Attentional blink

The precise adaptive significance behind the attentional blink is unknown, but it is thought to be a product of a two-stage visual processing system attempting to allocate episodic context to targets. In this system, all stimuli are processed to some extent by an initial parallel stage, and only salient ones are selected for in-depth processing, in order to make optimum use of limited resources at a late serial stage.{{cite journal |doi=10.1037/0096-1523.21.1.109 |vauthors=Chun MM, Potter MC |title=A two-stage model for multiple target detection in rapid serial visual presentation |journal=J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=109–27 |date=February 1995 |pmid=7707027 |url=http://content.apa.org/journals/xhp/21/1/109|citeseerx=10.1.1.588.1550 }}

One interesting feature of the attentional blink is "lag-1 sparing." When two targets appear back-to-back—meaning the second follows the first with no items in between (at "lag 1" or consecutively) in a rapid stream (RSVP)—they avoid the attentional blink’s effect. For example, in a fast sequence of letters like "T, X, P, Q," if "X" and "P" are the targets to spot, people usually notice both because they’re consecutive. However, if the second target comes later (at greater lags), with distractions between them, it’s much harder to notice—such as in "T, X, A, P," where "A" disrupts spotting "P." This sparing can extend to several targets if no non-target items interrupt them in the stream.{{cite journal |last1=Olivers |first1=Christian N. L. |last2=van der Stigchel |first2=Stefan |last3=Hulleman |first3=Johan |date=2005-12-08 |title=Spreading the sparing: against a limited-capacity account of the attentional blink |url=https://research.vu.nl/ws/files/2268594/Olivers%20Psychological%20Research%2071%202007%20u.pdf |journal=Psychological Research |publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=126–139 |doi=10.1007/s00426-005-0029-z |issn=0340-0727 |pmid=16341546 |s2cid=14965989}} Theories suggest this happens because attention shuts off (is suppressed) when a non-target item is spotted, allowing consecutive targets to slip through before the shut-off begins.{{cite journal |last1=Olivers |first1=Christian N. L. |last2=Meeter |first2=Martijn |year=2008 |title=A boost and bounce theory of temporal attention. |url=https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/b4e35f50-43d8-426c-bc2e-74cd292fb4fe |journal=Psychological Review |publisher=American Psychological Association (APA) |volume=115 |issue=4 |pages=836–863 |doi=10.1037/a0013395 |issn=1939-1471 |pmid=18954206}}{{cite journal |last1=Wyble |first1=Brad |last2=Bowman |first2=Howard |last3=Nieuwenstein |first3=Mark |year=2009 |title=The attentional blink provides episodic distinctiveness: Sparing at a cost. |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance |publisher=American Psychological Association (APA) |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=787–807 |doi=10.1037/a0013902 |issn=1939-1277 |pmc=2743522 |pmid=19485692}}

According to the LC-NE hypothesis,{{cite journal |vauthors=Nieuwenhuis S, Gilzenrat MS, Holmes BD, Cohen JD |title=The role of the locus coeruleus in mediating the attentional blink: a neurocomputational theory |journal=J Exp Psychol Gen |volume=134 |issue=3 |pages=291–307 |date=August 2005 |pmid=16131265 |doi=10.1037/0096-3445.134.3.291 |url=http://content.apa.org/journals/xge/134/3/291}} when a salient, or meaningful stimulus is presented, neurons in the locus coeruleus release norepinephrine, a neurotransmitter that benefits the detection of the stimulus. The effect of this release lasts for 100 ms after the salient stimulus is presented and benefits the second target when presented immediately after the first one, accounting for lag 1 sparing. Eventually the neurons in the locus coeruleus enter a refractory period, due to the auto-inhibitory effect of norepinephrine. According to the hypothesis, targets presented during this refractory period cannot trigger a release of norepinephrine, resulting in the attentional blink. The episodic distinctiveness hypothesis of the ST2 model{{cite journal |vauthors=Bowman H, Wyble B |title=The simultaneous type, serial token model of temporal attention and working memory |journal=Psychol Rev |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=38–70 |date=January 2007 |pmid=17227181 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.114.1.38 |url=http://content.apa.org/journals/rev/114/1/38|citeseerx=10.1.1.452.4843 }} suggests that the attentional blink reflects a limitation of the visual system attempting to allocate unique episodic contexts to the ephemeral target stimuli presented in RSVP.

The attentional blink is sometimes used to measure differences in attention between particular populations or experimental conditions{{Cite journal|last1=Morrison|first1=Amanda S.|last2=Brozovich|first2=Faith A.|last3=Lakhan-Pal|first3=Shreya|last4=Jazaieri|first4=Hooria|last5=Goldin|first5=Philippe R.|last6=Heimberg|first6=Richard G.|last7=Gross|first7=James J.|date=2016-03-01|title=Attentional blink impairment in social anxiety disorder: Depression comorbidity matters|journal=Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry|volume=50|pages=209–214|doi=10.1016/j.jbtep.2015.08.006|issn=1873-7943|pmid=26370394|pmc=4679612}}{{Cite journal|last1=MacLean|first1=Mary H.|last2=Arnell|first2=Karen M.|last3=Busseri|first3=Michael A.|date=2010-12-01|title=Dispositional affect predicts temporal attention costs in the attentional blink paradigm|journal=Cognition and Emotion|volume=24|issue=8|pages=1431–1438|doi=10.1080/02699930903417897|s2cid=59580522|issn=0269-9931}}

One factor which influences the AB is emotional information. When the second target (T2) in an RSVP stream is an emotionally relevant stimulus it is more likely to be perceived during the period during which the AB typically occurs. The AB is not only modulated by emotional relevance of (T2) but also by the emotional relevance of (T1). When (T1) is emotionally relevant the AB is lengthened and when (T2) is emotionally relevant, the AB is reduced. This suggests that emotion can mediate attention.{{cite journal |vauthors=Schwabe L, Wolf OT |title=Emotional modulation of the attentional blink: Is there an effect of stress? |journal=Emotion |volume=10 | issue = 2 |pages=283–288|date=April 2010|pmid= 20364906|doi= 10.1037/a0017751}}{{cite journal |vauthors=Anderson AK, Phelps EA |title=Lesions of the human amygdala impair enhanced perception of emotionally salient events |journal=Nature |volume=411 |issue=6835 |pages=305–9 |date=May 2001 |pmid=11357132 |doi=10.1038/35077083 |bibcode=2001Natur.411..305A |s2cid=4391340 }}

Raymond et al. (1992){{cite journal|last=Raymond|first=J.E.|author2=Shapiro, K.L.|author3=Arnell, K.M.|title=Temporary suppression of visual processing in an RSVP task: An attentional blink?|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance|volume=18|pages=849–860|doi=10.1037/0096-1523.18.3.849|pmid=1500880|issue=3|date=August 1992|s2cid=9899746 }} suggest that the attentional blink is produced by perceptual uncertainty amongst the target (T1) and following target (T2). They suggest that this confusion happens at some point in the target identification processes. When confusion is eliminated, attentional blink isn't observed. The researchers also suggested that one way to eliminate confusion is to have items that cannot be named.

Shapiro et al. (1994){{cite journal|last=Shapiro|first=K.L.|author2=Raymond, J.E.|author3=Arnell, K.M.|title=Attention to visual pattern information produces the attentional blink in RSVP|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance|year=1994|volume=20|issue=2|pages=357–371|doi=10.1037/0096-1523.20.2.357|pmid=8189198 }} suggest that an interference model may better explain the attentional blink effects than the inhibition model. In this model, the attentional blink is thought to take place because of an out of place item which is selected out of the series because of the interference within the items in the series. Shapiro proposes that the amount of interference increases or decreases with the length of the series.

Giesbrecht and Di Lollo (1998){{cite journal|last=Giesbrecht|first=B|author2=Di Lollo, V.|title=Beyond the attentional blink: Visual marking by object substitution|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance|year=1998|volume=24|issue=5|pages=1454–1466|doi=10.1037/0096-1523.24.5.1454|pmid=9778831|s2cid=34031644}} suggest that the attentional blink over target 2 results when the person is busy processing target 1. It is suggested that anything increasing the difficulty of processing of the first target will result in a greater attentional blink.

Duncan et al. (1996){{cite journal|last=Duncan|first=J|author2=Martens, S.|author3=Ward, R.|title=Restricted attention capacity within but not between sensory modalities|journal=Nature|year=1996|volume=387|pages=808–810|pmid=9194561|doi=10.1038/42947|issue=6635|s2cid=54498471|doi-access=free}} suggest that the target 1 takes over parts of our attentional capacity, leading to a deficit of processing or recognizing target 2 when presented immediately after target 1. This theory suggests that the time for which target 2 continues to occupy attentional capacity is related directly to the difficulty of processing target 1.

Chun & Potter (1995){{cite journal|last=Chun|first=D.M.|author2=Potter, M.C.|title=A two-stage model for multiple target detection in rapid serial visual presentation|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance|year=1995|volume=21|issue=1|pages=109–127|doi=10.1037/0096-1523.21.1.109|pmid=7707027|citeseerx=10.1.1.588.1550}} suggest that quickly processing a series of items requires two back to back stages. The first stage is the initial rapid-detection. Here, the possible targets are noticed. The second stage is the capacity-limited in which items are taken in order to report later. Stage 2 occurs after the acknowledgement of targets in Stage 1. Here, stage 2 must finishing processing target 1, until then, target 2 will not be recognized in stage 2. If there is a situation where the second target comes in the first stage, the highway to stage two is delayed. Attentional blinking occurs when target 2 is in stage 1 but target 1 is still in stage 2 so target 2 can not get to stage 2. The attentional blink mirror a restriction in the process of combining information from an unstable representation to a stable representation (Johnson & Proctor, 2004).{{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Addie |title=Attention: Theory & Practice |year=2004 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wwu4W_aO8oAC&q=Attention:+Theory+%26+Practice |publisher=SAGE |location=Thousand Oaks, California |isbn=9780761927617 |author2=Proctor, Robert |access-date=22 November 2013}}

• Visual masking

{{Reflist}}

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20080202093528/http://www.psych.ucsb.edu/labs/giesbrecht/index.html The Laboratory for Attention, Brain, and Behavior], led by Dr. Barry Giesbrecht, has published a number of studies addressing the attentional blink.
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20100812112523/http://www.rit.edu/cla/gssp400/Blink/blinkinstr.html Theory and instructions for attentional blink]
• [http://develintel.blogspot.com/2006/02/minds-eye-models-of-attentional-blink.html Computational Models of the Attentional Blink]
• [http://mytechit.blogspot.com.es/2014/10/attentional-blink.html Attentional Blink App for win32]

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Category:Attention

Category:Perception