Attentional control

Sources of attention in the brain create a system of three networks: alertness (maintaining awareness), orientation (information from sensory input), and executive control (resolving conflict). These three networks have been studied using experimental designs involving adults, children, and monkeys, with and without abnormalities of attention.{{cite journal|last=Fan|first=Jan |display-authors=etal |title=Testing the Efficiency and Interdependence of Attenional Networks|journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience|year=2002|volume=14|issue=3|pages=340–347|doi=10.1162/089892902317361886|pmid=11970796|s2cid=12681459 }} Research designs include the Stroop task

{{cite journal|last=Markman|first=Art|title=Disgust, Morality, and Attention|journal=Ulterior Motives|date=11 September 2012|url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/ulterior-motives/201209/disgust-morality-and-attention|access-date=21 October 2012}} and flanker task, which study executive control with analysis techniques including event-related functional magnetic resonance image (fMRI). While some research designs focus specifically on one aspect of attention (such as executive control), others experiments view several areas, which examine interactions between the alerting, orienting, and executive control networks. More recently, the Attention Network Test (ANT), designed by Fan and Posner, has been used to obtain efficiency measures of the three networks, and allow their relationships to be examined. It was designed as a behavioural task simple enough to obtain data from children, patients, and animals.{{cite journal|last=Fan|first=J.|author2=McCandliss, B. |author3=Sommer, T. |author4=Raz, A. |author5=Posner, M. |title=Testing the efficiency and independence of attentional networks|journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience|date=2002|volume=14|issue=3|pages=340–347|doi=10.1162/089892902317361886 |pmid=11970796|s2cid=12681459}} The task requires participants to quickly respond to cues given on a computer screen, while having their attention fixated on a center target.{{cite journal|last=Adólfsdóttir|first=Steinunn |display-authors=etal |title=The Attention Network Test: A Characteristic Pattern of Deficits in Children with ADHD|journal=Behavioral and Brain Functions|year=2008|doi=10.1186/1744-9081-4-9|volume=4|pages=9|pmid=18269768|pmc=2265730|issue=1 |doi-access=free }}

{{see also|Neurobiological effects of physical exercise#Cognitive control and memory}}

Early researchers studying the development of the frontal cortex thought that it was functionally silent during the first year of life.{{cite journal | last1 = Bell | first1 = M. A. | last2 = Wolfe | first2 = C. D. | year = 2007 | title = Changes in brain functioning from infancy to early childhood: Evidence from EEG power and coherence during working memory tasks | journal = Developmental Neuropsychology | volume = 31 | issue = 1| pages = 21–38 | doi = 10.1207/s15326942dn3101_2 | pmid = 17305436 }} Similarly, early research suggested that infants aged one year or younger are completely passive in the allocation of their attention, and have no capacity to choose what they pay attention to and what they ignore.{{cite journal | last1 = Colombo | first1 = J | year = 2001 | title = The development of visual attention in infancy | journal = Annual Review of Psychology | volume = 52 | pages = 337–367 |doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.337 | pmid = 11148309 | hdl = 1808/94 | hdl-access = free }} This is shown, for example, in the phenomenon of 'sticky fixation', whereby infants are incapable of disengaging their attention from a particularly salient target.{{cite journal | last1 = Hood | first1 = B. M. | title = Disengaging visual attention in the infant and adult | last2 = Atkinson | first2 = J. | year = 1993 | journal = Infant Behavior & Development | volume = 16 | issue = 4| pages = 405–422 | doi=10.1016/0163-6383(93)80001-o}} Other research has suggested, however, that even very young infants do have some capacity to exercise control over their allocation of attention, albeit in a much more limited sense.{{cite journal | last1 = Johnson | first1 = M. H. | title = The inhibition of automatic saccades in early infancy | year = 1995 | journal = Developmental Psychobiology | volume = 28 | issue = 5| pages = 281–291 | doi=10.1002/dev.420280504| pmid = 7672460 }}{{cite journal | last1 = Colombo | first1 = J. | last2 = Cheatham | first2 = C. L. | year = 2006 | title = The emergence and basis of endogenous attention in infancy and early childhood | journal = Advances in Child Development and Behavior | volume = 34 | pages = 283–322 | doi=10.1016/s0065-2407(06)80010-8| pmid = 17120808 | isbn = 9780120097340 }}

As the frontal lobes mature,{{cite journal | last1 = Gogtay | first1 = N. | last2 = Giedd | first2 = J. N. | last3 = Lusk | first3 = L. | last4 = Hayashi | first4 = K. M. | last5 = Greenstein | first5 = D. | last6 = Vaituzis | first6 = A. C. | last7 = Nugent Iii | first7 = T. F. | last8 = Herman | first8 = D. H. | last9 = Clasen | first9 = L. S. | year = 2004 | title = Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 101 | issue = 21| pages = 8174–8179 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0402680101 | pmid = 15148381 | pmc = 419576 | display-authors = etal | doi-access = free }} children's capacity to exercise attentional control increases, although attentional control abilities remain much poorer in children than they do in adults.{{cite journal | last1 = Davidson | first1 = M. C. | last2 = Amso | first2 = D. | last3 = Cruess Anderson | first3 = L. | last4 = Diamond | first4 = A. | year = 2006 | title = Development of cognitive control and executive functions from 4 to 13 years: Evidence from manipulations of memory, inhibition, and task switching | journal = Neuropsychologia | volume = 44 | issue = 11| pages = 2037–2078 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.02.006 | pmid = 16580701 | pmc = 1513793 }} Some children show impaired development of attentional control abilities, thought to arise from the relatively slower development of frontal areas of the brain,{{cite journal | last1 = Shaw | first1 = P. Lerch | last2 = Greenstein | first2 = D. | last3 = Sharp | first3 = W. | last4 = Clasen | first4 = L. | last5 = Evans | first5 = A. | last6 = Giedd | first6 = J. | last7 = Xavier Castellanos | first7 = F. | last8 = Rapoport | first8 = J. | year = 2006 | title = Longitudinal Mapping of Cortical Thickness and Clinical Outcome in Children and Adolescents With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder | journal = Archives of General Psychiatry | volume = 63 | issue = 5| pages = 540–549 | doi=10.1001/archpsyc.63.5.540 | pmid=16651511| doi-access = free }} which sometimes results in a diagnosis of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).

Some studies of aging and cognition focus on working memory processes and declines in attentional control. One study used fMRI measures during a Stroop task comparing neural activity of attentional control in younger (21–27 years) and older participants (60–75 years). Conditions included increased competition and increased conflict. Results showed evidence of decreases in responsiveness in brain areas associated with attentional control for the older group. This result suggests that older people may have decreases in their ability to utilize attentional control in their everyday lives.{{cite journal|last=Milham|first=M.|author2=Erickson, K. |author3=Banich, M. |author4=Kramer, A. |author5=Webb, A. |author6=Wszalek, T. |author7=Cohen, N. |title=Attentional control in the aging brain: Insights from an fMRI study of the stroop task|journal=Brain Cogn.|date=2002|volume=49|issue=3|pages=277–296 |doi=10.1006/brcg.2001.1501|pmid=12139955|s2cid=2283825}}{{cite journal|last=Banich|first=M.|title=Executive function: The search for an integrated account|journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science|date=2009|volume=18|pages=89–94|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01615.x|s2cid=15935419}}

A major contributor to age-related decreased attentional control includes the weight of the brain. Several studies conclude that the brain experiences rapid weight loss after the age of 60. This loss of brain weight results from a decrease in cerebral white matter and gray matter.{{Cite journal |last1=Colloca |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Santoro |first2=Michaela |last3=Gambassi |first3=Giovanni |date=2010-09-01 |title=Age-related physiologic changes and perioperative management of elderly patients |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960740409001273 |journal=Surgical Oncology |series=Perioperative Management of Pain in Elderly Cancer Patients |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=124–130 |doi=10.1016/j.suronc.2009.11.011 |pmid=20004566 |issn=0960-7404|url-access=subscription }} White matter is the area in the brain responsible for exchanging information between gray matter areas.{{Cite journal |title=Mikkelsen Library {{!}} Augustana University |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/2304682979 |access-date=2023-10-18 |journal=Brain and Behavior| date=October 2019 | doi=10.1002/brb3.1407 | pmid=31512413 | id={{ProQuest|2304682979}} | last1=Zhao | first1=J. | last2=Ding | first2=X. | last3=Du | first3=Y. | last4=Wang | first4=X. | last5=Men | first5=G. | volume=9 | issue=10 | pages=e01407 | pmc=6790327 }} Gray matter tissue in the central nervous system enables individuals to interact with the world and carry out highly skilled functions. Studies reveal that individuals who engage in physical activity increase the cortical volume of gray matter later in life, preventing age-related atrophy and promoting attentional control.{{Cite journal |last1=Erickson |first1=Kirk I. |last2=Leckie |first2=Regina L. |last3=Weinstein |first3=Andrea M. |date=2014-09-01 |title=Physical activity, fitness, and gray matter volume |journal=Neurobiology of Aging |series=International Conference on Nutrition and the Brain |volume=35 |pages=S20–S28 |doi=10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2014.03.034 |pmid=24952993 |pmc=4094356 |issn=0197-4580|doi-access=free }} However, because most individuals' brains undergo pathological changes after the age of 80 or develop cardiac disease, neuron loss occurs and the brain volume decreases.

Disrupted attentional control has been noted not just in the early development of conditions for which the core deficit is related to attention such as ADHD,{{cite journal | last1 = Sonuga-Barke | first1 = E. J. S. | last2 = Koerting | first2 = J. | last3 = Smith | first3 = E. | last4 = McCann | first4 = D. C. | last5 = Thompson | first5 = M. | year = 2011| title = Early detection and intervention for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder | url = https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/2084124| journal = Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics | volume = 11 | issue = 4| pages = 557–563 | doi = 10.1586/ern.11.39 | pmid = 21469928 | hdl = 1854/LU-2084124 | s2cid = 207221148 | hdl-access = free }} but also in conditions such as autism{{cite journal | last1 = Elsabbagh | first1 = M. | last2 = Volein | first2 = A. | last3 = Holmboe | first3 = K. | last4 = Tucker | first4 = L. | last5 = Csibra | first5 = G. | last6 = Baron-Cohen | first6 = S. | last7 = Bolton | first7 = P. | last8 = Charman | first8 = T. | last9 = Baird | first9 = G. | year = 2009 | title = Visual orienting in the early broader autism phenotype: disengagement and facilitation | journal = Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry | volume = 50 | issue = 5| pages = 637–642 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.02051.x | pmid = 19298466 | pmc = 3272379 | display-authors = etal }} and anxiety.{{cite journal | last1 = Rothbart | first1 = M. K. | last2 = Ellis | first2 = L. K. | last3 = Rueda | first3 = M. R. | last4 = Posner | first4 = M. I. | year = 2003 | title = Developing mechanisms of temperamental effortful control | journal = Journal of Personality | volume = 71 | issue = 6| pages = 1113–1143 | doi = 10.1111/1467-6494.7106009 | pmid = 14633060 }} Disrupted attentional control has also been reported in infants born preterm,{{cite journal | last1 = Van | first1 = E| last2 = de Weijer-Bergsma | first2 = E. | last3 = Wijnroks | first3 = L. | last4 = Jongmans | first4 = M. J. | year = 2008 | title = Attention development in infants and preschool children born preterm: A review | journal = Infant Behavior and Development | volume = 31 | issue = 3| pages = 333–351 | doi = 10.1016/j.infbeh.2007.12.003 | pmid = 18294695 }} as well as in infants with genetic disorders such as Down syndrome and Williams syndrome.{{cite journal | last1 = Cornish | first1 = K. | last2 = Scerif | first2 = G. | last3 = Karmiloff-Smith | first3 = A. | year = 2007 | title = Tracing syndrome-specific trajectories of attention across the lifespan | journal = Cortex | volume = 43 | issue = 6| pages = 672–685 | doi = 10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70497-0 | pmid = 17710820 | s2cid = 14128174 }} Several groups have also reported impaired attentional control early in development in children from lower socioeconomic status families.{{cite journal | last1 = Welsh | first1 = J. A. | last2 = Nix | first2 = R. L. | last3 = Blair | first3 = C. | last4 = Bierman | first4 = K. L. | last5 = Nelson | first5 = K. E. | year = 2010| title = The Development of Cognitive Skills and Gains in Academic School Readiness for Children From Low-Income Families | journal = Journal of Educational Psychology | volume = 102 | issue = 1| pages = 43–53 | doi = 10.1037/a0016738 | pmid = 20411025 | pmc = 2856933 }}

The patterns of disrupted attentional control relate to findings of disrupted performance on executive functions tasks such as working memory across a wide number of different disorder groups. The question of why the executive functions appear to be disrupted across so many different disorder groups remains, however, poorly understood.

Studies have shown that there is a high probability that those with low attentional control also experience other mental conditions. Low attentional control is more common among those with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), "a disorder with persistent age-inappropriate symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that are sufficient to cause impairment in major life activities".Mash, Eric, J. (2013). Abnormal Child Psychology. Wadsworth. Low attentional control is also common in individuals with schizophrenia and {{cite journal |last=Durham |first=N.C. |date=24 February 2000 |title=New Study Identifies Brain Centers For Attention Control |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2000/02/000224075505.htm |journal=ScienceDaily |access-date=20 October 2012}} Alzheimer's disease,{{cite journal |last=Coubard |first=Olivier |display-authors=etal |date=May 2011 |title=Attentional Control in Normal Aging and Alzheimer's Disease |journal=Neuropsychology |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=353–367 |doi=10.1037/a0022058 |pmid=21417533}} those with social anxiety, trait anxiety, and depression,{{cite journal |last=Bowler |first=Jennifer |author2=Et. at. |date=10 September 2012 |title=A Comparison of Cognitive Bias Modification for Interpretation and Computerized Cognitive Behavior Therapy: Effects on Anxiety, Depression, Attentional Control, and Interpretive Bias |journal=Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology |volume=80 |issue=6 |pages=1021–33 |doi=10.1037/a0029932 |pmc=3516492 |pmid=22963595}} and attention difficulties following a stroke. Individuals respond quicker and have stronger overall executive control when they have low levels of anxiety and depression.{{cite journal |last=Sarter |first=Martin |author2=Giovanna Paolone |date=December 2011 |title=Deficits in Attentional Control: Cholinergic Mechanisms and Circuitry-Based Treatment Approaches |journal=Behavioral Neuroscience |volume=125 |issue=6 |pages=825–835 |doi=10.1037/a0026227 |pmc=3235713 |pmid=22122146}} Weak attentional control is also thought to increase chances of developing a psychopathological condition, as these individuals have disrupted threat processing and magnified emotional responses to threat.{{cite journal |last=Fergus |first=Thomas |display-authors=etal |date=August 2012 |title=Attentional Control Moderates the Relationship between Activation of the Cognitive Attentional Syndrome and Symptoms of Psychopathology |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=53 |issue=3 |pages=213–217 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2012.03.017}} More researchers are accounting for attentional control in studies that might not necessarily focus on attention by having participants fill out an Attentional Control Scale (ACS) or a Cognitive Attentional Syndrome-1 (CAS1), both of which are self-reporting questionnaires that measure attentional focus and shifting. Researchers suggest that people should use experimental and longitudinal designs to address the relationship between ACS, emotional functioning, CAS, and attention to threat. This is due to the increasing problematic occurrences experts are seeing in the field regarding attentional control in relation to other mental illnesses.

Attention problems are also characteristic of anxiety disorders like PTSD (Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder). A recent review revealed that 61.2% of current studies found that participants who experienced PTSD suffered from significant attentional control problems.{{Cite journal |last1=Punski‐Hoogervorst |first1=Janne L. |last2=Engel‐Yeger |first2=Batya |last3=Avital |first3=Avi |date=20 February 2023 |title=Attention deficits as a key player in the symptomatology of posttraumatic stress disorder: A review |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jnr.25177 |journal=Journal of Neuroscience Research |language=en |volume=101 |issue=7 |pages=1068–1085 |doi=10.1002/jnr.25177 |pmid=36807926 |s2cid=257077649 |issn=0360-4012|doi-access=free }} These problems caused by PTSD can lead to the development of an attentional bias, which causes a person to process emotionally negative information preferentially over emotionally positive information.{{Cite journal |last1=Schoorl |first1=Maartje |last2=Putman |first2=Peter |last3=Van Der Werff |first3=Steven |last4=Van Der Does |first4=A. J. Willem |date=2014-03-01 |title=Attentional bias and attentional control in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0887618513001783 |journal=Journal of Anxiety Disorders |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=203–210 |doi=10.1016/j.janxdis.2013.10.001 |pmid=24291395 |issn=0887-6185|url-access=subscription }} Patients who suffer from PTSD commonly struggle to concentrate on certain tasks for longer periods of time, allowing intrusive thoughts to override their current focus.{{Cite journal |last1=Block |first1=Stefanie R. |last2=Liberzon |first2=Israel |date=2016-10-01 |title=Attentional processes in posttraumatic stress disorder and the associated changes in neural functioning |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014488616301200 |journal=Experimental Neurology |series=Special Issue: New Perspectives in PTSD |volume=284 |issue=Pt B |pages=153–167 |doi=10.1016/j.expneurol.2016.05.009 |pmid=27178007 |s2cid=2937082 |issn=0014-4886|doi-access=free }} This interference can be caused by many different factors, but it is most commonly triggered by emotional cues, particularly the emotion of fear. Attention is considered a gateway function to advanced cognitive processes such as memory and learning, and attentional interference can cause such cognitive processes to decrease. In recent years, attentional control therapies have been used to improve attentional control in patients who suffer from PTSD. More recently, yoga and meditation were found to positivity affect attentional control in patients who have experienced PTSD.{{Cite journal |last1=Cramer |first1=Holger |last2=Anheyer |first2=Dennis |last3=Saha |first3=Felix J. |last4=Dobos |first4=Gustav |date=2018-03-22 |title=Yoga for posttraumatic stress disorder – a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=BMC Psychiatry |language=en |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=72 |doi=10.1186/s12888-018-1650-x |issn=1471-244X |pmc=5863799 |pmid=29566652 |doi-access=free }}

Attentional control theory focuses on anxiety and cognitive performance. The assumption of this theory is that the effects of anxiety on attentional control are key to understanding the relationship between anxiety and performance. In general, anxiety inhibits attentional control on a specific task by impairing processing efficiency.{{cite journal|last=Eysenck|first=M.|author2=Kerakshan, N. |author3=Santos, R. |author4=Galvo, M. |title=Anxiety and cognitive performance: Attentional control theory|journal=Emotion|date=2007|volume=7|issue=2|pages=336–353 |doi=10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.336 |pmid=17516812|s2cid=33462708 }} There are three functions associated with this theory. The inhibition function prevents stimuli unrelated to a task and responses from disrupting performance. The shifting function is used to allocate attention to the stimuli that are most relevant to the task. The updating function is used to update and monitor information in working memory.{{cite journal|last=Miyake|first=A.|author2=Priedman, N. |author3=Emerson, M. |author4=Witzki, A. |author5=Howerter, A. |title=The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex "frontal lobe" tasks: A latent variable analysis|journal=Cognitive Psychology|date=2000|volume=41|pages=49–100 |doi=10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 |pmid=10945922 |issue=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.485.1953|s2cid=10096387}} There are three main hypotheses associated with attentional control theory. First, the efficiency of the central executive is impaired by anxiety. Second, anxiety impairs the inhibition function, and third, anxiety impairs the shifting function.{{cite journal|last=Eysenck|first=M.|author2=Derakshan, N.|title=New perspectives in attentional control theory|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|date=2011|volume=50|issue=7|pages=955–960|doi=10.1016/j.paid.2010.08.019}}

Studies related to attentional control and performance take two differing approaches. Specifically, research on attentional capture has two modes: voluntary and reflexive. The voluntary mode is a top down approach where attention is shifted according to high-level cognitive processes. The reflexive mode is a bottom up approach where attention shifts involuntarily based on a stimulus's attention attracting properties. These modes are important to understanding how attentional control works.

Even four days of mindfulness meditation training can significantly improve visuo-spatial processing, working memory and executive functioning.{{cite journal|last=Chiesa|first=A.|author2=Serretti, A.|title=A systematic review of neurobiological and clinical features of mindfulness meditations|journal=Psychological Medicine|date=27 November 2009|volume=40|issue=8|pages=1239–1252|doi=10.1017/S0033291709991747|pmid=19941676|s2cid=5818378}}{{cite journal|last=Zeidan|first=Fadel|author2=Johnson, Susan K.|author3= Diamond, Bruce J.|author4= David, Zhanna|author5= Goolkasian, Paula|title=Mindfulness meditation improves cognition: Evidence of brief mental training|journal=Consciousness and Cognition|date=1 June 2010|volume=19|issue=2|pages=597–605|doi=10.1016/j.concog.2010.03.014|pmid=20363650|s2cid=17661562}} However, research has shown mixed results surrounding whether mindfulness effects attentional control directly. Participants did tasks of sustained attention, inhibition, switching, and object detection. These tasks were done before and after an 8-week mindfulness based stress reduction course (MBSR), and were compared to a control group. There were no significant differences between the groups, meaning that the MBSR course did not affect attentional control. However, an active randomized controlled trial showed that a mobile-based mindfulness app with extensive self-assessment features may have long-term benefits for attentional control in healthy participants.{{Cite journal|last1=Farb|first1=Norman AS|last2=Saab|first2=Bechara J.|last3=Walsh|first3=Kathleen Marie|date=2019|title=Effects of a Mindfulness Meditation App on Subjective Well-Being: Active Randomized Controlled Trial and Experience Sampling Study|journal=JMIR Mental Health|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=e10844|doi=10.2196/10844|pmid=30622094|pmc=6329416 |doi-access=free }} Mindfulness influences non-directed attention and other things like emotional well-being.{{cite journal|last=Anderson|first=N.|author2=Lau, M. |author3=Segal, Z. |author4=Bishop, S. |title=Mindfulness-based stress reduction and attentional control|journal=Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy|date=2007|volume=14|issue=6|pages=449–463 |doi=10.1002/cpp.544|doi-access=free}}

Modular approaches view cognitive development as a mosaic-like process, according to which cognitive faculties develop separately according to genetically predetermined maturational timetables. Prominent authors who take a modular approach to cognitive development include Jerry Fodor, Elizabeth Spelke and Steven Pinker. In contrast, other authors such as Annette Karmiloff-Smith, Mark Johnson and [https://web.archive.org/web/20170215212434/http://psych.indiana.edu/faculty/smith4.php Linda Smith] have instead advocated taking a more interactive or dynamical systems approaches to cognitive development. According to these approaches, which are known as neuroconstructivist approaches, cognitive systems interact over developmental time as certain cognitive faculties are required for the subsequent acquisition of other faculties in other areas.{{Cite journal|last1=Westermann|first1=Gert|last2=Mareschal|first2=Denis|last3=Johnson|first3=Mark H.|last4=Sirois|first4=Sylvain|last5=Spratling|first5=Michael W.|last6=Thomas|first6=Michael S.C.|date=2007|title=Neuroconstructivism|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2007.00567.x|journal=Developmental Science|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=75–83|doi=10.1111/j.1467-7687.2007.00567.x|pmid=17181703|via=|url-access=subscription}}{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}

Amongst authors who take neuroconstructivist approaches to development, particular importance has been attached to attentional control, since it is thought to be a domain-general process that may influence the subsequent acquisition of other skills in other areas.{{cite journal | last1 = Scerif | first1 = G. | year = 2010| title = Attention trajectories, mechanisms and outcomes: at the interface between developing cognition and environment | journal = Developmental Science | volume = 13 | issue = 6| pages = 805–812 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.01013.x | pmid = 20977552 | doi-access = free }} The ability to regulate and direct attention releases the child from the constraints of only responding to environmental events, and means they are able to actively guide their attention towards the information-rich areas key for learning. For example, a number of authors have looked at the relationship between an infant's capacity to exercise attentional control and their subsequent performance during language acquisition.{{cite journal | last1 = Kannass | first1 = K. N. | last2 = Oakes | first2 = L. M. | year = 2008 | title = The development of attention and its relations to language in infancy and toddlerhood | journal = Journal of Cognition and Development | volume = 9 | issue = 2| pages = 222–246 | doi=10.1080/15248370802022696| s2cid = 144512803 }}{{cite journal | last1 = Rose | first1 = S. A. | last2 = Feldman | first2 = J. F. | last3 = Jankowski | first3 = J. J. | year = 2009 | title = A Cognitive Approach to the Development of Early Language | journal = Child Development | volume = 80 | issue = 1| pages = 134–150 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01250.x | pmid = 19236397 | pmc = 2780017 }}

Working memory capacity has been studied to understand how memory functions. The ability to predict the effectiveness of someone's working memory capacity comes from attentional control mechanisms. These mechanisms help with the regulation of goals, behavior, and outside distractions, which are all important for effective learning.{{cite journal|last=McVay|first=J.|author2=Kane, M.|title=Conducting the train of thought: Working memory capacity, goal neglect, and mind wandering in an executive-control task|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition|date=2009|volume=35|issue=1|pages=196–204|doi=10.1037/a0014104|pmid=19210090|pmc=2750806}}{{cite book|last=Robinson-Riegler|first=Bridget|title=Cognitive psychology: Applying the science of the mind|date=2011|publisher=Pearson Education Inc.|location=Boston, MA|isbn=978-0-205-05006-2|pages=130–133}}

Our brains have distinct attention systems that have been shaped throughout time by evolution. Visual attention operates mainly on three different representations: location{{cite journal |vauthors=Siegel M, Donner TH, Oostenveld R, Fries P, Engel AK |title=Neuronal synchronization along the dorsal visual pathway reflects the focus of spatial attention |journal=Neuron |volume=60 |issue=4 |pages=709–719 |date=Mar 2008 |doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2008.09.010 |pmid=19038226|s2cid=19010227 |doi-access=free |hdl=2066/71012 |hdl-access=free }}

,{{cite journal |vauthors=Gregoriou GG, Gotts SJ, Zhou H, Desimone R |title=High-frequency, long-range coupling between prefrontal and visual cortex during attention |journal=Science |volume=324 |issue=5931 |pages=1207–1210 |date=Mar 2009 |doi=10.1126/science.1171402 |pmid=19478185 |pmc=2849291|bibcode=2009Sci...324.1207G }} feature, and object-based.{{cite journal |vauthors=Baldauf D, Desimone R |title=Neural mechanisms of object-based attention |journal=Science |volume=344 |issue=6182

|pages=424–427 |date=Mar 2014 |pmid=24763592 |doi=10.1126/science.1247003 |bibcode=2014Sci...344..424B |s2cid=34728448 |doi-access=free }}{{cite book|last=Mangun|first=George R.|title=The Neuroscience of Attention|year=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press, Inc.|location=New York, New York}} The spatial separation between two objects has an effect on attention. People can selectively pay attention to one of two objects in the same general location.{{cite journal|last=Egeth|first=H.|author2=Yantis, S.|title=Visual attention: Control, representation, and time course|journal=Annu. Rev. Psychol.|date=1997|volume=48|pages=269–297|doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.48.1.269|pmid=9046562|s2cid=9358323 }} Research has also been done on attention to non-object based things like motion. When directing attention to a feature like motion, neuronal activity increases in areas specific for the feature. When visually searching for a non-spatial feature or a perceptual feature, selectively enhancing the sensitivity to that specific feature plays a role in directing attention.{{cite journal|last=Reynolds|first=J.|author2=Chelazzi, L.|title=Attentional modulation of visual processing|journal=Annu. Rev. Neurosci.|date=2004|volume=27|pages=611–647|doi=10.1146/annurev.neuro.26.041002.131039|pmid=15217345}} When people are told to look for motion, then motion will capture their attention, but attention is not captured by motion if they are told to look for color.{{cite journal|last=Pashler|first=H.|author2=Jonston, J. |author3=Ruthruff, E. |title=Attention and performance|journal=Annu. Rev. Psychol.|date=2001|volume=52|pages=629–651|doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.629|pmid=11148320|s2cid=45005 }}{{cite journal|last=Folk|first=C.|author2=Remington, R. |author3=Wright, J. |title=The structure of attentional control: Contingent attentional capture by apparent motion, abrupt onset, and color|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition|date=1994|volume=20|issue=2|pages=317–329|doi=10.1037/0096-1523.20.2.317|pmid=8189195|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1231478}}

{{See also|Object based attention}}

According to fMRI studies of the brain and behavioral observations, visual attention can be moved independently of moving eye position. Studies have had participants fixate their eyes on a central point and measured brain activity as stimuli were presented outside the visual fixation point. fMRI findings show changes in brain activity correlated with the shift in spatial attention to the various stimuli. Behavioral studies have also shown that when a person knows where a stimulus is likely to appear, their attention can shift to it more rapidly and process it better.Bear, Connors, Paradiso, Mark, Barry, Michael (2007). Neuroscience Exploring the Brain. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. {{ISBN|9780781760034}}.

Other studies have demonstrated that perceptual and cognitive load affect spatial focusing of attention. These two mechanisms interact oppositely so that when cognitive load is decreased, perceptual load must be high to increase spatial attention focusing.{{cite journal|last=Linnell|first=Karina J.|author2=Serge Caparos|title=Perceptual and Cognitive Load interact to Control the Spatial Focus of Attention|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology|date=18 July 2011|volume=37|series=5|pages=1643–1648|pmid=21767051|issue=5|doi=10.1037/a0024669}}

The cocktail party effect is the phenomenon that a person hears his or her name even when not attending to the conversation. To study this, a screening measure for attentional control was given that tested a person's ability to keep track of words while also doing math problems. Participants were separated into two groups---low and high span attentional control ability groups. They listened to two word lists read simultaneously by a male and a female voice and were told to ignore the male voice. Their name was read by the "ignored" male voice. Low span people were more likely to hear their name compared to high span people. This result suggests that people with lower attentional control ability have more trouble inhibiting information from the surrounding environment.{{cite journal|last=Conway|first=A.|author2=Cowan, N. |author3=Bunting, M. |title=The cocktail party phenomenon revisited: The importance of WM capacity|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|date=2001|volume=8|issue=2|pages=331–335|doi=10.3758/bf03196169|pmid=11495122|doi-access=free}}

{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|

• Attention
• Delayed gratification
• Dysexecutive syndrome
• Executive dysfunction
• Executive functions
• Flow (psychology)
• Frontal lobe
• Self control
• Visual selective attention in dementia

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{{reflist}}

• {{cite book|last=Mangun|first=George R.|title=The Neuroscience of Attention|year=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press, Inc.|location=New York, New York}}
• {{cite book|last1=Bear |last2=Connors |last3=Paradiso|first1=Mark |first2=Barry |first3=Michael|title=Neuroscience Exploring the Brain|url=https://archive.org/details/neuroscienceexpl00mark |url-access=registration |year=2007|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Baltimore, MD|isbn=9780781760034}}
• {{cite journal|last=Linnell|first=Karina J.|author2=Serge Caparos|title=Perceptual and Cognitive Load interact to Control the Spatial Focus of Attention|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology|date=18 July 2011|volume=37|series=5|pages=1643–1648|pmid=21767051|issue=5|doi=10.1037/a0024669}}

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Category:Cognitive neuroscience

Category:Mindfulness (psychology)