Anarchism in Tunisia

The Amazighs of early Tunisia lived in semi-independent farming villages, composed of small, composite, tribal units under a local leader who worked to harmonize its clans.{{cite book|last1=Soren|first1=David|last2=Slim|first2=Hédi|last3=Ben Khader|first3=Aicha Ben Abed|title=Carthage: uncovering the mysteries and splendors of ancient Tunisia|location=New York|publisher=Simon and Schuster|year=1990|pages=44–45|oclc=1035427234}} Management of the affairs in such early Amazigh villages was probably shared with a council of elders.{{cite book|first=Brent D.|last=Shaw|author-link=Brent D. Shaw|chapter=The structure of local society in the early Maghrib: the elders|pages=23–26|title=Rulers, Nomads, and Christians in Roman North Africa|location=Aldershot|publisher=Variorum|year=1995|isbn=9780860784906|oclc=906661740}} With the Phoenician establishment of Carthage and other city-states, Amazigh villages were inspired to join together in order to marshall large-scale armies, which brought forth the centralization of leadership.{{cite book|last1=Brett|first1=Michael|last2=Fentress|first2=Elisabeth|title=The Berbers|year=1996|pages=24–25|oclc=1044662894}}{{cite book|first=Abdallah|last=Laroui|title=The History of the Maghrib|location=Princeton|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1977|pages=61–62|isbn=9781400869985|oclc=1148857679}}{{cite book|first=David H.|last=Trump|title=The Prehistory of the Mediterranean|location=New Haven|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1980|pages=55–57|oclc=1014973030}} Tunisia was subsequently ruled as a state by the Carthaginians, Romans, Vandals and Byzantines, before coming under the control of the Islamic Caliphates. From the 10th-century onwards, medieval Tunisia was ruled as a monarchy by a series of Amazigh dynasties, including the Zirids, Almohads and Hafsids.

File:Bust_of_Ibn_Khaldun_(Casbah_of_Bejaia,_Algeria).jpg, an early sociologist associated with the development of libertarian philosophy in Tunisia.]]

An early figure associated with the Tunisian libertarian movement was Ibn Khaldun, a 14th-century philosopher from Tunis,{{cite news|title=Ibn Khaldun; a 14th Century Arab Libertarian|first=Eugene|last=Plawiuk|date=4 February 2006|access-date=22 March 2021|url=http://stiobhard.tripod.com/east/khaldun.html|publisher=Le Revue Gauche}} particularly due to his book: the Muqaddimah. Having observed the earliest stages in the primitive accumulation of capital, Ibn Khaldun developed a labor theory of value.{{cite book |first=Ibrahim M. |last=Oweiss |year=1988 |chapter=Ibn Khaldun, the Father of Economics |title=Arab Civilization: Challenges and Responses |publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-0-88706-698-6 |chapter-url=https://faculty.georgetown.edu/imo3/ibn.htm}} He also developed a political theory of social cohesion known as Asabiyyah, describing a form of society united by social solidarity,{{cite book|last1=Zuanna|first1=Giampiero Dalla|last2=Micheli|first2=Giuseppe A.|title=Strong Family and Low Fertility|year=2004|page=92|location=Dordrecht|publisher=Kluwer Academic|isbn=9781402028373|oclc=760404185}} resembling a philosophy of classical republicanism.{{cite book|last=Weir|first=Shelagh|title=A Tribal Order|year=2007|page=191|location=Austin|publisher=University of Texas Press|isbn=9780292714236|oclc=475246718}}

In 1574, Tunisia was conquered by the Ottomans and integrated into the empire as a province. A series of revolutions during the late 17th century eventually resulted in the establishment of the autonomous Beylik of Tunis, governed by the beys, who retained control of Tunisia even after the establishment of the French protectorate of Tunisia.

When the Risorgimento established the united Kingdom of Italy, Tunis became a place of refuge for Italians fleeing persecution by the new government, with many Italian anarchists moving to the city.{{cite book |author=G. Masi |title=Dizionario biografico degli anarchici italiani |publisher=Biblioteca Franco Serantini |year=2003 |isbn=9788886389877 |editor1=Antonioli |editor-first=Maurizio |editor-link=Maurizio Antonioli |volume=1 |location=Pisa |pages=439–442 |translator=Nestor McNab |chapter=Anarchism in Tunisia: Nicolò (Nicolantonio) Converti, 1855-1939 |oclc=799624251 |editor2=Bertolucci |editor-first2=Franco |chapter-url=http://www.anarkismo.net/article/19063}} In the late 19th-century, a number of Italian language anarchist periodicals began to be published in Tunis. These included The Worker (1887-1904) and The Human Protest (1896), edited by the Calabrian doctor Nicolò Converti, as well as The Social Vespers (1924) and The Anarchist Vespers (1924), edited by Paolo Schicchi.{{cite book|chapter-url=http://www.anarkismo.net/article/27764|chapter=Early anarchist periodicals in Tunisia|title=Bibliografia dell'anarchismo|volume=2. periodici e numeri unici anarchici in lingua italiana pubblicati all'estero (1872-1971)|first=Leonardo|last=Bettini|oclc=917645638|location=Firenze|publisher=Crescita politica editrice|year=1976|translator=Nestor McNab}}

Following the Tunisian independence from France, Habib Bourguiba became the first President of Tunisia, constituting a one party state under the Socialist Destourian Party and proclaiming himself president for life.{{cite book|title=Tunisia|first1=Roslind Varghese|last1=Brown|first2=Michael|last2=Spilling|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3QYLUNEWkYcC&pg=PA37|page=37|location=New York|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|year=2008|isbn=9780761430377|oclc=740541891}} The government briefly experimented with socialism during the 1960s, under the direction of the trade union leader Ahmed Ben Salah, but this was brought to an end in 1969 after a series of peasant revolts against the policies collectivization and nationalization.{{cite web|title=Ahmed Ben Salah |url=http://harissa.com/D_Histoire/ahmedbensalah.htm|author=Sami Ben Abdallah|access-date=18 June 2016|language=fr}} In 1987, Bourguiba was removed in a coup d'état by Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, who assumed the presidency.{{cite news|title=A Coup is reported in Tunisia|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/11/07/world/a-coup-is-reported-in-tunisia.html?pagewanted=1|agency=Associated Press|newspaper=The New York Times|issn=0362-4331|date=7 November 1987|access-date=2 May 2010}} Ben Ali transformed the ruling party into the Democratic Constitutional Rally and began a series of reforms, increasing economic privatization.{{cite web|url=http://www.changement.tn/english/president-ben-ali/ben-ali-s-biography-zine-el-abidine-ben-ali-president-of-the-tunisian-republic--2.html|title=Ben Ali's biography: ''Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, President of the Tunisian Republic|publisher=Changement.tn|year=2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101021083832/http://www.changement.tn/english/president-ben-ali/ben-ali-s-biography-zine-el-abidine-ben-ali-president-of-the-tunisian-republic--2.html |archive-date=21 October 2010 }} Controls on the political opposition were loosened, but in practice, the opposition had little power to affect change.

File:Caravane_de_la_libération_4.jpg, which overthrow the government of Zine El Abidine Ben Ali.]]

High unemployment, food inflation, corruption, a lack of political freedoms and poor living conditions led to a wave of demonstrations breaking out in December 2011, catalyzed by the self-immolation of Mohamed Bouazizi. Tunisian anarchists were among the participants, including the Disobedience Movement, which called for occupations, general strikes and other acts of civil disobedience.{{cite web|url=https://crimethinc.com/2021/02/09/tunisia-from-the-revolution-of-2011-to-the-revolt-of-2021-new-stirrings-in-north-africa|title=From the 2011 Revolution to the Revolt of 2021|publisher=CrimethInc.|date=9 February 2021|access-date=22 March 2021}} Trade unions also played an integral role in the protests, calling a wave of strikes against the government.{{cite web|url=http://www.defenddemocracy.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=11792083&Itemid=347 |title=Trade unions: the revolutionary social network at play in Egypt and Tunisia |publisher=Defenddemocracy.org |access-date=11 February 2011|archive-date=28 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110228075756/http://www.defenddemocracy.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=11792083&Itemid=347}} After 28 days of sustained civil resistance, in January 2011, the government of Ben Ali was overthrown and Tunisia began a process of democratisation.{{cite web|author=Ryan, Yasmine |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/indepth/features/2011/01/2011126121815985483.html |title=How Tunisia's revolution began – Features |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=26 January 2011 |access-date=13 February 2011}}

The new political climate created by the revolution allowed for the emergence of the Tunisian anarchist movement into the public sphere. But it also saw the growth of Islamism on the political stage, with the Ennahda Movement winning the 2011 Tunisian Constituent Assembly election and forming a coalition government.{{cite news|last=Feldman |first=Noah |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-10-30/islamists-victory-in-tunisia-a-win-for-democracy-noah-feldman.html |title=Islamists' Victory in Tunisia a Win for Democracy: Noah Feldman |publisher=Bloomberg |date=2011-10-30 |access-date=2011-10-31}}{{cite web|url=https://www.jadaliyya.com/Details/26907/The-Emergence-of-Salafism-in-Tunisia|title=The Emergence of Salafism in Tunisia|date=17 August 2012|first1=Fabio|last1=Merone|first2=Francesco|last2=Cavatorta|work=Jadaliyya|access-date=22 March 2021}} The Disobedience Movement subsequently denounced what they described as a "counter-revolution" by the new Islamist-led government and issued a declaration of principles calling for the establishment of libertarian socialism in Tunisia.{{cite web|url=https://robertgraham.wordpress.com/2013/02/06/anarchists-against-counter-revolution-in-tunisia/|title=Anarchists Against Counter-Revolution in Tunisia|author=Disobedience Movement|date=November 2012|access-date=22 March 2021|publisher=Robert Graham|translator=Ryan Harvey}}

On February 6, 2013, the left-wing opposition leader Chokri Belaid was assassinated outside his house by an unknown gunman,{{cite web|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/politics/2013/02/belaid-assassination-tunisia.html|title=Tunisia Assassination Puts Country at Crossroads|date=8 February 2013|publisher=Al-Monitor (Business News)|access-date=25 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102050505/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/politics/2013/02/belaid-assassination-tunisia.html|archive-date=2 November 2013|url-status=dead}} triggering a political crisis and igniting a renewed series of protests against the new government.{{cite news|title=Tunisia: Chokri Belaid assassination prompts protests|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-21349719|newspaper=BBC News|access-date=6 February 2013|date=6 February 2013}}{{cite news|author=Loveday Morris|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/uprising-in-tunisia-as-regime-critic-is-murdered-8483975.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220507/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/uprising-in-tunisia-as-regime-critic-is-murdered-8483975.html |archive-date=2022-05-07 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Uprising in Tunisia as regime critic is murdered|newspaper=The Independent|access-date=7 February 2013|location=London|date=6 February 2013}}{{cbignore}} During the protests, the Ennahda Movement's headquarters were set on fire, in an action claimed by Tunisian anarchists.{{cite news|url=https://libcom.org/library/fruits-arab-spring-islamism-anarchism-feminism|title=The Fruits of "Arab Spring"; Islamism, Anarchism & Feminism|first=Yeghig|last=Tashjian|date=April 2013|publisher=Strategic Outlook|access-date=22 March 2021|page=6}} In March 2013, the Disobedience Movement published an anti-capitalist manifesto, in response to the holding of the World Social Forum in Tunis.{{cite web|url=https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/anonymous-tunisian-anarchists-against-world-capitalism|title=Tunisian Anarchists Against World Capitalism|author=Disobedience Movement|date=19 March 2013|publisher=Tahrir-ICN|access-date=22 March 2021}} At the beginning of July 2013, the Disobedience Movement also issued a call for unity of the revolutionary elements in Tunisia.{{cite web|url=https://tahriricn.wordpress.com/2013/07/06/tunisia-a-call-for-unity/|title=A Call for Unity|author=Disobedience Movement|publisher=Tahrir-ICN|date=6 July 2013|access-date=23 March 2021}} On July 21, 2013, three affiliates of the anarcha-feminist group Feminist Attack were arrested and beaten by police for painting graffiti on the wall of the Ministry of Women's Affairs.{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130807060443/http://www.tunisia-live.net/2013/07/22/feminist-activists-claim-police-brutality-in-graffiti-arrests/|archive-date=7 August 2013|url=http://www.tunisia-live.net/2013/07/22/feminist-activists-claim-police-brutality-in-graffiti-arrests/|title=Anarchist Feminist Activists Claim Brutality by Tunisian Police|date=22 July 2013|first=Roua|last=Khlifi|work=Tunisia Live}}

On July 25, 2013, another left-wing political leader Mohamed Brahmi was assassinated outside his home.{{cite news|last=Najjar|first=Yasmin|title=Tunisia buries slain politician|url=http://magharebia.com/en_GB/articles/awi/features/2013/07/28/feature-01|access-date=29 July 2013|work=Magharebia|date=28 July 2013|location=Tunis}}{{cite news|title=Tunisian politician Mohamed Brahmi assassinated|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-23452979|work=BBC News|date=25 July 2013|access-date=25 July 2013}} The Disobedience Movement responded by calling for the establishment of local and regional councils, with the purpose of coordinating the self-management of community resources, as an alternative to the existing state system.{{cite web|url=http://year0.org/2013/08/24/the-people-want-the-fall-of-the-regime-update-from-tunisia/|title=The Disadvantaged Shall Live! The Disadvantaged Shall Rule!|author=Disobedience Movement|publisher=New York Year|date=1 August 2013|access-date=23 March 2021}}

In August 2013, the feminist activist Amina Tyler announced that she was leaving the Femen organization due to Islamophobia. Instead she linked up with Feminist Attack, participating in one of their actions in Tunis, and published a photo of herself topless while lighting a cigarette using a molotov cocktail, with the words "we don't need your democracy" and a circle-a painted on her torso.{{cite web|url=https://www.liberation.fr/monde/2013/08/20/amina-sboui-quitte-les-femen_925786/|title=Amina Sboui quitte les Femen pour "islamophobie"|first=Cordélia|last=Bonal|date=20 August 2013|access-date=23 March 2021|work=Libération|archive-date=12 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141012224936/http://www.liberation.fr/monde/2013/08/20/amina-sboui-quitte-les-femen_925786|url-status=dead}}

In January 2021, a series of protests started after police aggression against a shepherd in Siliana,{{Cite web|url=http://kapitalis.com/tunisie/2021/01/15/heurts-avec-la-police-suite-a-lagression-dun-berger-par-un-agent-a-siliana/|title=Heurts avec la police suite à l'agression d'un berger par un agent à Siliana|first=Alif|last=Min|date=January 15, 2021|website=Kapitalis|lang=fr}} which saw rioting spread across Tunisia and the deployment of police and the army in several cities, with the arrest of hundreds of people.{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/1/26/clashes-break-out-in-tunisia-after-death-of-protester|title=Clashes break out in Tunisia after death of protester|date=January 26, 2021|website=Aljazeera|lang=en}} Anarchists were among a broad coalition of participants in the protests, which notably did not include Islamic fundamentalists, demanding the abolition of police oppression and the rejection of the International Monetary Fund. One of the groups that participated in the protests was the anarchist and anti-fascist collective "The Wrong Generation", which popularized among protestors the slogan "there's anger under the ground", possibly inspired by Aboul-Qacem Echebbi's poem To the Tyrants of the World.

• :Category:Tunisian anarchists
• Socialism in Tunisia
• List of anarchist movements by country
• Anarchism in Africa
• Anarchism in Algeria

{{reflist}}

• [https://theanarchistlibrary.org/category/topic/tunisia Tunisia section] - The Anarchist Library
• [https://libcom.org/tags/Tunisia Tunisia section] - Libcom.org

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Category:Political movements in Tunisia