31.8.1065 | last1 = Tawab | first1 = M. A. | last2 = Bahr | first2 = U. | last3 = Karas | first3 = M. | last4 = Wurglics | first4 = M. | last5 = Schubert-Zsilavecz | first5 = M. | s2cid = 17686376 }}

M1 is referred to in some articles as IH-901,{{cite journal | last1 = Oh | first1 = S.-H. | last2 = Lee | first2 = B.-H. | title = A ginseng saponin metabolite-induced apoptosis in HepG2 cells involves a mitochondria-mediated pathway and its downstream caspase-8 activation and Bid cleavage | journal = Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology | year = 2004 | volume = 194 | issue = 3 | pages = 221–229 | pmid = 14761678 | doi = 10.1016/j.taap.2003.09.011 | bibcode = 2004ToxAP.194..221O }} and in others as compound-K.

File:Aureliana canadensis Joseph-François Lafitau 1718.jpg for Panax quinquefolius, illustrated by Joseph-François Lafitau in 1718]]

File:Whip-poor-will and Ginseng Mark Catesby 1747.jpg in 1747]]

Panax quinquefolius was described as Aureliana canadensis by the French ethnologist and naturalist Joseph-François Lafitau in 1718.{{r|Lafitau 1718|Belanus Illustration 4}} As a Jesuit missionary in New France, Lafitau discovered ginseng near Montreal in 1716.{{sfnp|Carlson|1986|pages=233–234}}{{r|Fenton 1974}} In his search for a specimen, Father Lafitau enlisted the help of the Iroquois by showing them a published botanical illustration of gin-seng,{{sfnp|Jartoux|1713|loc=Tab. V (between pages 242 and 243)}} a Chinese name for a plant now known as Panax ginseng.{{sfnp|Brinckmann|Huang|2018|pages=908–910}} The Iroquois referred to American ginseng as garent-oguen, which means "resembles man" or "a man's thigh" in Iroquoian language.

Aureliana canadensis was further described by the English naturalist Mark Catesby in 1747.{{r|Catesby 1747}} Catesby published a striking color illustration of a live specimen transplanted from Pennsylvania to the garden of English botanist Peter Collinson in Peckham.{{r|Belanus Illustration 5}} Aureliana canadensis {{small|Lafitau ex Catesby}} is an invalid name since it was published prior to 1 May 1753 (Art.13.1 ICN 2018).{{r|IPNI:77334147-1}}

The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus validly described Panax quinquefolium in 1753,{{r|IPNI:300467-2}}{{sfnp|Linnaeus|1753|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13830#page/1/mode/1up vol. 2], [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/359079#page/500/mode/1up pp. 1058–1059]}} but the name was later corrected to Panax quinquefolius.{{Citation needed|date=December 2023|reason=When was the name corrected, and by whom?}} Linnaeus placed Aureliana canadensis {{small|Lafitau ex Catesby}} in synonymy with Panax quinquefolius, citing both Lafitau [1718] and Catesby [1747]. Its type specimen, designated in 1991, was reportedly collected by Pehr Kalm near Quebec in 1749.{{r|Reveal 1991}} The specific epithet quinquefolius means "five-leaved",{{sfnp|Gledhill|2008|page=324}} which refers to the typical number of leaflets per leaf.

The name ginseng derives from the Chinese herbalism term, jen-shen.{{cite web |title=Ginseng |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/ginseng#etymonline_v_6104 |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper |access-date=14 September 2018 |date=2018}} Other Chinese names are huaqishen ({{zh|s=花旗参|t=花旗參|p=huāqíshēn|cy=fākèihsām|l=Flower Flag ginseng}}) or xiyangshen ({{zh|s=西洋参|t=西洋參|p=xīyángshēn|cy=sāiyèuhngsām|l=west ocean ginseng|links=no}}).

The genus name "Panax" is derived from the Greek 'Panakos' (panacea), in reference to the various benefits attributed to the herb.{{Cite web|title=Benefits of American Ginseng: Dosage & Safety – Botanical Institute|url=https://botanicalinstitute.org/american-ginseng/|access-date=2021-08-27|language=en-US}}

The specific epithet "quinquefolius" means five-leaved, as described earlier.

Panax quinquefolius is native to the eastern United States and southeastern Canada.{{r|USDA:PAQU|BONAP-state|BONAP-county|VASCAN:2694}} It is found primarily in the Appalachian and Ozark mountains of the United States where it prefers full shade environments in deciduous hardwood forests.{{r|NatureServe|USDA Plant Guide}} It is introduced and cultivated in the following Chinese provinces: Guizhou, Heilongjiang, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Jilin, and Liaoning.{{r|FoC:200015253}}

Panax quinquefolius is a summer flowering plant. In New England, flower buds and leaves emerge simultaneously around the middle of June, with flowers eventually appearing in July. Fruits mature to a deep red color by early September. The seeds exhibit a type of dormancy called morphophysiological dormancy, sometimes called "double dormancy", which requires two full winters to completely break dormancy. Germination finally takes place eighteen months after the fruit initially ripened.{{sfnp|Hu|Rüdenberg|Del Tredici|1980|page=630}}

Europeans discovered ginseng near Montreal in 1716.{{sfnp|Brinckmann|Huang|2018|pages=908–910}} By 1720, ginseng from Quebec was exported to China by the Company of the Indies, a French trading company.{{sfnp|Carlson|1986|page=234}} Within a few decades, ginseng populations near Montreal were suffering from overharvesting and habitat destruction, and so the wild-harvesting of ginseng began to spread south.{{sfnp|Manget|2017|pages=55–56}} By the end of the 18th century, Albany, New York had become a trading center for ginseng. In the United States, 13.7 million kilograms of wild ginseng root were exported between 1821 and 1899,{{sfnp|Carlson|1986|loc=p. 239 (Table 1)}} with an average of about 1.7 million kilograms per decade.

More than 290,000 kilograms of dry ginseng roots were exported from the United States (U.S.) in 1841. It is estimated that this represents at least 64 million roots.{{sfnp|McGraw|Lubbers|Van der Voort|Mooney|2013|page=2}} By extrapolation, more than 3 billion roots (and therefore plants) were wild-harvested in the U.S. between 1821 and 1899.

During the twentieth century, exports of wild ginseng from the U.S. were about half of what they were during the previous century, averaging about 580,000 kilograms per decade.{{sfnp|Liu|Burkhart|Chen|Wei|2021|loc=Figure 1}} Between 2000 and 2020, U.S. exports of wild ginseng dropped to approximately 250,000 kilograms per decade.

The steady decline in export volume is likely the result of declining wild populations.

To control international trade, Panax quinquefolius is listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES).{{cite web|url=http://www.cites.org/eng/app/appendices.shtml |title=Appendices I, II and III |publisher=Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna |date=2010-10-14 |access-date=2020-01-30}} CITES Appendix II includes species that, although currently not threatened with global extinction, may become so without trade controls. {{As of|September 2022}}, nineteen (19) states and one tribe are authorized to export American ginseng from the United States.{{r|USFWS 2022}} The following table lists the states and tribe with an approved CITES export permit for American ginseng (each state's NatureServe conservation status is shown in parentheses):{{sfnp|Liu|Burkhart|Chen|Wei|2021}}

From 1978 to 2019, 1,713,025 kilograms of wild and wild-simulated ginseng roots were legally exported from the United States. During this period, the bulk of exports came from southern Appalachian states including Kentucky, West Virginia, Tennessee, and North Carolina. Of these, eastern Kentucky has consistently large harvests, apparently a result of habitat abundance, very high levels of rural poverty, and a very strong local tradition of ginseng collecting.{{sfnp|Schmidt|Cruse-Sanders|Chamberlain|Ferreira|2019|page=145}} American ginseng also grows wild in a number of states that do not permit export, including Connecticut (S2), Delaware (S2), Kansas (S1), Maine (S3), Massachusetts (S3), Michigan (S2S3), Nebraska (S1), New Hampshire (S2), New Jersey (S2), Oklahoma (S1), Rhode Island (S1), and South Carolina (S4).{{sfnp|Schmidt|Cruse-Sanders|Chamberlain|Ferreira|2019|page=141}}

As determined by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada, the conservation status of Panax quinquefolius is Endangered (E) in Canada.{{r|Canada:COSEWIC}} In Ontario and Quebec, it is listed as Endangered and Threatened, respectively.{{r|Canada:ECCC}} Both provincial designations refer to a species facing imminent extinction or extirpation. Consequently, the harvesting, possession, and export of wild American Ginseng in Canada is prohibited.

{{As of|2024|02}}, the NatureServe conservation status of Panax quinquefolius is globally vulnerable (G3G4).{{r|NatureServe}} It is vulnerable (S3) in 14 states; imperiled (S2) in 8 states and provinces; critically imperiled (S1) in 6 states; and possibly extirpated (SH) in the District of Columbia.

In addition to (or in lieu of) the NatureServe conservation status (in parentheses below), some states designate their own conservation status:

{{div col|colwidth=25em|rules=yes|gap=2em}}

• Connecticut (S2): Special Concern{{r|CT DEEP 2015}}
• Delaware (S2)
• Georgia (S3)
• Illinois (S3?)
• Indiana (S3)
• Iowa (S3)
• Kansas (S1)
• Kentucky (S3)
• Louisiana (S1)
• Maine (S3): Endangered{{r|ME DACF}}
• Maryland (S2S3){{r|MD DNR 2021}}
• Massachusetts (S3): Special Concern{{r|MA DFW}}
• Michigan (S2S3): Threatened{{r|MI NFI 1996}}
• Minnesota (S3): Special Concern{{r|MN DNR}}
• Mississippi (S3)
• Nebraska (S1): Threatened{{r|NE GPC}}
• New Hampshire (S2): Threatened{{r|NH DNCR 2020}}
• New Jersey (S2): S1{{r|NJ DEP 2020}}
• New York (S4): Exploitably Vulnerable{{r|NY NHP 2022}}
• North Carolina (S3S4): Rare but Relatively Secure; Exploited{{r|NC NHP 2022}}
• Oklahoma (S1)
• Pennsylvania (S4): Pennsylvania Vulnerable{{r|PA DCNR}}
• Rhode Island (S1): State Endangered{{r|RI NHS}}
• South Dakota (S1)
• Tennessee (S3S4): Special Concern; Commercially Exploited{{r|TN DEC}}
• Vermont (S3): High Priority Species of Greatest Conservation Need{{r|VT DFW 2015}}
• Virginia (S3S4): Threatened{{r|VA DACS}}
• West Virginia (S3S4)

{{div col end}}

Panax quinquefolius is apparently secure (S4) in New York and Pennsylvania (as shown above), as well as Alabama, Arkansas, Missouri, Ohio, South Carolina, and Wisconsin.

American ginseng was formerly particularly widespread in the Appalachian and Ozark regions (and adjacent forested regions such as Pennsylvania, New York and Ontario). Due to its popularity and unique habitat requirements, the wild plant has been overharvested, as well as lost through destruction of its habitat, and is thus rare in most parts of the United States and Canada.{{r|Cataneo 2020|PennState 2006}} Ginseng is also negatively affected by deer browsing, urbanization, and habitat fragmentation.{{r|McGraw NSF}} Today the greatest threat to American ginseng is irresponsible digging of its wild roots for export.{{r|NatureServe}}

As wild populations of American ginseng began to decline in the late 19th century, a market developed for cultivated ginseng. In 1887, the tinsmith George Stanton planted ginseng in the forest around Apulia Station, a hamlet in the town of Fabius in Onondaga County, New York.{{sfnp|Liu|Burkhart|Chen|Wei|2021}} Within a few years, he was growing ginseng in the open under artificial shade, and by the late 1890s, he had the largest ginseng plantation in the United States.{{sfnp|Manget|2017|pages=267–277}} In his obituary (1908), Stanton was called the Father of the Cultivated Ginseng Industry.{{r|Smithsonian|Bramer 1908}}

Several associations were formed to support commercial growers of American ginseng. In 1902, George Stanton became the first president of the New York State Ginseng Growers Association. By 1913, the Wisconsin, Michigan, and Ohio growers' associations had the largest memberships.{{sfnp|Carlson|1986|page=235–238}} American ginseng is the state herb of Wisconsin.{{r|Kasper 2017}}

American ginseng is grown commercially under artificial shade.{{r|OMAFRA 2022}} Under these conditions, a crop is harvested three to five years after seeding. Ginseng is also grown under forest-based, wild-simulated conditions, which require 6–10 years (or more) before harvest.{{r|AFTA}} Based solely on yield, forest farming may be 1/10 as productive as commercial cultivation.{{sfnp|Liu|Burkhart|Chen|Wei|2021}}

American ginseng is commercially cultivated in Canada (60%), United States (30%), and China (7%).{{r|Xiao 2000}} In North America, it is cultivated primarily in Ontario, Wisconsin, and British Columbia. In 1994, Ontario and Wisconsin produced 1.5 and 2.0 million pounds of ginseng, respectively, while British Columbia produced 0.5 million pounds.{{sfnp|Jia|Zhao|2009}} In other words, Canada and the United States each produced 2.0 million pounds (1,000 tons) of ginseng in 1994. In contrast, in 2007, Canada and the United States produced an estimated 6,486 tons and 1,054 tons (resp.) of ginseng, exporting $66 million and $37 million (resp.) worth of ginseng in 2009.{{sfnp|Baeg|So|2013}} As of 2020, global P. quinquefolius production is estimated at 7,000 tons on a dry-weight basis, with 60% produced in Canada, 30% in China, and 10% in the US.{{cite journal |author1=张绍国 |author2=李得运 |author3=于志斌 |title=全球视角下的参类贸易格局及产业发展建议 |trans-title=Ginseng [P. ginseng & P. quinquefolius] trade pattern and industrial development suggestions from a global perspective|journal=中国现代中药 |date=2022 |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=1568–1573 |url=https://www.fx361.cc/page/2022/0907/11918061.shtml |language=zh-CN}} Based on these figures, Canada is the largest producer and exporter of American ginseng in the world.

Some states encourage the planting of ginseng both to restore natural habitats and to remove pressure from remaining wild populations. American ginseng is woods-cultivated in Colorado, Kentucky, Maine, North Carolina, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, and West Virginia.{{r|VT Research 2002|KY ginseng 2017}}

For the related Korean ginseng species: Individuals requiring anticoagulant therapy such as warfarin should avoid use of ginseng. It is not recommended for individuals with impaired liver or renal function, or during pregnancy or breastfeeding. Other adverse effects include headaches, anxiety, trouble sleeping and an upset stomach. Data is insufficient for American ginseng.

Recent studies have shown that through the many cultivated procedures that American ginseng is grown, fungal molds, pesticides, and various metals and residues have contaminated the crop. Though these contaminating effects are not considerably substantial, they do pose health concerns that could lead to neurological problems, intoxication, cardiovascular disease and cancer.{{cite journal|last1=Wang|first1=Zengui|last2=Huang|first2=Linfang|title=Panax quinquefolius: An overview of the contaminants|journal=Phytochemistry Letters|date=March 2015|volume=11|pages=89–94|doi=10.1016/j.phytol.2014.11.013|bibcode=2015PChL...11...89W }}

Ginseng has been a part of traditional Chinese medicine for over 2,000 years. In Asia, American ginseng is highly valued for its cooling and sedative medicinal effects (yin), whereas Asian ginseng embodies the warmer aspects of yang.{{r|OGGA}}

American ginseng was of minor importance in traditional Native American medicine.{{sfnp|Brinckmann|Huang|2018|pages=910–911}}{{sfnp|Carlson|1986|page=234}}{{sfnp|McGraw|Lubbers|Van der Voort|Mooney|2013|page=2}} A number of the uses cited in the literature were likely adopted from the Chinese after the export trade from Canada to China began in 1720. The Iroquois ingested or smoked the roots as a panacea.{{r|BRIT:uses:25374}} The Menominee in northern Wisconsin used it as a tonic and to increase one's mental capability,{{r|BRIT:uses:25384}} while the Penobscot in Maine used it to promote fertility.{{r|BRIT:uses:25396}} The Seminole in Florida used it for gunshot wounds.{{r|BRIT:uses:25401}} Native peoples from multiple tribes gathered the roots to barter with white traders. In the late 19th century, the Cherokee sold large quantities of ginseng to traders for fifty cents a pound.{{r|BRIT:uses:25347}} According to James Mooney, a decoction made from its roots was drunk to relieve headaches and cramps.{{cite book |author-last=Mooney|author-first=James |author-link=James Mooney |contribution=The Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees |title=Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology|publisher=Government Printing Office|location=Washington DC|year=1891|pages=301–398 |language=en |oclc=747738317 |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/24788/24788-h/24788-h.htm#page324}}, s.v. Selected List of Plants Used

Cold-fX is a product derived from the roots of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius). The makers of Cold-fX were criticized for making health claims about the product that have never been tested or verified scientifically. Health Canada's review of the scientific literature confirmed that this is not a claim that the manufacturer is entitled to make.{{cite web

|url=http://www.macleans.ca/homepage/magazine/article.jsp?content=20070326_103302_103302

|title=COLD-fX catches the sniffles again

|author=Charlie Gillis

|date=2007-03-26

|publisher=Maclean's Magazine

|url-status=dead

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207163510/http://www.macleans.ca/homepage/magazine/article.jsp?content=20070326_103302_103302

|archive-date=2012-02-07

}} More generally, there is no evidence that American ginseng is effective against the common cold.{{cite web|url=https://nccih.nih.gov/health/asianginseng/ataglance.htm|title=Asian ginseng|date=September 2016|publisher=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD|access-date=10 February 2017}}

In the local vernacular, American ginseng has been variously known as "cheng", "chang", "sang", or "shang".{{sfnp|Carlson|1986|page=234}} Those collecting it have been called "shangers" and hunting for it has been called "shanging".{{sfnp|Gilman|2015|page=492}} In Appalachia, the wild-harvesting of American ginseng is called "sang hunting". Some blue-collar Appalachian families have been hunting sang for generations.{{r|Cataneo 2020|PCHS}}

File:Americanginseng.jpg|American ginseng in human figure.

File:MonkGinsengGarden.jpg|Under wooden shade, American ginseng in late fall at Monk Garden in Wisconsin

File:American-ginseng-with-fruit.jpg|A picture of the American ginseng plant with fruit.

File:Marathonginsengberry.jpg|American ginseng berries are ripe by late fall in Wisconsin.

File:Drawn image of fruit and leaf.jpg|A drawn image of the fruit and leaf of the American ginseng plant.

File:Drawn image.png|A drawn image of the American ginseng plants leaves.

File:American Ginseng 3.jpg|American wild ginseng root (Panax quinquefolius). Old roots, ranging from 40–60 growth scars.

• Panax trifolius, the dwarf ginseng
• Eleutherococcus senticosus, the Siberian ginseng

{{Reflist|40em|refs=

{{cite web |title=Wild-Simulated Forest Farming for Ginseng Production |url=https://www.aftaweb.org/latest-newsletter/temporate-agroforester/57-1997-vol-5/january-no-1/23-forest-ginseng-production.html |publisher=Association for Temperate Agroforestry |access-date=1 January 2024}}

{{cite web |last1=Belanus |first1=Betty |title=The Art of Ginseng—Illustration 4: La Plante du Gin-seng by Joseph-François Lafitau, 1718 |url=https://learninglab.si.edu/collections/the-art-of-ginseng-images-that-tell-the-story-of-american-ginseng-and-reveal-its-hidden-presence-throughout-our-shared-lands-and-histories/ptKF853sc1ISuMLa#r/1190139 |publisher=Smithsonian Center for Folklife and Cultural Heritage |access-date=4 January 2024}}

{{cite web |last1=Belanus |first1=Betty |title=The Art of Ginseng—Illustration 5: The Whip-Poor-Will |url=https://learninglab.si.edu/collections/the-art-of-ginseng-images-that-tell-the-story-of-american-ginseng-and-reveal-its-hidden-presence-throughout-our-shared-lands-and-histories/ptKF853sc1ISuMLa#r/1190142 |publisher=Smithsonian Center for Folklife and Cultural Heritage |access-date=4 January 2024}}

{{BONAP |genus=Panax |species=quinquefolius |state=1 |date=2014 |access-date=27 December 2023}}

{{BONAP |genus=Panax |species=quinquefolius |date=2014 |access-date=27 December 2023}}

{{cite journal |last1=Bramer |first1=J. K. |title=Obituary: George Stanton |journal=Special Crops |date=March 1908 |volume=7 |issue=67 |pages=42–43 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VnXNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA42 |access-date=9 January 2024}}

{{cite web |title=American Ginseng: Iroquois |url=http://naeb.brit.org/uses/25374/ |website=Native American Ethnobotany Database |access-date=28 December 2023}}

{{cite web |title=American Ginseng: Menominee |url=http://naeb.brit.org/uses/25384/ |website=Native American Ethnobotany Database |access-date=28 December 2023}}

{{cite web |title=American Ginseng: Penobscot |url=http://naeb.brit.org/uses/25396/ |website=Native American Ethnobotany Database |access-date=28 December 2023}}

{{cite web |title=American Ginseng: Seminole |url=http://naeb.brit.org/uses/25401/ |website=Native American Ethnobotany Database |access-date=28 December 2023}}

{{cite web |title=American Ginseng: Cherokee |url=http://naeb.brit.org/uses/25347/ |website=Native American Ethnobotany Database |access-date=28 December 2023}}

{{cite web |title=American Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) |url=https://species-registry.canada.ca/index-en.html#/species/217-173 |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=6 January 2024}}

{{cite web |title=Recovery Strategy for the American Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) in Canada 2018 |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/species-risk-public-registry/recovery-strategies/american-ginseng-2018.html |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=6 January 2024}}

{{cite web |last1=Cataneo |first1=Emily |title=In Appalachia, a Plan to Save Wild Ginseng |url=https://undark.org/2020/11/04/save-wild-ginseng-appalachia/ |publisher=Undark |access-date=22 December 2023 |date=4 November 2020}}

{{cite book |last1=Catesby |first1=Mark |title=The Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama islands. Appendix |date=1747 |location=London |page=16 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/126154#page/356/mode/1up |access-date=3 January 2024}}

{{cite web |title=Endangered, Threatened, and Special Concern Plants |url=https://portal.ct.gov/DEEP/Endangered-Species/Endangered-Species-Listings/Endangered-Threatened--Special-Concern-Plants |publisher=Connecticut Department of Energy & Environmental Protection |date=August 5, 2015 |access-date=15 January 2024}}

{{cite DCB |title=Lafitau, Joseph-François |first=William N. |last=Fenton |volume=3 |url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/lafitau_joseph_francois_3E.html |year=1974}}

{{cite web |last1=Firestone |first1=Chris K. |title=Be aware—no foolin'! |url=https://www.dcnr.pa.gov/GoodNatured/Pages/Article.aspx?post=201 |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources |access-date=14 January 2024 |date=April 1, 2022}}

{{eFloras |2 |200015253 |Panax quinquefolius |family=Araliaceae |first1=Qibai |last1=Xiang |first2=Porter P. |last2=Lowry |access-date=25 December 2023}}

{{IPNI |id=300467-2 |taxon=Panax quinquefolius |authority={{small|L.}} |access-date=2023-12-23}}

{{IPNI |id=77334147-1 |taxon=Aureliana canadensis |authority={{small|Lafitau ex Catesby}} |access-date=2024-01-08}}

{{cite journal |last1=Kasper |first1=Madeline |title=Ginseng: the official herb of Wisconsin |journal=Wisconsin Legislative Reference Bureau Reports |date=December 2017 |volume=1 |issue=6 |url=https://docs.legis.wisconsin.gov/misc/lrb/lrb_reports/lrb_reports_1_6.pdf |access-date=12 January 2024}}

{{cite web |url=http://www.kyagr.com/marketing/plantmktg/ginseng.htm |title=Ginseng program |publisher=Kentucky Agriculture Department |date=2017 |access-date=2018-02-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100626033351/http://www.kyagr.com/marketing/plantmktg/Ginseng.htm |archive-date=2010-06-26 |url-status=dead}}

{{cite book |last1=Lafitau |first1=Joseph-Francois |title=Memoire presente a Son Altesse royale Monseigneur le duc dOrleans, regent du royaume de France : concernant la precieuse plante du gin-seng de Tartarie, decouverte en Canada par le P. Joseph Francois Lafitau |date=1718 |publisher=Chez Joseph Monge, rue S. Jacques vis-a-vis le College de Louis le Grand, a Saint Ignace |location=Paris |url=https://collections.library.yale.edu/catalog/2020705 |access-date=30 December 2023}}

{{cite web |title=American Ginseng, Panax quinquefolius {{small|L.}} |url=https://www.mass.gov/doc/american-ginseng/download |publisher=Massachusetts Division of Fisheries & Wildlife |access-date=15 January 2024}}

{{cite web |title=Rare, Threatened, and Endangered Plants of Maryland |url=https://dnr.maryland.gov/wildlife/Documents/rte_Plant_List_expanded.pdf |publisher=Maryland Department of Natural Resources |access-date=15 January 2024 |date=March 2021}}

{{cite web |title=Panax quinquefolius {{small|L.}} |url=https://www.maine.gov/dacf/mnap/features/panqui.htm |publisher=Maine Department of Agriculture, Conservation & Forestry |access-date=15 January 2024}}

{{cite web |last1=Penskar |first1=M. R. |last2=Higman |first2=P. J. |title=Special plant abstract for Panax quinquefolius {{small|L.}} (ginseng) |url=https://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/abstracts/botany/Panax_quinquefolius.pdf |publisher=Michigan Natural Features Inventory |access-date=15 January 2024 |location=Lansing |date=1996}}

{{cite web |title=Population Biology and Conservation Ecology of American Ginseng |url=http://www.as.wvu.edu/~jmcgraw/JBMPersonalSite/PopBioConsEcol.html |publisher=West Virginia University |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407053908/http://www.as.wvu.edu/~jmcgraw/JBMPersonalSite/PopBioConsEcol.html |archive-date=2022-04-07 |url-status=dead}}

{{cite web |title=Panax quinquefolius {{small|L.}} (American ginseng) |url=https://www.dnr.state.mn.us/rsg/profile.html?action=elementDetail&selectedElement=PDARA09010 |publisher=Minnesota Department of Natural Resources |access-date=15 January 2024}}

{{cite web |publisher=NatureServe |title=Panax quinquefolius |work=NatureServe Explorer |url=https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.130734/Panax_quinquefolius |access-date=27 December 2023}}

{{cite web |title=Rare Plant List |url=https://www.ncnhp.org/references/publications/2022-rare-plant-list |publisher=North Carolina Natural Heritage Program |access-date=15 January 2024 |date=2022}}

{{cite web |title=American ginseng |url=https://outdoornebraska.gov/learn/nebraska-wildlife/nebraska-plants/american-ginseng/ |publisher=Nebraska Game and Parks Commission |access-date=15 January 2024}}

{{cite web |title=New Hampshire Official Rare Plants List |url=https://www.nh.gov/nhdfl/reports/rare-plant-list.htm |publisher=New Hampshire Department of Natural and Cultural Resources |access-date=15 January 2024 |date=2020}}

{{cite web |title=New Jersey State Forest Action Plan |url=https://www.nj.gov/dep/parksandforests/forest/njsfap/docs/njsfap-final-12312020.pdf |publisher=New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection |access-date=15 January 2024 |date=December 2020}}

{{cite web |last1=Ring |first1=Richard M. |title=New York Rare Plant Status Lists |url=https://www.nynhp.org/documents/5/rare-plant-status-lists-2022.pdf |publisher=New York Natural Heritage Program |access-date=15 January 2024 |date=December 2022}}

{{cite web |url=https://ginsengontario.com/about/ |title=About Ontario Ginseng |work=Ontario Ginseng Growers Association |access-date=27 December 2023}}

{{cite web |title=Ginseng production in Ontario |url=https://www.ontario.ca/page/ginseng-production-ontario |publisher=Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs |access-date=1 January 2024 |date=September 22, 2022}}

{{cite web |title=American Ginseng in Pennsylvania |url=https://www.dcnr.pa.gov/Conservation/WildPlants/Ginseng/Pages/default.aspx |publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources |access-date=15 January 2024}}

{{cite web |last1=Beattie-Moss |first1=Melissa |title=Roots and Regulations: The unfolding story of Pennsylvania ginseng |url=https://www.psu.edu/news/research/story/roots-and-regulations/ |publisher=PennState |access-date=28 December 2023 |date=June 18, 2006}}

{{cite web |title=Ginseng (sang), the thrill of the hunt |date=March 2022 |url=https://pikecountykyhistoricalsociety.com/ginseng-sang-the-thrill-of-the-hunt/ |publisher=Pike County Historical Society |access-date=24 December 2023}}

{{cite POWO |id=300467-2 |title=Panax quinquefolius {{small|L.}} |access-date=2023-12-23}}

{{cite journal |last1=Reveal |first1=James L. |title=Typification of Panax quinquefolium {{small|Linnaeus}} (Araliaceae) |journal=Phytologia |date=December 1991 |volume=71 |issue=6 |pages=472–474 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/13167673#page/46/mode/1up |access-date=24 December 2023}}

{{cite web |title=Rhode Island Rare Plants |url=https://dem.ri.gov/sites/g/files/xkgbur861/files/programs/benviron/water/permits/fresh/pdfs/rhode-island-rare-plants.pdf |publisher=Rhode Island Natural History Survey |access-date=15 January 2024 |date=2016}}

{{cite web |title=George Stanton and A.R. Harding, early figures in ginseng knowledge |url=https://folklife.si.edu/american-ginseng#george-stanton-ar-harding |website=American Ginseng: Local Knowledge, Global Roots |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |access-date=9 January 2024}}

{{cite web |title=Tennessee Ginseng Program |url=https://www.tn.gov/content/dam/tn/environment/natural-areas/documents/TN_GINSENG_PROGRAM_BROCHURE.pdf |publisher=Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation |access-date=15 January 2024}}

{{PLANTS |id=PAQU |taxon=Panax quinquefolius |access-date=27 December 2023}}

{{cite web |last1=Anderson |first1=M. Kat |last2=Peterson |first2=J. Scott |title=American Ginseng |url=https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov/DocumentLibrary/plantguide/pdf/pg_paqu.pdf |publisher=USDA, NRCS |access-date=27 December 2023}}

{{cite letter |author=((Chief, Branch of Monitoring and Consultation, Division of Scientific Authority, USFWS)) |recipient=Chief, Branch of Permits, Division of Management Authority, USFWS |subject=General Advice for the export of wild and wild-simulated American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) roots legally harvested during the 2022 harvest season in the 19 States and Tribe with an approved CITES Export Program for American ginseng |language=en |date=1 September 2022 |publisher=United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) |location=Washington, DC |url=https://cites.org/sites/default/files/ndf_material/USA%20NDF%20for%20American%20ginseng%20%28Panax%20quinquefolius%29.pdf |access-date=10 January 2024}}

{{cite web |title=Ginseng |url=https://www.vdacs.virginia.gov/plant-industry-services-ginseng.shtml |publisher=Virginia Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services |access-date=15 January 2024}}

{{cite web |title=Panax quinquefolius {{small|Linnaeus}} |url=https://data.canadensys.net/vascan/taxon/2694 |website=Canadensys |access-date=27 December 2023}}

{{cite web |title=Species of Greatest Conservation Need |url=https://vtfishandwildlife.com/sites/fishandwildlife/files/documents/About%20Us/Budget%20and%20Planning/WAP2015/5.-SGCN-Lists-Taxa-Summaries-%282015%29.pdf |publisher=Vermont Department of Fish & Wildlife |access-date=15 January 2024 |date=2015}}

{{cite web |url=http://www.research.vt.edu/resmag/2002summer/forestproducts.html |title=There is More to a Forest than Trees |date=Summer 2002 |publisher=Virginia Tech |access-date=2023-12-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060828064746/http://www.research.vt.edu/resmag/2002summer/forestproducts.html |archive-date=2006-08-28}}

{{cite web |last1=Xiao |first1=Max |title=The Canadian Ginseng Industry |url=https://boletines.exportemos.pe/recursos/boletin/canadian-ginseng-industry-preparing-21-century-2000.pdf |publisher=Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada |access-date=29 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229164641/https://boletines.exportemos.pe/recursos/boletin/canadian-ginseng-industry-preparing-21-century-2000.pdf |archive-date=2023-12-29 |date=2000-02-07 |url-status=live}}

}}

• {{cite journal |last1=Baeg |first1=In-Ho |last2=So |first2=Seung-Ho |title=The world ginseng market and the ginseng (Korea) |journal=Journal of Ginseng Research |date=2013 |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=1–7 |doi=10.5142/jgr.2013.37.1 |pmid=23717152|doi-access=free |pmc=3659626 }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Brinckmann |first1=Josef |last2=Huang |first2=Linfang |title=American Ginseng a Genuine Traditional Chinese Medicine |journal=Medicina Nei Secoli: Journal of History of Medicine and Medical Humanities |date=2018-11-01 |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=907–928 |url=https://rosa.uniroma1.it/rosa01/medicina_nei_secoli/article/view/1559 |access-date=29 December 2023 |issn=0394-9001}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Burkhart |first1=Eric P. |last2=Jacobson |first2=Michael G. |last3=Finley |first3=James |title=A case study of stakeholder perspective and experience with wild American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) conservation efforts in Pennsylvania, U.S.A.: limitations to a CITES driven, top-down regulatory approach |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |date=2012 |volume=21 |issue=14 |pages=3657–3679 |doi=10.1007/s10531-012-0389-9 |bibcode=2012BiCon..21.3657B |s2cid=14768055 |url=https://www.shaverscreek.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Limitations-to-CITES_Burkhart-et-al_2012.pdf |access-date=28 December 2023}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Burkhart |first1=Eric P. |title=American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius {{small|L.}}) floristic associations in Pennsylvania: guidance for identifying calcium-rich forest farming sites |journal=Agroforestry Systems |date=2013 |volume=87 |issue=5 |pages=1157–1172 |doi=10.1007/s10457-013-9627-8 |bibcode=2013AgrSy..87.1157B |s2cid=254191922 |url=https://www.shaverscreek.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Panax-quinquefolius_Associations-in-PA_Oct2013.pdf |access-date=22 December 2023}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Carlson |first1=Alvar W. |title=Ginseng: America's Botanical Drug Connection to the Orient |journal=Economic Botany |date=1986 |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=233–249 |doi=10.1007/BF02859148 |jstor=4254858 |bibcode=1986EcBot..40..233C |s2cid=23019185 |url=https://www.wildamericanginseng.org/_files/ugd/2c26e8_31e32bf3be914d4d9cffebd49220ca47.pdf |access-date=26 December 2023}}
• {{cite book |last1=Gilman |first1=Arthur V. |title=New Flora of Vermont |date=2015 |series=Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 110 |publisher=The New York Botanical Garden Press |location=Bronx, New York, USA |isbn=978-0-89327-516-7}}
• {{cite book |last1=Gledhill |first1=David |title=The Names of Plants |year=2008 |edition=4th |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NJ6PyhVuecwC |isbn=978-0-521-86645-3}}
• {{Cite journal |last1=Hu |first1=Shiu Ying |last2=Rüdenberg |first2=Lily |last3=Del Tredici |first3=Peter |date=1980 |title=Studies of American ginsengs |journal=Rhodora |volume=82 |issue=832 |pages=627–636 |issn=0035-4902 |jstor=23314100 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/5874582#page/617/mode/1up |access-date=2023-12-22}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Jartoux |first1=Pierre |title=XXV. The description of a tartarian plant, call'd gin-seng; with an account of its virtues. In a letter from Father Jartoux, to the Procurator General of the Missions of India and China. Taken from the tenth volume of letters of the Missionary Jesuits, printed in Paris in octavo, 1713 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |date=1713 |volume=28 |issue=337 |pages=237–247 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1713.0025 |doi-access=free}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Jia |first1=Lee |last2=Zhao |first2=Yuqing |title=Current evaluation of the millennium phytomedicine-ginseng (I): etymology, pharmacognosy, phytochemistry, market and regulations |journal=Current Medicinal Chemistry |date=2009 |volume=16 |issue=19 |pages=2475–84 |doi=10.2174/092986709788682146 |pmid=19601793|pmc=2752963 }}
• {{cite book |last=Linnaeus |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Linnaeus |title=Species Plantarum: exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas |year=1753 |publisher=Impensis Laurentii Salvii |location=Stockholm |edition=1st |url=http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/669#/summary |access-date=3 August 2023}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Hong |last2=Burkhart |first2=Eric P. |last3=Chen |first3=Vivian Yi Ju |last4=Wei |first4=Xi |title=Promotion of in situ Forest Farmed American Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius {{small|L.}}) as a Sustainable Use Strategy: Opportunities and Challenges |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution |date=17 March 2021 |volume=9 |issue=652103 |doi=10.3389/fevo.2021.652103|doi-access=free |bibcode=2021FrEEv...952103L }}
• {{cite thesis |last=Manget |first=Thomas Luke |date=2017 |title=Root digging and herb gathering: the rise and decline of the botanical drug trade in southern Appalachia |type=PhD |publisher=The University of Georgia |location=Athens}}
• {{cite journal |last1=McGraw |first1=James B. |last2=Lubbers |first2=Anne E. |last3=Van der Voort |first3=Martha |last4=Mooney |first4=Emily H. |last5=Furedi |first5=Mary Ann |last6=Souther |first6=Sara |last7=Turner |first7=Jessica B. |last8=Chandler |first8=Jennifer |title=Ecology and conservation of ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) in a changing world |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |date=2013 |volume=1286 |issue=1 |pages=62–91 |doi=10.1111/nyas.12032 |pmid=23398402 |bibcode=2013NYASA1286...62M |s2cid=20938136 |issn=0077-8923 |url=https://www.wildamericanginseng.org/_files/ugd/2c26e8_e7a295fb15a747d5b030a226316b91f4.pdf |access-date=2 January 2024}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Schmidt |first1=John Paul |last2=Cruse-Sanders |first2=Jennifer |last3=Chamberlain |first3=James L. |last4=Ferreira |first4=Susana |last5=Younge |first5=John A. |title=Explaining harvests of wild-harvested herbaceous plants: American ginseng as a case study |journal=Biological Conservation |date=March 2019 |volume=231 |pages=139–149 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2019.01.006 |bibcode=2019BCons.231..139S |url=https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/ja/2019/ja_2019_chamberlain_001.pdf |access-date=17 January 2024}}

{{Commons category}}

{{Wikispecies|Panax quinquefolius}}

• {{cite web |title=American Ginseng: Local Knowledge, Global Roots |url=https://folklife.si.edu/american-ginseng |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |access-date=24 December 2023}}
• {{cite web |last1=Belanus |first1=Betty |title=The Art of Ginseng: Images that Tell the Story of American Ginseng and Reveal its Hidden Presence Throughout our Shared Lands and Histories |url=https://learninglab.si.edu/collections/the-art-of-ginseng-images-that-tell-the-story-of-american-ginseng-and-reveal-its-hidden-presence-throughout-our-shared-lands-and-histories/ptKF853sc1ISuMLa |publisher=Smithsonian Center for Folklife and Cultural Heritage |access-date=3 January 2024}}
• {{cite web |last1=Ellison |first1=George |title=Ginseng, ferns and an ancient dialect |url=https://smokymountainnews.com/archives/item/5544-ginseng-ferns-and-an-ancient-dialect |website=Smoky Mountain News |access-date=24 December 2023 |date=November 9, 2011}}
• {{cite web |title=Sang |url=http://artsandsciences.sc.edu/appalachianenglish/node/647 |publisher=University of South Carolina |access-date=24 December 2023}}
• {{cite web |title=American ginseng culture in the arid climates of British Columbia |url=https://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/library/documents/bib93204.pdf |publisher=B.C. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food |access-date=1 January 2024 |date=1992}}
• {{cite web |title=Wild American Ginseng |url=https://www.wildamericanginseng.org/ |publisher=Wild American Ginseng Conservation Collaborative |access-date=2 January 2024}}
• {{cite web |last1=Rice |first1=Laura |title=Let's Eat: Adirondack Ginseng |url=https://www.adirondackalmanack.com/2010/06/lets-eat-adirondack-ginseng.html |website=The Adirondack Almanack |access-date=3 January 2024 |date=June 8, 2010}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Azami |first1=Bahaji |last2=Lena |first2=Nisma |last3=Yu |first3=Qun |last4=Shen |first4=Yun-Hui |title=A Survey of the History and Applications of American Ginseng |journal=Chinese Medicine and Culture |date=2021 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=12–18 |doi=10.4103/CMAC.CMAC_41_20 |doi-access=free}}
• {{cite web |last1=Banks |first1=James |title=American Ginseng History |url=https://www.wildgrown.com/index.php/general-information-about-ginseng/109-american-ginseng-history |publisher=National Ginseng LLC |access-date=8 January 2024}}
• {{cite web |title=Jim McGraw's Lab |url=http://www.as.wvu.edu/~jmcgraw/JBMPersonalSite/index.html |publisher=West Virginia University |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150122205137/http://www.as.wvu.edu/~jmcgraw/JBMPersonalSite/index.html |archive-date=2015-01-22 |url-status=dead}}
• {{cite web |title=Panax quinquefolius — American ginseng |url=https://gobotany.nativeplanttrust.org/species/panax/quinquefolius/ |website=Go Botany |publisher=Native Plant Trust |access-date=15 January 2024}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q2737217}}

{{Authority control}}

quinquefolius

Category:Herbs

Category:Medicinal plants of North America

Category:Flora of the United States

Category:Flora of Canada

Category:Plants described in 1753

Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus

Category:Agriculture in the United States

Category:Agriculture in Canada

Category:Plants used in traditional Native American medicine