Argument map

A number of different kinds of argument maps have been proposed but the most common, which Chris Reed and Glenn Rowe called the standard diagram,{{harvnb|Reed|Rowe|2007|p=64}} consists of a tree structure with each of the reasons leading to the conclusion. There is no consensus as to whether the conclusion should be at the top of the tree with the reasons leading up to it or whether it should be at the bottom with the reasons leading down to it. Another variation diagrams an argument from left to right.For example: {{harvnb|Walton|2013|pp=18–20}}

According to Douglas N. Walton and colleagues, an argument map has two basic components: "One component is a set of circled numbers arrayed as points. Each number represents a proposition (premise or conclusion) in the argument being diagrammed. The other component is a set of lines or arrows joining the points. Each line (arrow) represents an inference. The whole network of points and lines represents a kind of overview of the reasoning in the given argument..."{{harvnb|Reed|Walton|Macagno|2007|p=2}} With the introduction of software for producing argument maps, it has become common for argument maps to consist of boxes containing the actual propositions rather than numbers referencing those propositions.

There is disagreement on the terminology to be used when describing argument maps,{{harvnb|Freeman|1991|pp=49–90}}; {{harvnb|Reed|Rowe|2007}} but the standard diagram contains the following structures: dependent premises, independent premises, and intermediate conclusions.

Dependent premises or co-premises, where at least one of the joined premises requires another premise before it can give support to the conclusion: An argument with this structure has been called a linked argument.{{harvnb|Harrell|2010|p=19}}

File:Dependent premises.jpg

Independent premises, where the premise can support the conclusion on its own: Although independent premises may jointly make the conclusion more convincing, this is to be distinguished from situations where a premise gives no support unless it is joined to another premise. Where several premises or groups of premises lead to a final conclusion the argument might be described as convergent. This is distinguished from a divergent argument where a single premise might be used to support two separate conclusions.{{harvnb|Freeman|1991|pp=91–110}}; {{harvnb|Harrell|2010|p=20}}

File:Independent premises.jpg

Intermediate conclusions or sub-conclusions, where a claim is supported by another claim that is used in turn to support some further claim, i.e. the final conclusion or another intermediate conclusion: In the following diagram, statement 4 is an intermediate conclusion in that it is a conclusion in relation to statement 5 but is a premise in relation to the final conclusion, i.e. statement 1. An argument with this structure is sometimes called a complex argument. If there is a single chain of claims containing at least one intermediate conclusion, the argument is sometimes described as a serial argument or a chain argument.{{harvnb|Beardsley|1950|pp=18–19}}; {{harvnb|Reed|Walton|Macagno|2007|pp=3–8}}; {{harvnb|Harrell|2010|pp=19–21}}

File:Intermediate conclusion.jpg

Each of these structures can be represented by the equivalent "box and line" approach to argument maps. In the following diagram, the contention is shown at the top, and the boxes linked to it represent supporting reasons, which comprise one or more premises. The green arrow indicates that the two reasons support the contention:

File:A box and line diagram.png

Argument maps can also represent counterarguments. In the following diagram, the two objections weaken the contention, while the reasons support the premise of the objection:

File:A sample argument using objections.png

Some argument mapping conventions allow for perspicuous representation of inferences.{{harvnb|Surovell|2023}}: "Another novel feature of Argumentation.io is its use of inference boxes: whenever a user adds a reason or objection to their map, a box representing the inference is automatically placed between the reason/objection and the claim it supports/opposes." In the following diagram, box 2.1 represents an inference, labeled with the inference rule modus ponens.

File:Modus Ponens W.png

An inference can be the target of an objection. Such inference objections highlight invalid or weak inferences."Inference objection", in: {{harvnb|Berg|van Gelder|Patterson|Teppema|2009}}; {{harvnb|Rathkopf|2024|pp=210–214}} In the diagram below, B is the premise, A is the conclusion, and C is an objection to the inference from A to B.

File:Inference Objection W.png

A written text can be transformed into an argument map by following a sequence of steps. Monroe Beardsley's 1950 book Practical Logic recommended the following procedure:{{harvnb|Beardsley|1950}}

1. Separate statements by brackets and number them.
2. Put circles around the logical indicators.
3. Supply, in parentheses, any logical indicators that are left out.
4. Set out the statements in a diagram in which arrows show the relationships between statements.

File:Diagram using Beardsley's procedure.jpg

Beardsley gave the first example of a text being analysed in this way:

:Though ① [people who talk about the "social significance" of the arts don't like to admit it], ② [music and painting are bound to suffer when they are turned into mere vehicles for propaganda]. For ③ [propaganda appeals to the crudest and most vulgar feelings]: (for) ④ [look at the academic monstrosities produced by the official Nazi painters]. What is more important, ⑤ [art must be an end in itself for the artist], because ⑥ [the artist can do the best work only in an atmosphere of complete freedom].

Beardsley said that the conclusion in this example is statement ②. Statement ④ needs to be rewritten as a declarative sentence, e.g. "Academic monstrosities [were] produced by the official Nazi painters." Statement ① points out that the conclusion isn't accepted by everyone, but statement ① is omitted from the diagram because it doesn't support the conclusion. Beardsley said that the logical relation between statement ③ and statement ④ is unclear, but he proposed to diagram statement ④ as supporting statement ③.

File:Using Harrell's procedure.jpg

More recently, philosophy professor Maralee Harrell recommended the following procedure:{{harvnb|Harrell|2010|p=28}}

1. Identify all the claims being made by the author.
2. Rewrite them as independent statements, eliminating non-essential words.
3. Identify which statements are premises, sub-conclusions, and the main conclusion.
4. Provide missing, implied conclusions and implied premises. (This is optional depending on the purpose of the argument map.)
5. Put the statements into boxes and draw a line between any boxes that are linked.
6. Indicate support from premise(s) to (sub)conclusion with arrows.

Argument maps are useful not only for representing and analyzing existing writings, but also for thinking through issues as part of a problem-structuring process or writing process.This is related to the distinction between "knowledge telling" and "knowledge transforming" in composition studies: see, for example, {{harvnb|Chryssafidou|2014|pp=38–39, 413}} The use of such argument analysis for thinking through issues has been called "reflective argumentation".For example: {{harvnb|Hoffmann|Borenstein|2013}}; {{harvnb|Hoffmann|2016}}; {{harvnb|Hoffmann|2018}}

An argument map, unlike a decision tree, does not tell how to make a decision, but the process of choosing a coherent position (or reflective equilibrium) based on the structure of an argument map can be represented as a decision tree.See section 4.2, "Argument maps as reasoning tools", in {{harvnb|Brun|Betz|2016}}

File:Whatley.png

In the Elements of Logic, published in 1826 and issued in many subsequent editions,{{harvnb|Whately|1834}} (first published 1826) Archbishop Richard Whately gave probably the first form of an argument map, introducing it with the suggestion that "many students probably will find it a very clear and convenient mode of exhibiting the logical analysis of the course of argument, to draw it out in the form of a Tree, or Logical Division".

However, the technique did not become widely used, possibly because for complex arguments, it involved much writing and rewriting of the premises.

File:Wigmore chart.png

Legal philosopher and theorist John Henry Wigmore produced maps of legal arguments using numbered premises in the early 20th century,{{harvnb|Wigmore|1913}} based in part on the ideas of 19th century philosopher Henry Sidgwick who used lines to indicate relations between terms.{{harvnb|Goodwin|2000}}

Dealing with the failure of formal reduction of informal argumentation, English speaking argumentation theory developed diagrammatic approaches to informal reasoning over a period of fifty years.

Monroe Beardsley proposed a form of argument diagram in 1950. His method of marking up an argument and representing its components with linked numbers became a standard and is still widely used. He also introduced terminology that is still current describing convergent, divergent and serial arguments.

File:Toulmindiag.png, redrawn from his 1959 Uses of Argument]]

File:Toulmingeneral.png

Stephen Toulmin, in his groundbreaking and influential 1958 book The Uses of Argument,{{harvnb|Toulmin|2003}} (first published 1958) identified several elements to an argument which have been generalized. The Toulmin diagram is widely used in educational critical teaching.{{harvnb|Simon|Erduran|Osborne|2006}}{{harvnb|Böttcher|Meisert|2011}}; {{harvnb|Macagno|Konstantinidou|2013}} Whilst Toulmin eventually had a significant impact on the development of informal logic he had little initial impact and the Beardsley approach to diagramming arguments along with its later developments became the standard approach in this field. Toulmin introduced something that was missing from Beardsley's approach. In Beardsley, "arrows link reasons and conclusions (but) no support is given to the implication itself between them. There is no theory, in other words, of inference distinguished from logical deduction, the passage is always deemed not controversial and not subject to support and evaluation".{{harvnb|Reed|Walton|Macagno|2007|p=8}} Toulmin introduced the concept of warrant which "can be considered as representing the reasons behind the inference, the backing that authorizes the link".{{harvnb|Reed|Walton|Macagno|2007|p=9}}

Beardsley's approach was refined by Stephen N. Thomas, whose 1973 book Practical Reasoning In Natural Language{{harvnb|Thomas|1997}} (first published 1973) introduced the term linked to describe arguments where the premises necessarily worked together to support the conclusion.{{harvnb|Snoeck Henkemans|2000|p=453}} However, the actual distinction between dependent and independent premises had been made prior to this. The introduction of the linked structure made it possible for argument maps to represent missing or "hidden" premises. In addition, Thomas suggested showing reasons both for and against a conclusion with the reasons against being represented by dotted arrows. Thomas introduced the term argument diagram and defined basic reasons as those that were not supported by any others in the argument and the final conclusion as that which was not used to support any further conclusion.

File:Scrivendiag.png

Michael Scriven further developed the Beardsley-Thomas approach in his 1976 book Reasoning.{{harvnb|Scriven|1976}} Whereas Beardsley had said "At first, write out the statements...after a little practice, refer to the statements by number alone"{{harvnb|Beardsley|1950|p=21}} Scriven advocated clarifying the meaning of the statements, listing them and then using a tree diagram with numbers to display the structure. Missing premises (unstated assumptions) were to be included and indicated with an alphabetical letter instead of a number to mark them off from the explicit statements. Scriven introduced counterarguments in his diagrams, which Toulmin had defined as rebuttal.{{harvnb|Reed|Walton|Macagno|2007|pp=10–11}} This also enabled the diagramming of "balance of consideration" arguments.{{harvnb|van Eemeren|Grootendorst|Snoeck Henkemans|Blair|1996|p=175}}

In 1998 a series of large-scale argument maps released by Robert E. Horn stimulated widespread interest in argument mapping.{{harvnb|Holmes|1999}}; {{harvnb|Horn|1998}}; Robert E. Horn, [https://web.archive.org/web/20040612173036/http://www.stanford.edu/~rhorn/a/topic/arg/artclCmptrSpArgmttn.pdf "Infrastructure for navigating interdisciplinary debates: critical decisions for representing argumentation"], in {{harvnb|Kirschner|Buckingham Shum|Carr|2003|pp=165–184}}

File:Structured online debate – Kialo debate tree.png with an example path through it: all Con-argument boxes and some Pros were emptied to illustrate an example path.{{harvnb|Bolton|Calderwood|Christensen|Kafrouni|2020}}]]

File:Collective determinination of argument impact.png

Human–computer interaction pioneer Douglas Engelbart, in a famous 1962 technical report on intelligence augmentation, envisioned in detail something like argument-mapping software as an integral part of future intelligence-augmenting computer interfaces:{{harvnb|Engelbart|1962}}; For an account of Engelbart's place in the history of computer-supported argument visualization, see, e.g., Simon Buckingham Shum, [http://simon.buckinghamshum.net/wp-content/uploads/2008/03/VisualizingArgumentation-Roots.pdf "The roots of computer supported argument visualization"], in {{harvnb|Kirschner|Buckingham Shum|Carr|2003|pp=3–24}} {{Blockquote|You usually think of an argument as a serial sequence of steps of reason, beginning with known facts, assumptions, etc., and progressing toward a conclusion. Well, we do have to think through these steps serially, and we usually do list the steps serially when we write them out because that is pretty much the way our papers and books have to present them—they are pretty limiting in the symbol structuring they enable us to use. ... To help us get better comprehension of the structure of an argument, we can also call forth a schematic or graphical display. Once the antecedent-consequent links have been established, the computer can automatically construct such a display for us.|source=Douglas Engelbart, "Augmenting human intellect: a conceptual framework" (1962)}}

In the middle to late 1980s, hypertext software applications that supported argument visualization were developed, including NoteCards and gIBIS; the latter generated an on-screen graphical hypertextual map of an issue-based information system, a model of argumentation developed by Werner Kunz and Horst Rittel in the 1970s.{{harvnb|Conklin|Begeman|1988}}, on gIBIS; {{harvnb|Halasz|1988}}, on NoteCards; {{harvnb|Kirschner|Buckingham Shum|Carr|2003|pp=14–15}}, on the place of both in the history of computer-supported argument visualization In the 1990s, Tim van Gelder and colleagues developed a series of software applications that permitted an argument map's premises to be fully stated and edited in the diagram, rather than in a legend.{{harvnb|van Gelder|2007}} Van Gelder's first program, Reason!Able, was superseded by two subsequent programs, bCisive and Rationale.{{harvnb|Berg|van Gelder|Patterson|Teppema|2009}}

Throughout the 1990s and 2000s, many other software applications were developed for argument visualization. By 2013, more than 60 such software systems existed.{{harvnb|Walton|2013|p=11}} In a 2010 survey of computer-supported argumentation, Oliver Scheuer and colleagues noted that one of the differences between these software systems is whether collaboration is supported.{{harvnb|Scheuer|Loll|Pinkwart|McLaren|2010}} In their survey, single-user argumentation systems included Convince Me, iLogos, LARGO, Athena, Araucaria, and Carneades; small group argumentation systems included Digalo, QuestMap, Compendium, Belvedere, and AcademicTalk; community argumentation systems included Debategraph and Collaboratorium. Free and open source structured argumentation systems include Argdown and Argüman.{{harvnb|Pührer|2017}}

As of 2020, the commercial website Kialo is the most widely adopted argumentation-based deliberation system with an argument-map interface.{{harvnb|De Liddo|Strube|2021}} On Kialo, users can usually vote on the debate question to express their overall conclusion about the subject, with the average and a bar chart of these votes being included at the top of every debate. Moreover, users can rate the impact individual arguments at the top level had on their conclusion. In branches beneath the top level, users can likewise rank the impact any individual argument has on the claim above it. The rationale (i.e. the main causal arguments) for their vote on a thesis or an argument is not recorded if these reasons are missing in the claims beneath it or if these have not been rated by the same users.{{harvnb|Carroll|Sun|Beck|2019}} This system of transparent voting represents Kialo's algorithm of collective determination of argument weights and theses' veracities, which has a plurality component in that users of the site can also switch between the perspectives of specific users and several groups of users (e.g. supporters and opponents of a thesis) which for example enables identifying which arguments were considered as most impactful for these particular users.{{harvnb|Beck|Neupane|Carroll|2019}} In the context of historical-political education, researcher Oliver Held identified at least five key components of historical judgment that can be implemented easily in Kialo: perspectivity, levels of relevance, interdependence, multi-causality and assessments.{{harvnb|Held|2022}}

Argument maps have been applied in many areas, but foremost in educational, academic and business settings, including design rationale.{{harvnb|Kirschner|Buckingham Shum|Carr|2003}}; {{harvnb|Okada|Buckingham Shum|Sherborne|2014}} Argument maps are also used in forensic science,For example: {{harvnb|Bex|2011}} law, and artificial intelligence.For example: {{harvnb|Verheij|2005}}; {{harvnb|Reed|Walton|Macagno|2007}}; {{harvnb|Walton|2013}} It has also been proposed that argument mapping has a great potential to improve how we understand and execute democracy, in reference to the ongoing evolution of e-democracy.{{harvnb|Hilbert|2009}}

It has traditionally been hard to separate teaching critical thinking from the philosophical tradition of teaching logic and method, and most critical thinking textbooks have been written by philosophers. Informal logic textbooks are replete with philosophical examples, but it is unclear whether the approach in such textbooks transfers to non-philosophy students. There appears to be little statistical effect after such classes. Argument mapping, however, has a measurable effect according to many studies.{{harvnb|Twardy|2004}}; {{harvnb|Álvarez Ortiz|2007}}; {{harvnb|Harrell|2008}}; Yanna Rider and Neil Thomason, [https://books.google.com/books?id=loa4BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA112 "Cognitive and pedagogical benefits of argument mapping: LAMP guides the way to better thinking"], in {{harvnb|Okada|Buckingham Shum|Sherborne|2014|pp=113–134}}; {{harvnb|Dwyer|2011}}; {{harvnb|Davies|2012}} For example, instruction in argument mapping has been shown to improve the critical thinking skills of business students.{{harvnb|Carrington|Chen|Davies|Kaur|2011}}; {{harvnb|Kunsch|Schnarr|van Tyle|2014}}

There is empirical evidence that the skills developed in argument-mapping-based critical thinking courses substantially transfer to critical thinking done without argument maps. Alvarez's meta-analysis found that such critical thinking courses produced gains of around 0.70 SD, about twice as much as standard critical-thinking courses.{{harvnb|Álvarez Ortiz|2007|pp=69–70 et seq}} The tests used in the reviewed studies were standard critical-thinking tests.

When used with students in school, argument maps have limitations. They can "end up looking overly complex" and can increase cognitive load beyond what is optimal for learning the course content.{{harvnb|Nussbaum|2012|pp=125, 133}} Creating maps requires extensive coaching and feedback from an experienced argument mapper. Depending on the learning objectives, the time spent coaching students to create good maps may be better spent learning the course content instead of learning to diagram. When the goal is to prompt students to consider other perspectives and counterarguments, the goal may be more easily accomplished with other methods such as discussion, rubrics, and a simple argument framework or simple graphic organizer such as a vee diagram. To maximize the strengths of argument mapping and minimize its limitations in the classroom requires considering at what point in a learning progression the potential benefits of argument mapping would outweigh its potential disadvantages.

A 2022 blog post noted that "Kialo's simplicity does pose some weaknesses and limitations, and in general current [computer-supported argument visualization] systems cannot reliably automate {{em|analysis}} or {{em|synthesis}} of arguments in the same way that statistical packages can automate analysis of data".{{harvnb|Durland|2022}}

Argument mapping can raise accessibility issues. Many countries' accessibility laws require that colleges and university courses be accessible to people with disabilities. It has been difficult to teach argument mapping consistently with these laws, as people who are blind may be unable to draw argument maps with pencil and paper, and many argument mapping apps and learning materials are not accessible to people with various visual disabilities. Argumentation.io is a web-based argument mapping app that claims to meet American university accessibility requirements.{{harvnb|Surovell|2023}}

{{main|Argument Interchange Format}}

The Argument Interchange Format, AIF, is an international effort to develop a representational mechanism for exchanging argument resources between research groups, tools, and domains using a semantically rich language.See the [http://www.arg.dundee.ac.uk/people/chris/publications/2006/aif_final.pdf AIF original draft description] (2006) and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20161211004201/http://www.argdf.org/source/ArgDF_Ontology.rdfs full AIF-RDF ontology specifications] in RDFS format. AIF-RDF is the extended ontology represented in the Resource Description Framework Schema (RDFS) semantic language. Though AIF is still something of a moving target, it is settling down.{{harvnb|Bex|Modgil|Prakken|Reed|2013}}

{{main|Legal Knowledge Interchange Format}}

The Legal Knowledge Interchange Format (LKIF){{harvnb|Boer|Winkels|Vitali|2008}} was developed in the European ESTRELLA project{{cite web |title=Estrella project website |url=http://www.estrellaproject.org/ |website=estrellaproject.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160212103522/http://www.estrellaproject.org/ |archive-date=2016-02-12 |access-date=2016-02-24}} and designed with the goal of becoming a standard for representing and interchanging policy, legislation and cases, including their justificatory arguments, in the legal domain. LKIF builds on and uses the Web Ontology Language (OWL) for representing concepts and includes a reusable basic ontology of legal concepts.

Argdown is a Markdown-inspired lightweight markup language for complex argumentation.See {{harvnb|Voigt|2014}}. The Argdown website is [https://argdown.org argdown.org]. Argdown is currently developed as an open source project: {{cite web |url=https://github.com/christianvoigt/argdown |title=christianvoigt/argdown: a simple syntax for complex argumentation |website=GitHub.com |access-date=2019-10-30}} It is intended for exchanging arguments and argument reconstructions in a universally accessible and highly human-readable way. The Argdown syntax is accompanied by tools that facilitate coding and transform Argdown documents into argument maps.Argdown tools include a web browser sandbox editor, an extension for Visual Studio Code, and a command-line tool; see {{cite web |url=https://argdown.org/guide/ |title=Getting started |website=argdown.org |access-date=2019-10-30}}

{{Commons category|Argument maps}}

{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}

• Argument technology
• Argumentation framework
• Argumentation scheme
• Bayesian network
• Collaborative decision-making software
• Dialogue mapping
• Flow (policy debate)
• Informal fallacy
• Logic and dialectic
• Logic of argumentation
• Natural deduction{{snd}} a logical system with argument map-like notation
• Practical arguments
• Rhetorical structure theory
• Semantic tableau
• Wikidebate

{{Div col end}}

{{Reflist|colwidth=20em}}

{{refbegin|30em}}

• {{cite thesis|type=M.A. thesis |last=Álvarez Ortiz |first=Claudia María |title=Does philosophy improve critical thinking skills? |url=http://images.austhink.com/pdf/Claudia-Alvarez-thesis.pdf |year=2007 |publisher=Department of Philosophy, University of Melbourne |oclc=271475715 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120708000509/http://images.austhink.com/pdf/Claudia-Alvarez-thesis.pdf |archive-date=2012-07-08 }}
• {{cite book |last=Beardsley |first=Monroe C. |author-link=Monroe Beardsley |date=1950 |title=Practical logic |location=New York |publisher=Prentice-Hall |oclc=4318971 }} A shorter version was published as Thinking Straight; the most recent edition is: {{cite book |last=Beardsley |first=Monroe C. |author-link=Monroe Beardsley |date=1975 |title=Thinking straight: principles of reasoning for readers and writers |edition=4th |location=Englewood Cliffs, NJ |publisher=Prentice-Hall |isbn=978-0139182358 |oclc=1168973 |url=https://archive.org/details/thinkingstraight0000bear }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Beck |first1=Jordan |last2=Neupane |first2=Bikalpa |last3=Carroll |first3=John M. |date=July 2019 |title=Managing conflict in online debate communities: foregrounding moderators' beliefs and values on Kialo |language=en |journal=First Monday |volume=24 |issue=7 |doi=10.5210/fm.v24i7.9585 |doi-access=free }}
• {{cite book |last1=Berg |first1=Timo ter |last2=van Gelder |first2=Tim |author-link2=Tim van Gelder |last3=Patterson |first3=Fiona |last4=Teppema |first4=Sytske |year=2009 |title=Critical thinking: reasoning and communicating with Rationale |location=Amsterdam |publisher=Pearson Education Benelux |isbn=978-9043018012 |oclc=301884530 }}
• {{cite book |last=Bex |first=Floris J. |date=2011 |title=Arguments, stories and criminal evidence: a formal hybrid theory |series=Law and philosophy library |volume=92 |location=Dordrecht; New York |publisher=Springer |isbn=9789400701397 |oclc=663950184 |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-0140-3 |s2cid=26791185 }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Bex |first1=Floris J. |last2=Modgil |first2=Sanjay |last3=Prakken |first3=Henry |last4=Reed |first4=Chris |title=On logical specifications of the Argument Interchange Format |journal=Journal of Logic and Computation |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=951–989 |year=2013 |doi=10.1093/logcom/exs033 |url=http://www.arg.dundee.ac.uk/people/chris/publications/2013/AIF-ASPIC-JLC-Final.pdf }}
• {{cite book |last1=Boer |first1=Alexander |last2=Winkels |first2=Radboud |last3=Vitali |first3=Fabio |date=2008 |chapter=MetaLex XML and the Legal Knowledge Interchange Format |editor1-last=Casanovas |editor1-first=Pompeu |editor2-last=Sartor |editor2-first=Giovanni |editor3-last=Casellas |editor3-first=Núria |editor4-last=Rubino |editor4-first=Rossella |title=Computable models of the law: languages, dialogues, games, ontologies |series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |volume=4884 |location=Berlin; New York |publisher=Springer |pages=21–41 |isbn=9783540855682 |oclc=244765580 |doi=10.1007/978-3-540-85569-9_2 |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225708550 |access-date=2016-02-24}}
• {{cite arXiv |last1=Bolton |first1=Eric |last2=Calderwood |first2=Alex |last3=Christensen |first3=Niles |last4=Kafrouni |first4=Jerome |last5=Drori |first5=Iddo |date=1 December 2020 |title=High quality real-time structured debate generation |eprint=2012.00209 |class=cs.CL}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Böttcher |first1=Florian |last2=Meisert |first2=Anke |title=Argumentation in science education: a model-based framework |journal=Science & Education |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=103–140 |date=February 2011 |doi=10.1007/s11191-010-9304-5 |bibcode=2011Sc&Ed..20..103B |s2cid=119954511 }}
• {{cite book |last1=Brun |first1=Georg |last2=Betz |first2=Gregor |date=2016 |chapter=Analysing Practical Argumentation |editor1-last=Hansson |editor1-first=Sven Ove |editor2-last=Hirsch Hadorn |editor2-first=Gertrude |title=The argumentative turn in policy analysis: reasoning about uncertainty |series=Logic, argumentation & reasoning |volume=10 |location=Cham; New York |publisher=Springer-Verlag |pages=39–77 |isbn=9783319305479 |oclc=950884495 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-30549-3_3 |chapter-url=http://www.georgbrun.ch/publications/Brun-Betz-AnalysingPracticalArgumentation.pdf }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Carrington |first1=Michal |last2=Chen |first2=Richard |last3=Davies |first3=Martin |last4=Kaur |first4=Jagjit |last5=Neville |first5=Benjamin |title=The effectiveness of a single intervention of computer-aided argument mapping in a marketing and a financial accounting subject |journal=Higher Education Research & Development |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=387–403 |date=June 2011 |doi=10.1080/07294360.2011.559197 |s2cid=144862766 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232947753 |access-date=2016-02-24}}
• {{cite book |last1=Carroll |first1=John M. |last2=Sun |first2=Na |last3=Beck |first3=Jordan |date=2019 |chapter=Creating dialectics to learn: infrastructures, practices, and challenges |editor1-last=Díaz |editor1-first=Paloma |editor2-last=Ioannou |editor2-first=Andri |editor3-last=Bhagat |editor3-first=Kaushal Kumar |editor4-last=Spector |editor4-first=J. Michael |title=Learning in a digital world: perspective on interactive technologies for formal and informal education |series=Smart computing and intelligence |location=Singapore |publisher=Springer |isbn=9789811382642 |pages=37–58 |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-981-13-8265-9_3 |s2cid=195785108 }}
• {{cite thesis |type=Ph.D. thesis |last=Chryssafidou |first=Evangelia |date=May 2014 |title=Argument diagramming and planning cognition in argumentative writing |location=Birmingham, UK |publisher=University of Birmingham |oclc=890146780 |url=http://etheses.bham.ac.uk/5048/ }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Conklin |first1=E. Jeffrey |last2=Begeman |first2=Michael L. |date=October 1988 |title=gIBIS: a hypertext tool for exploratory policy discussion |journal=ACM Transactions on Information Systems |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=303–331 |doi=10.1145/58566.59297 |title-link=gIBIS |s2cid=2609461 |doi-access=free }}
• {{cite book |last1=Culmsee |first1=Paul |last2=Awati |first2=Kailash |date=2013 |orig-year=2011 |chapter=Chapter 7: Visualising reasoning, and Chapter 8: Argumentation-based rationale |title=The heretic's guide to best practices: the reality of managing complex problems in organisations |location=Bloomington, IN |publisher=iUniverse, Inc. |pages=153–211 |isbn=9781462058549 |oclc=767703320 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gb2uuT1zrAAC&pg=PA153 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Davies |first=W. Martin |date=November 2010 |title=Concept mapping, mind mapping and argument mapping: what are the differences and do they matter? |journal=Higher Education |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=279–301 |doi=10.1007/s10734-010-9387-6 |s2cid=44953977 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Davies |first=W. Martin |title=Computer-aided argument mapping as a tool for teaching critical thinking |journal=International Journal of Learning and Media |volume=4 |issue=3–4 |pages=79–84 |date=Summer 2012 |doi=10.1162/IJLM_a_00106 |s2cid=62373559 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/DAVCAM-8 }}
• {{cite book |last1=De Liddo |first1=Anna |last2=Strube |first2=Rosa |date=June 2021 |chapter=Understanding failures and potentials of argumentation tools for public deliberation |editor1-last=Cech |editor1-first=Florian |editor2-last=Farnham |editor2-first=Shelly |title=C&T '21: Proceedings of the 10th International Conference On Communities & Technologies: Wicked Problems in the Age of Tech: June 21–25, 2021 |location=New York |publisher=Association for Computing Machinery |pages=75–88 |isbn=9781450390569 |oclc=1261323348 |doi=10.1145/3461564.3461584 |s2cid=235494842}}
• {{cite web |last=Durland |first=Harrison |date=30 November 2022 |title=Complexity demands adaptation: two proposals for facilitating better debate in international relations and conflict research |website=The Forum (blog) of the Georgetown Security Studies Review |url=https://georgetownsecuritystudiesreview.org/2022/11/30/complexity-demands-adaptation-two-proposals-for-facilitating-better-debate-in-international-relations-and-conflict-research/}}
• {{cite book |last1=Durmus |first1=Esin |last2=Ladhak |first2=Faisal |last3=Cardie |first3=Claire |date=2019 |chapter=The role of pragmatic and discourse context in determining argument impact |title=Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and the 9th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (EMNLP-IJCNLP) |pages=5667–5677 |location=Hong Kong |publisher=Association for Computational Linguistics |doi=10.18653/v1/D19-1568 |arxiv=2004.03034 |s2cid=202768765}}
• {{cite thesis |type=Ph.D. thesis |last=Dwyer |first=Christopher Peter |title=The evaluation of argument mapping as a learning tool |url=http://aran.library.nuigalway.ie/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10379/2617/C.Dwyer-PhD%20Thesis%20Psychology.pdf |year=2011 |publisher=School of Psychology, National University of Ireland, Galway |oclc=812818648 |access-date=2016-02-24}}
• {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |author-link1=Frans H. van Eemeren |last2=Grootendorst |first2=Rob |author-link2=Rob Grootendorst |last3=Snoeck Henkemans |first3=A. Francisca |last4=Blair |first4=J. Anthony |last5=Johnson |first5=Ralph H. |author-link5=Ralph Johnson (philosopher) |last6=Krabbe |first6=Erik C. W. |last7=Plantin |first7=Christian |last8=Walton |first8=Douglas N. |author-link8=Douglas N. Walton |last9=Willard |first9=Charles A. |author-link9=Charles Arthur Willard |last10=Woods |first10=John |author-link10=John Woods (logician) |date=1996 |title=Fundamentals of argumentation theory: a handbook of historical backgrounds and contemporary developments |location=Mahwah, NJ |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates |isbn=978-0805818611 |oclc=33970847 |doi=10.4324/9780203811306 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofar0000eeme }}
• {{cite book |last=Engelbart |first=Douglas C. |author-link=Douglas Engelbart |date=1962 |title=Augmenting human intellect: a conceptual framework |location=Menlo Park, CA |publisher=Stanford Research Institute |oclc=8671016 |url=http://www.dougengelbart.org/pubs/augment-3906.html |access-date=2018-04-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110504035147/http://www.dougengelbart.org/pubs/augment-3906.html |archive-date=2011-05-04 |url-status=dead }}
• {{cite book |last=Facione |first=Peter A. |title=THINK critically |year=2016 |orig-year=2011 |edition=3rd |location=Boston |publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-0133909661 |oclc=893099404 }}
• {{cite book |last=Fisher |first=Alec |title=The logic of real arguments |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q2a_RtDZUGgC |year=2004 |orig-year=1988 |edition=2nd |location=Cambridge; New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521654814 |oclc=54400059 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511818455 |access-date=2016-02-24}}
• {{cite book |last=Freeman |first=James B. |title=Dialectics and the macrostructure of arguments: a theory of argument structure |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ScvV9riTOGsC |year=1991 |location=Berlin; New York |publisher=Foris Publications |isbn=978-3110133905 |oclc=24429943 |access-date=2016-02-24}}
• {{cite journal |last=van Gelder |first=Tim |author-link=Tim van Gelder |title=The rationale for Rationale |journal=Law, Probability and Risk |volume=6 |issue=1–4 |pages=23–42 |year=2007 |doi=10.1093/lpr/mgm032 |url=http://sites.google.com/site/timvangelder/publications-1/therationaleforrationale/TheRationaleforRationale.pdf |doi-access=free }}
• {{cite book |last=van Gelder |first=Tim |author-link=Tim van Gelder |date=2015 |chapter=Using argument mapping to improve critical thinking skills |editor1-last=Davies |editor1-first=Martin |editor2-last=Barnett |editor2-first=Ronald |title=The Palgrave handbook of critical thinking in higher education |location=New York |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |pages=183–192 |isbn=9781137378033 |oclc=894935460 |doi=10.1057/9781137378057_12 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Goodwin |first=Jean |title=Wigmore's chart method |journal=Informal Logic |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=223–243 |year=2000 |url=http://windsor.scholarsportal.info/ojs/leddy/index.php/informal_logic/article/view/2278 |doi=10.22329/il.v20i3.2278 |doi-access=free }}
• {{cite journal |last=Halasz |first=Frank G. |date=July 1988 |title=Reflections on NoteCards: seven issues for the next generation of hypermedia systems |journal=Communications of the ACM |volume=31 |issue=7 |pages=836–852 |doi=10.1145/48511.48514 |citeseerx=10.1.1.124.2308 }}
• {{cite journal|last=Harrell |first=Maralee |title=No computer program required: even pencil-and-paper argument mapping improves critical-thinking skills |journal=Teaching Philosophy |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=351–374 |date=December 2008 |doi=10.5840/teachphil200831437 |s2cid=7340407 |url=http://www.hss.cmu.edu/philosophy/harrell/HarrellTeachingPhilosophy2008.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131229012710/http://www.hss.cmu.edu/philosophy/harrell/HarrellTeachingPhilosophy2008.pdf |archive-date=2013-12-29 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Harrell |first=Maralee |title=Creating argument diagrams |date=August 2010 |url=https://www.academia.edu/772321 |journal=academia.edu }}
• {{cite journal |last=Held |first=Oliver |date=May 2022 |title=Urteilsbildung digital mit Kialo – Wie die historische Urteilsbildung im Distanz- und Präsenzunterricht mit Kialo digital unterstützt werden kann (PRIMA-Modell) |language=de |trans-title=Digital judgment formation with Kialo: how historical judgment formation in distance and face-to-face teaching can be supported digitally with Kialo (PRIMA model) |journal=Geschichte Lernen |issue=207 |pages=54–57 |url=https://www.friedrich-verlag.de/friedrich-plus/sekundarstufe/geschichte/digital-unterrichten/urteilsbildung-digital-mit-kialo-12007 |url-access=registration |access-date=2023-07-20 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Hilbert |first=Martin |title=The maturing concept of e-democracy: from e-voting and online consultations to democratic value out of jumbled online chatter |journal=Journal of Information Technology and Politics |date=April 2009 |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=87–110 |doi=10.1080/19331680802715242 |s2cid=15790311 |url=http://www.martinhilbert.net/e-democracyHilbertJITP.pdf }}
• {{cite journal |last=Hoffmann |first=Michael H. G. |date=November 2016 |title=Reflective argumentation: a cognitive function of arguing |journal=Argumentation |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=365–397 |doi=10.1007/s10503-015-9388-9 |s2cid=146779158 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Hoffmann |first=Michael H. G. |date=March 2018 |title=Stimulating reflection and self-correcting reasoning through argument mapping: three approaches |journal=Topoi |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=185–199 |doi=10.1007/s11245-016-9408-x |s2cid=123754143 }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Hoffmann |first1=Michael H. G. |last2=Borenstein |first2=Jason |date=February 2013 |title=Understanding ill-structured engineering ethics problems through a collaborative learning and argument visualization approach |journal=Science and Engineering Ethics |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=261–276 |doi=10.1007/s11948-013-9430-y |pmid=23420467 |s2cid=14247458 |url=http://works.bepress.com/michael_hoffmann/39/ }}
• {{cite news |last=Holmes |first=Bob |title=Beyond words |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg16321944.700-beyond-words.html |date=10 July 1999 |newspaper=New Scientist |issue=2194 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080928062226/http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg16321944.700-beyond-words.html |archive-date=28 September 2008 }}
• {{cite book |last=Horn |first=Robert E. |author-link=Robert E. Horn |title=Visual language: global communication for the 21st century |year=1998 |location=Bainbridge Island, WA |publisher=MacroVU, Inc. |isbn=978-1892637093 |oclc=41138655 |url=https://archive.org/details/visuallanguagegl0000horn }}
• {{cite book |last=Hunter |first=Lawrie |date=2008 |chapter=Cmap linking phrase constraint for the structural narrowing of constructivist second language tasks |editor1-last=Cañas |editor1-first=Alberto J. |editor2-last=Reiska |editor2-first=Priit |editor3-last=Åhlberg |editor3-first=Mauri K. |editor4-last=Novak |editor4-first=Joseph Donald |editor4-link=Joseph D. Novak |title=CMC 2008: Third International Conference on Concept Mapping, Tallinn, Estonia and Helsinki, Finland, 22–25 September 2008: proceedings |volume=1 |location=Tallinn |publisher=Tallinn University |pages=146–151 |isbn=9789985585849 |chapter-url=http://cmc.ihmc.us/cmc2008papers/cmc2008-p021.pdf }}
• {{cite book |last=Kelley |first=David |author-link=David Kelley |title=The art of reasoning: an introduction to logic and critical thinking |year=2014 |orig-year=1988 |edition=4th |location=New York |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0393930788 |oclc=849801096 }}
• {{cite book |editor1-last=Kirschner |editor1-first=Paul Arthur |editor2-last=Buckingham Shum |editor2-first=Simon J |editor3-last=Carr |editor3-first=Chad S |title=Visualizing argumentation: software tools for collaborative and educational sense-making |year=2003 |series=Computer supported cooperative work |location=New York |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1852336646 |oclc=50676911 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4471-0037-9 |s2cid=46267938 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dNijwv-my_kC |access-date=2016-02-24}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Kunsch |first1=David W. |last2=Schnarr |first2=Karin |last3=van Tyle |first3=Russell |title=The use of argument mapping to enhance critical thinking skills in business education |journal=Journal of Education for Business |volume=89 |issue=8 |pages=403–410 |date=November 2014 |doi=10.1080/08832323.2014.925416 |s2cid=38666976 }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Macagno |first1=Fabrizio |last2=Konstantinidou |first2=Aikaterini |title=What students' arguments can tell us: using argumentation schemes in science education |journal=Argumentation |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=225–243 |date=August 2013 |doi=10.1007/s10503-012-9284-5 |ssrn=2185945 |s2cid=189942834 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/MACWSA-2 }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Metcalfe |first1=Mike |last2=Sastrowardoyo |first2=Saras |date=November 2013 |title=Complex project conceptualisation and argument mapping |journal=International Journal of Project Management |volume=31 |issue=8 |pages=1129–1138 |doi=10.1016/j.ijproman.2013.01.004 }}
• {{cite book |last=Nussbaum |first=E. Michael |date=2012 |chapter=Argumentation and student-centered learning environments |editor1-last=Jonassen |editor1-first=David H. |editor1-link=David H. Jonassen |editor2-last=Land |editor2-first=Susan M. |title=Theoretical foundations of learning environments |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |pages=114–141 |isbn=9780415894210 |doi=10.4324/9780203813799}}
• {{cite book |editor1-last=Okada |editor1-first=Alexandra |editor2-last=Buckingham Shum |editor2-first=Simon J |editor3-last=Sherborne |editor3-first=Tony |year=2014 |orig-year=2008 |title=Knowledge cartography: software tools and mapping techniques |edition=2nd |series=Advanced information and knowledge processing |location=New York |publisher=Springer |isbn=9781447164692 |oclc=890438015 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4471-6470-8 |s2cid=28008938 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=loa4BAAAQBAJ |access-date=2016-02-24}}
• {{cite book |last1=Pührer |first1=Jörg |date=2017 |chapter=ArgueApply: a mobile app for argumentation |title=Logic Programming and Nonmonotonic Reasoning: 14th International Conference, LPNMR 2017, Espoo, Finland, July 3–6, 2017: proceedings |pages=250–262 |series=Lecture notes in computer science |volume=10377 |isbn=978-3319616599 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-61660-5_23 |location=Cham |publisher=Springer |language=en}}
• {{cite journal |last=Rathkopf |first=Charles |date=June 2024 |title=Some benefits and limitations of modern argument map representation |journal=Argumentation |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=199–224 |doi=10.1007/s10503-023-09626-5 |doi-access=free}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Reed |first1=Chris |last2=Rowe |first2=Glenn |title=A pluralist approach to argument diagramming |journal=Law, Probability and Risk |volume=6 |issue=1–4 |pages=59–85 |year=2007 |doi=10.1093/lpr/mgm030 |url=http://lpr.oxfordjournals.org/content/6/1-4/59.full.pdf |access-date=2016-02-24|doi-access=free }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Reed |first1=Chris |last2=Walton |first2=Douglas |author-link2=Douglas N. Walton |last3=Macagno |first3=Fabrizio |title=Argument diagramming in logic, law and artificial intelligence |journal=The Knowledge Engineering Review |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=87 |date=March 2007 |doi=10.1017/S0269888907001051 |s2cid=26294789 |url=https://www.academia.edu/2992281 }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Scheuer |first1=Oliver |last2=Loll |first2=Frank |last3=Pinkwart |first3=Niels |last4=McLaren |first4=Bruce M. |title=Computer-supported argumentation: a review of the state of the art |journal=International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=43–102 |year=2010 |doi=10.1007/s11412-009-9080-x |url=https://www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs.cmu.edu/Web/People/bmclaren/pubs/ScheuerEtAl-CompSupportedArgStateOfTheArt-IJCSCL2010.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.322.2522 |s2cid=4473082 }}
• {{cite book |last=Scriven |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Scriven |title=Reasoning |year=1976 |location=New York |publisher=McGraw-Hill |isbn=978-0070558823 |oclc=2800373 |url=https://archive.org/details/reasoning0000scri }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Simon |first1=Shirley |last2=Erduran |first2=Sibel |last3=Osborne |first3=Jonathan |title=Learning to teach argumentation: research and development in the science classroom |journal=International Journal of Science Education |volume=28 |issue=2–3 |pages=235–260 |year=2006 |doi=10.1080/09500690500336957 |bibcode=2006IJSEd..28..235S |s2cid=145163500 |url=http://cset.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/files/documents/publications/Simon-Learning%20to%20Teach%20Argumentation.pdf |access-date=2015-01-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150919030637/https://cset.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/files/documents/publications/Simon-Learning%20to%20Teach%20Argumentation.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-19 |url-status=dead }}
• {{cite journal |last=Snoeck Henkemans |first=A. Francisca |date=November 2000 |title=State-of-the-art: the structure of argumentation |journal=Argumentation |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=447–473 |doi=10.1023/A:1007800305762 |s2cid=140364997 }}
• {{cite web |last1=Surovell |first1=Jonathan |title=An accessible and user-friendly argument mapping app |url=https://dailynous.com/2023/07/28/an-accessible-and-user-friendly-argument-mapping-app-guest-post/ |website=Daily Nous |date=28 July 2023 |access-date=2025-01-03}}
• {{cite book |last=Thomas |first=Stephen N. |date=1997 |orig-year=1973 |title=Practical reasoning in natural language |edition=4th |location=Upper Saddle River, NJ |publisher=Prentice-Hall |isbn=978-0136782698 |oclc=34745923 }}
• {{cite book |last=Toulmin |first=Stephen E. |author-link=Stephen Toulmin |title=The uses of argument |url=https://archive.org/details/usesofargument0000toul_v7v3 |url-access=registration |year=2003 |orig-year=1958 |edition=Updated |location=Cambridge; New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521534833 |oclc=57253830 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511840005 |access-date=2016-02-24 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Twardy |first=Charles R. |title=Argument maps improve critical thinking |journal=Teaching Philosophy |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=95–116 |date=June 2004 |doi=10.5840/teachphil200427213 |url=http://cogprints.org/3008/1/reasonpaper.pdf }}
• {{cite book |last=Verheij |first=Bart |title=Virtual arguments: on the design of argument assistants for lawyers and other arguers |year=2005 |location=The Hague |publisher=T.M.C. Asser Press |series=Information technology & law series |volume=6 |isbn=9789067041904 |oclc=59617214 }}
• {{cite book |last=Voigt |first=Christian |date=2014 |chapter=Argdown and the stacked masonry layout: two user interfaces for non-expert users |editor-last=Parsons |editor-first=Simon |editor2-last=Oren |editor2-first=Nir |editor3-last=Reed |editor3-first=Chris |editor4-last=Cerutti |editor4-first=Federico |title=Computational models of argument: proceedings of COMMA 2014 |series=Frontiers in artificial intelligence and applications |volume=266 |issue=Computational Models of Argument |location=Amsterdam |publisher=IOS Press |pages=483–484 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T53YBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA483 |isbn=9781614994367 |oclc=894508689 |doi=10.3233/978-1-61499-436-7-483 }}
• {{cite book |last=Walton |first=Douglas N. |author-link=Douglas N. Walton |title=Methods of argumentation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vaU0AAAAQBAJ |year=2013 |location=Cambridge; New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1107677333 |oclc=830523850 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139600187 |access-date=2016-02-24}}
• {{cite book |last=Whately |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Whately |title=Elements of logic: comprising the substance of the article in the Encyclopædia metropolitana: with additions, &c. |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_5mgAAAAAMAAJ |year=1834 |orig-year=1826 |edition=5th |location=London |publisher=B. Fellowes |oclc=1739330 |access-date=2016-02-24}}
• {{cite book |last=Wigmore |first=John Henry |author-link=John Henry Wigmore |title=The principles of judicial proof: as given by logic, psychology, and general experience, and illustrated in judicial trials |url=https://archive.org/details/principlesjudic00wigmgoog |year=1913 |location=Boston |publisher=Little Brown |oclc=1938596 |access-date=2016-02-24}}
• {{cite web |last=Young |first=Anthony P. |date=September 2021 |title=Likes as argument strength for online debate |url=https://argstrength2021.argumentationcompetition.org/papers/ArgStrength2021_paper_8.pdf |website=argstrength2021.argumentationcompetition.org |access-date=2023-06-10}}

{{refend}}

{{refbegin|30em}}

• {{cite journal |last1=Barstow |first1=Brendan |last2=Fazio |first2=Lisa |last3=Lippman |first3=Jordan |last4=Falakmasir |first4=Mohammad |last5=Schunn |first5=Christian D. |last6=Ashley |first6=Kevin D. |date=December 2017 |title=The impacts of domain-general vs. domain-specific diagramming tools on writing |journal=International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=671–693 |doi=10.1007/s40593-016-0130-z |s2cid=5567454 }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Cahill |first1=Ann J. |last2=Bloch-Schulman |first2=Stephen |date=March 2012 |title=Argumentation step-by-step: learning critical thinking through deliberate practice |journal=Teaching Philosophy |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=41–62 |doi=10.5840/teachphil20123514 |url=http://www.elon.edu/u/academics/arts-and-sciences/philosophy/wp-content/uploads/sites/258/2017/10/AJC-step-by-step-article_.pdf }}
• {{cite web |url=http://www.philmaps.com/ |title=Philosophy mapped |last=Cullen |first=Simon |website=philmaps.com |date=30 August 2017 |access-date=1 September 2017 }} Free online resources for teachers and students interested in argument mapping in philosophy.
• {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |author-link1=Frans H. van Eemeren |last2=Garssen |first2=Bart |last3=Krabbe |first3=Erik C. W. |last4=Snoeck Henkemans |first4=A. Francisca |last5=Verheij |first5=Bart |last6=Wagemans |first6=Jean H. M. |date=2014 |title=Handbook of argumentation theory |location=New York |publisher=Springer |isbn=9789048194728 |oclc=871004444 |doi=10.1007/978-90-481-9473-5 }}
• {{cite book|last1=Facione |first1=Peter A. |last2=Facione |first2=Noreen C. |title=Thinking and reasoning in human decision making: the method of argument and heuristic analysis |year=2007 |location=Milbrae, CA |publisher=California Academic Press |isbn=978-1891557583 |oclc=182039452 }}
• {{cite web |last=van Gelder |first=Tim |author-link=Tim van Gelder |url=http://timvangelder.com/2009/02/17/what-is-argument-mapping/ |title=What is argument mapping? |publisher=timvangelder.com |date=17 February 2009 |access-date=12 January 2015 }}
• {{cite journal|last=Harrell |first=Maralee |title=Using argument diagramming software in the classroom |journal=Teaching Philosophy |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=163–177 |date=June 2005 |doi=10.5840/teachphil200528222 |url=http://www.hss.cmu.edu/philosophy/harrell/ArgumentDiagramsInClassroom.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060907141143/http://www.hss.cmu.edu/philosophy/harrell/ArgumentDiagramsInClassroom.pdf |archive-date=2006-09-07 |citeseerx=10.1.1.526.7982 |s2cid=5573216 }}
• {{cite book |last1=Harrell |first1=Maralee |last2=Wetzel |first2=Danielle |date=2015 |chapter=Using argument diagramming to teach critical thinking in a first-year writing course |editor1-last=Davies |editor1-first=Martin |editor2-last=Barnett |editor2-first=Ronald |title=The Palgrave handbook of critical thinking in higher education |location=New York |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |pages=213–232 |isbn=9781137378033 |oclc=894935460 |doi=10.1057/9781137378057_14 |chapter-url=https://philarchive.org/rec/HARUAD-9 }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Schneider |first1=Jodi |last2=Groza |first2=Tudor |last3=Passant |first3=Alexandre |date=April 2013 |title=A review of argumentation for the social semantic web |journal=Semantic Web |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=159–218 |url=http://semantic-web-journal.org/sites/default/files/swj138_0.pdf |doi=10.3233/SW-2012-0073 |doi-access=free }}

{{refend}}

{{Mindmaps}}

Map

Category:Diagrams

Category:Logic

Category:Philosophical analogies

Category:Problem structuring methods