Beaufort Sea

The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Beaufort Sea as follows:{{cite web |url=https://iho.int/uploads/user/pubs/standards/s-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf |title=Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition |year=1953 |publisher=International Hydrographic Organization |access-date=28 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407060601/http://www.iho.int/iho_pubs/standard/S-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf |archive-date=7 April 2014 }}

On the North. A line from Point Barrow, Alaska, to Lands End, Prince Patrick Island ({{coord|76|16|N|124|08|W|display=inline}}).

On the East. From Lands End through the Southwest coast of Prince Patrick Island to Griffiths Point, thence a line to Cape Prince Alfred, the Northwestern extreme of Banks Island, through its West coast to Cape Kellet, the Southwestern point, and thence a line to Cape Bathurst on the mainland ({{coord|70|36|N|127|32|W|display=inline}}).

File:Arctic management area and disputed waters.jpg

{{See also|Territorial claims in the Arctic#Beaufort Sea}}

There is an unresolved dispute involving a wedge-shaped slice on the International Boundary in the Beaufort Sea, between the Canadian territory of Yukon and the U.S. state of Alaska. Canada claims the maritime boundary to be along the 141st meridian west out to a distance of {{convert|200|nmi|abbr=on|lk=in}}, following the Alaska–Yukon land border.[http://dsp-psd.communication.gc.ca/Collection-R/LoPBdP/BP/bp322-e.htm The Law of the Sea Convention (BP-322E)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070228155006/http://dsp-psd.communication.gc.ca/Collection-R/LoPBdP/BP/bp322-e.htm |date=28 February 2007 }}. Dsp-psd.communication.gc.ca. Retrieved on 2013-03-21.{{cite book|title=The Polar Regions and the Development of International Law|volume=3|series=Cambridge studies in international and comparative law|author=Donald Rothwell|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1996|isbn=978-0-521-56182-2|pages=174, 176}} This follows the natural prolongation principle, which holds that a nation's maritime boundary should reflect the 'natural prolongation' of where its land territory reaches the coast. The position of the United States is that the boundary line should be perpendicular to the coast out to a distance of {{convert|200|nmi|abbr=on}}, following a line of equidistance from the coast.[https://web.archive.org/web/20070317162633/http://www.dtic.mil/whs/directives/corres/20051m_062305/United_States_America.doc Summary of claims], Department of Defense, p. 10 The equidistance principle argues that a nation's maritime boundaries should conform to a median line that is equidistant from the shores of neighbouring nations. This difference creates a wedge with an area of about {{convert|21000|km2|abbr=on}} that is claimed by both nations.

Canada's position has its roots in the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1825) between the United Kingdom and the Russian Empire that set the boundary between the two. Canada is the successor state to Great Britain in relation to this treaty, which stipulates:

{{blockquote|text=the line of demarcation shall follow the summit of the mountains situated parallel to the Coast, as far as the point of intersection of the 141st degree of West longitude […] and, finally, from the said point of intersection, the said Meridian Line of the 141st degree, in its prolongation as far as the Frozen Ocean|sign=Article 3, Convention between Great Britain and Russia concerning the Limits of their Respective Possessions on the North-West Coast of America and the Navigation of the Pacific Ocean, 1825-02-16, 75 CTS 95}}

Canada maintains that this treaty is extensible from the land into the Beaufort Sea along the meridian. The United States rejects this extension and instead asserts a boundary line based upon equidistance, although its position is somewhat undermined by its acceptance in 1867 of similar treaty wording and a similar interpretation under the treaty whereby it acquired Alaska. Both the U.S. and Canada agree that they are bound by the 1958 Convention on the Continental Shelf; and they both agree that the boundary should be "equitable", as determined by the International Court of Justice. They differ on what should be deemed "equitable". The U.S. contends that "equidistance is an appropriate principle for determining a maritime boundary where there are no special circumstances in the area and when equidistance results in a boundary in accordance with equitable principles". Canada contends that an equidistance principle does not result in an equitable boundary, because distortion would occur. The coast of Yukon is concave, whereas the coast of Alaska is convex; and thus an equidistance principle would result in a significant extension of the U.S. possession.{{cite book|title=Ocean Boundary Making: Regional Issues and Developments|author1=Douglas M. Johnston |author2=Phillip M. Saunders |name-list-style=amp|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=1988|isbn=978-0-7099-1495-2|pages=48–49}} This dispute has taken on increased significance due to the possible presence of natural reserves within the wedge,[http://www.cdfai.org/PDF/Northern%20Interests%20and%20Canadian%20Foreign%20Policy.pdf Northern interests and Canadian foreign policy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100816063443/http://www.cdfai.org/PDF/Northern%20Interests%20and%20Canadian%20Foreign%20Policy.pdf |date=16 August 2010 }}, Associate Director Centre for Military and Strategic Studies, University of Calgary[https://web.archive.org/web/20090306044528/http://www.dog.dnr.state.ak.us/oil/products/publications/beaufortsea/bsaw2006/bsmap8.pdf Beaufort Sea Areawide 2006, Tract Map No.8], State of Alaska Department of Natural Resources, Division of oil and gas which according to Canada's National Energy Board may contain {{convert|1.7|e9m3|abbr=off}} of gas, which would cover the national consumption for 20 years, and more than {{convert|1|e9m3|e9oilbbl|abbr=off}} of oil.[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-10834006 US-Canada Arctic border dispute key to maritime riches], BBC News, 2 August 2010 Because of this, Canada argues that "special circumstances" apply to this border, a position that the U.S. rejects. This dispute is in this respect a mirror image of the dispute between the U.S. and Canada over the Gulf of Maine, where the U.S. argued for "special circumstances" and Canada argued for the equidistance principle. (In that latter dispute, both of those arguments were rejected, and the border was drawn based upon geometric principles taking into account geographic factors.) Neither the U.S. nor Canada has pressed for a swift resolution for the matter, or arbitration at the International Court of Justice, however; and the two have in the meantime cooperated in several measures aimed at preserving the maritime environment.

Before the end of 2004, the US leased eight plots of land below the water for oil exploration and exploitation, provoking a diplomatic protest from Canada.[https://web.archive.org/web/20070224150112/http://www.institutenorth.org/servlet/download?id=35 Sea Changes], Institute of the North On 20 August 2009, United States Secretary of Commerce Gary Locke announced a moratorium on commercial fishing of the Beaufort Sea north of Alaska, including the disputed waters.{{cite news|url=http://www.worldfishing.net/news/news_story.ehtml?o=3212

|title=Secretary of Commerce approves fisheries plan for ArcticSecretary of Commerce approves fisheries plan for Arctic|date=20 August 2009|publisher=World of fishing |archive-url=https://archive.today/20090915212158/http://www.worldfishing.net/news/news_story.ehtml?o=3212|url-status=dead

|archive-date=15 September 2009}}{{cite news|url=http://www.canada.com/Canada+protests+Arctic+fishing/1962264/story.html

|title=Canada protests U.S. Arctic fishing ban|date=4 September 2009 |author=Randy Boswell|publisher=Canada.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107035801/http://www.canada.com/Canada+protests+Arctic+fishing/1962264/story.html|url-status=dead

|archive-date=7 November 2012}} In July 2010, US–Canada negotiations have started in Ottawa with the next meeting planned in 2011.{{Update inline|date=April 2014}} A joint geological survey of the area has been initiated, and the issue was marked as settled by the CIA World Factbook,[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/print_2070.html Disputes – international: CIA – The World Factbook] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200915211616/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/print_2070.html |date=15 September 2020 }}. Cia.gov. Retrieved on 2013-03-21. though no official document has been released by September 2010.

On August 20, 2009 United States Secretary of Commerce Gary Locke announced a moratorium on fishing the Beaufort Sea north of Alaska. According to Locke: {{blockquote|"As Arctic sea ice recedes due to climate change, there is increasing interest in commercial fishing in Arctic waters. We are in a position to plan for sustainable fishing that does not damage the overall health of this fragile ecosystem. This plan takes a precautionary approach to any development of commercial fishing in an area where there has been none in the past."}}

There is no widespread commercial fisheries in those waters now.{{cite news|url = http://www.arctic.gov/testimony/treaadwell-08-20-09.pdf|title = U.S. strategic interests in the age of an accessible Arctic ... what we need to know and do now|date = 2009-08-20|author = Mead Treadwell|author-link = Mead Treadwell|publisher = United States Senate|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100527200900/http://www.arctic.gov/testimony/treaadwell-08-20-09.pdf|archive-date = 2010-05-27|url-status = dead}}

The moratorium was imposed in anticipation that global warming would make those waters accessible to commercial fisheries.

The moratorium stirred controversy in Canada because the region where the USA announced the moratorium included a large wedge-shaped region of disputed waters. Randy Boswell, of Canada.com wrote that the disputed area covered a {{convert|21436|km2|mi2}} section of the Beaufort Sea.

He wrote that Canada had filed a "diplomatic note" with the US in April when the USA first announced plans for the moratorium. Jack Layton, leader of the New Democratic Party of Canada, called the U.S. moratorium over the disputed waters in the Beaufort Sea the "largest encroachment on Canadian territory in our history."[http://www.canada.com/technology/Canada+flip+flop+positions+Beaufort+boundary+dispute/2658659/story.html Canada, U.S. flip-flop positions in Beaufort Sea boundary dispute], Canada.com, March 8, 2010

File:BeaufortSeaBathymetry.jpg

Several rivers such as the Kongakut River in Alaska and the Firth River in Yukon empty into the Beaufort. The major river to flow into the sea is the Mackenzie, Canada's longest, which empties into the Canadian part of the sea, west of Tuktoyaktuk. The coastal shelf area is rather narrow, especially near and east of Point Barrow in the Alaskan part of the sea, and contains numerous submarine valleys. It becomes wider near the delta of the Mackenzie River but nowhere exceeds {{convert|145|km|abbr=on}}. Near the coast, the depths are shallower than {{convert|60|m|abbr=on}} but they rapidly increase northwards up to a few kilometers, transforming into a massive platform which is geologically similar to that of the oceans. There are many small islands in the sea and in the delta of the Mackenzie River. A few larger ones lie west of the Mackenzie River, such as Herschel Island ({{convert|4|km|abbr=on}} off the shore, area {{convert|18|km2|abbr=on}}) and Barter Island ({{convert|0.3|km|abbr=on}} from the coast, area {{convert|13|km2|abbr=on}}). The coasts are low, with the maximum elevations between {{convert|250|and|750|m|abbr=on}}. The soil is frozen all year around at the depth below about {{convert|1|m|abbr=on}} or less, forming permafrost, and only the top few tens of centimeters thaws in summer. Consequently, buildings have to be elevated above ground on wooden piles that are immersed into the permafrost.

File:Mackenzie river enters Beaufort sea.jpg

File:Sea ice terrain.jpg pressure ridges in the Beaufort Sea off the northern coast of Alaska (spring 1949).]]

The Beaufort Sea is frozen over through the year, except for August and September when the ice breaks near the coast and opens what was once a {{convert|50|–|100|km|abbr=on}} wide strip of open water. During the 2000s, due to climate change in the Arctic, the ice-free area in late summer greatly enlarged. During the record minimum extent of Arctic sea ice in September, 2012, the sea ice boundary had retreated northward much farther than normal from the coast.{{cite web

|url=http://nsidc.org/arcticseaicenews/2012/10/poles-apart-a-record-breaking-summer-and-winter/

|title=Poles apart: A record-breaking summer and winter

|date=2 October 2012

|publisher=National Snow and Ice Data Center

|archive-date=2 February 2013

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130202092345/http://nsidc.org/arcticseaicenews/2012/10/poles-apart-a-record-breaking-summer-and-winter/

|quote=Arctic sea ice extent averaged for September 2012 was 3.61 million square kilometers (1.39 million square miles). This was 3.43 million square kilometers (1.32 million square miles) below the 1979 to 2000 average extent. September 2012 ice extent was {{convert|690,000|km2|mi2|abbr=off|sp=us}} less than the previous record low for the month that occurred in 2007.

|url-status=dead

}}{{cite web

|url=http://www.alaskadispatch.com/article/rotting-whale-meat-lures-record-80-polar-bears-kaktovik

|title=Rotting whale meat lures record 80 polar bears to Kaktovik

|first=Ben

|last=Anderson

|date=23 September 2012

|archive-date=31 December 2012

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231072810/http://www.alaskadispatch.com/article/rotting-whale-meat-lures-record-80-polar-bears-kaktovik

|publisher=Alaska Dispatch

|quote=While the whale carcass is one reason for the polar bear bonanza, scientists wonder if there isn't another reason. Namely, the record retreat of Arctic sea ice from the northeast coast of Alaska into the Beaufort Sea.

|url-status=dead

}}{{cite web

|url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2008/3041/

|title=Pacific Walrus Response to Arctic Sea Ice Losses

|first1=By Chadwick V.

|last1=Jay

|first2=Anthony S.

|last2=Fischbach

|date=9 January 2013

|publisher=United States Geological Survey

|archive-date=2 February 2013

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130202041012/http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2008/3041/

|quote=The extent of Arctic summer sea ice has decreased sharply over the past several decades (Stroeve and others, 2007).

|url-status=dead

}}{{cite web

|url=http://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/2012-seaicemin.html

|title=Arctic Sea Ice Hits Smallest Extent in Satellite Era

|date=19 September 2012

|publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration

|archive-date=4 February 2013

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130204050554/http://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/2012-seaicemin.html

|quote=The new record minimum measures almost 300,000 square miles less than the previous lowest extent in the satellite record, set in mid-September 2007, of 1.61 million square miles (4.17 million square kilometers). For comparison, the state of Texas measures around 268,600 square miles.

|url-status=dead

}}

The channels of the Mackenzie River thaw earlier, in late May–early June. This thawing increases the average water discharge from about {{convert|150000|to|250000|m3/s|abbr=on}}.[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/354889/Mackenzie-River Mackenzie River], Encyclopædia Britannica on-line

Hidden changes in the ice cover of the Beaufort Sea were discovered in 2009. Whereas the ice area remain stable, as detected by the observation satellites, so as the associated water temperature and salinity, the ice structure has changed recently. The new ice, called rotten ice, is thinner and much weaker structurally.[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/01/100121164011.htm Ice Is 'Rotten' in the Beaufort Sea], ScienceDaily, 23 January 2010

The sea water has a stable temperature and is separated into four distinct layers as follows. The top {{convert|100|m|abbr=on}} are surface water which has a temperature of {{convert|-1.4|C|1}} in summer and {{convert|-1.8|C|1}} in winter. The next layer is formed by the inflows from the Pacific Ocean and Bering Sea coming through the Bering Strait; it extends up to the North Pole. The warmest, deep Atlantic layer has the temperatures between {{convert|0|and|1|C|F}}, and water at the bottom is a bit colder at {{convert|-0.4|to|-0.8|C|F}}. The average salinity varies between 28‰ and 32‰ (parts per thousand) from south to north. Typical air temperatures (at Tuktoyaktuk) are {{convert|-27|C}} in January and {{convert|11|C}} in July.[http://www.climate.weatheroffice.gc.ca/climate_normals/results_e.html?Province=NWT%20&StationName=&SearchType=&LocateBy=Province&Proximity=25&ProximityFrom=City&StationNumber=&IDType=MSC&CityName=&ParkName=&LatitudeDegrees=&LatitudeMinutes=&LongitudeDegrees=&LongitudeMinutes=&NormalsClass=A&SelNormals=&StnId=1700& Canadian Climate Normals 1971–2000]{{Dead link|date=May 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. climate.weatheroffice.gc.ca

The water currents form the clockwise-directed Beaufort Gyre, that results in south-westerly and westerly currents near the shores.Parsons, pp. 213–214 The Mackenzie River partly affects this circulation inducing minor eastwards streams near its mouth. The river annually brings about 15 million tonnes of sediments which are rich in dolomite and calcium carbonate. Those deposits are spread over the sea and mixed with mud and gravel.

The shoreline of the Beaufort Sea is covered with tundra and marks the northern limit of the terrestrial range{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}} of the polar bear in North America. The Mackenzie River is an important habitat for whales and seabirds and is still relatively untouched by commercial traffic.C. Michael Hogan (2008) [http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=36084 Polar Bear: Ursus maritimus, Globaltwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081224205716/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=36084 |date=24 December 2008 }} The delta of Mackenzie River contains numerous lakes and ponds which are inhabited by muskrat.

File:Bearded Seal 20130804 230751.jpg

The sea hosts about 80 species of zooplankton, more than 70 species of phytoplankton, and nearly 700 species of polychaetes, bryozoans, crustaceans and mollusks, but their total volume is relatively small owing to the cold climate.Parsons, pp. 214–215 Major fish species include polar cod (Boreogadus saida), Arctic cod (Arctogadus glacialis), saffron cod (Eleginus gracilis), Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus), chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta), Arctic cisco (Coregonus autumnalis), least cisco (Coregonus sardinella), lake whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis), broad whitefish (Coregonus nasus), Pacific herring (Clupea pallasii), fourhorn sculpin (Myoxocephalus quadricornis), inconnu (Stenodus leucichthys) and flatfish.Parsons, pp. 218, 221

File:Beluga or white whale, Delphinapterus leucas courtship (6182461448).jpg

File:Polar bear resting but alert ursus maritimus.jpg

File:EndicottIsland.jpg]]

The eastern part of the sea is a major habitat of beluga whales with an estimated population of 39,000.{{Citation needed|date=April 2015}} This population is stable and might even be increasing; it is not affected by the offshore oil exploration in the area.{{Citation needed|date=April 2015}} Belugas spend summer in the coastal area and Mackenzie River delta, which are free of ice then, and in winter migrate long distances to the polynyas of the deep sea.{{Citation needed|date=April 2015}} Genetic analyses have confirmed that belugas of the Beaufort Sea are clearly distinct from those of other Canadian and Alaskan waters, despite often sharing a common wintering habitat.[http://dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection/CW69-14-170-2004E.pdf COSEWIC Assessment and Update Status Report on the Beluga Whale]. Dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca (31 July 2012). Retrieved on 2013-03-21.

The food chain of the Beaufort Sea is relatively simple: It starts with phytoplankton and epontic algae (single-cell algae associated with the lower interface of sea ice{{cite journal|last1=Cota|first1=Glenn F.|title=Photoadaptation of high Arctic ice algae|journal=Nature|volume=315|issue=6016|page=219|year=1985|doi=10.1038/315219a0|bibcode = 1985Natur.315..219C |s2cid=4347588}}), which provide energy to zooplankton, and epontic and coastal amphipods. The latter serve as a food for seabirds and fish, primarily as polar cod and Arctic char. Polar cod is a major food of Arctic char, beluga, narwhal, seabirds and seals, which are dominated by the bearded seal (Erignatus barbatus) and ringed seal (Pusa hispida). Bearded seal and walrus also feed on benthic invertebrates. On top of the food pyramid stands the polar bear, which feeds primarily on seals, but also on any large marine mammals when it has a chance, such as carcasses and whales trapped in ice fields.Parsons, pp. 215–217

File:State-of-Alaska-Map.png

"There is only one proposed Early-Entry site in eastern Beringia that still has proponents, Bluefish Caves in the Porcupine River Basin, Yukon Territory, Canada. Claims of great antiquity in the area [e.g., 30kya] have a convoluted history. A caribou tibia flesher, the most diagnostic human implement from the Old Crow basin, had been dated at near 28 kya. When redated using accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) of small amounts of remnant collagen the bone produced a 1.8 kya date (Yesner 1996b:255)".{{Cite web|url=http://www.jqjacobs.net/anthro/paleoamericans.html|title = The Paleoamericans: Issues and Evidence Relating to the Peopling of the New World}} There is no evidence for anomalous occupation of Beaufort coasts in the context of Arctic cultures generally, including the arrival about 4,000 years ago by Paleo-Eskimos such as the Dorset culture, around 1,000 years ago by the Thule and finally by the modern Inuit. From early ages, they practiced fishing – bones of Arctic char were found at the 4,000 years old settlements. While originally they lived nomadic life, later, they started to form permanent settlements. Their population is increasing, but the unemployment rate is relatively high.

File:Northstar Offshore Island Beaufort Sea.jpg, an artificial island northwest of Prudhoe Bay, is a site of oil and gas drilling]]

Bowhead whales were hunted in the sea between 1888 and 1914. This practice stopped, first because of the decline in whale population and then because of government regulations, but resumed in the 1990s.Parsons, p. 222

The major settlements along the Beaufort Sea are Tuktoyaktuk (population 930 in 2009[https://web.archive.org/web/20110722011401/http://www.stats.gov.nt.ca/community-data/community-profiles/Profile%20PDF/Tuktoyaktuk.pdf Tuktoyaktuk – Statistical Profile]. stats.gov.nt.ca) in Canada and Prudhoe Bay, Alaska. Although Prudhoe Bay is permanently populated by only a few people, there are thousands of contract workers in the area employed on petroleum production at the Prudhoe Bay Oil Field, which is on the coastal lowland known as the North Slope. Artificial islands, such as Endicott and Northstar, have been raised near the shores in 1987 and 2001, respectively. The crude oil is transported through the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System to the southern port of Valdez.

Fishing and sea hunting are practised by the local inhabitants and have no commercial value, especially after a US moratorium on commercial fishing of the Beaufort Sea, adopted in 2009. Trapping of muskrat at the Mackenzie River delta was the main source of income for the Athabaskan First Nations peoples and Inuit during 1920–1960, but has since declined.

File:1987 sucker-dredger Beaufort Sea.jpg on the Mackenzie River delta]]

The Beaufort Sea contains major gas and petroleum reserves beneath the seabed, a continuation of proven reserves in the nearby Mackenzie River and North Slope. The Beaufort Sea was first explored for sub-shelf hydrocarbons in the 1950s and estimated to contain about {{convert|250|km3|abbr=on}} of oil and {{convert|300000|km3|abbr=on}} of natural gas under its coastal shelf. Offshore drilling began in 1972; about 70 wells were set up by the 1980s and 200 wells by 2000.Marlan W. Downey, William Andrew Morgan, Jack C. Threet, American Association of Petroleum Geologists [https://books.google.com/books?id=i9jts14tq1gC&pg=PA125 Petroleum provinces of the twenty-first century], AAPG, 2001 {{ISBN|0-89181-355-1}}, p. 125 These activities resulted in dredging of about 46.5 million m3 of sea bottom soil, as well as discharge of drilling muds which contained barite, clay, caustic soda, and heavy metals zinc, copper, lead, chromium, cobalt, nickel, cadmium and mercury. About {{convert|50400|m3|abbr=on}} of oil was produced in 1986.Parsons, p. 233

A major gas field, named Taglu Gas Field, was discovered in the Mackenzie River delta in 1971,{{cite book|last1=Hawkings|first1=T.J.|last2=Hatfield|first2=W.G.|last3=Bowerman|first3=J.N.|last4=Coffman|first4=R.C.|editor1-last=Braunstein|editor1-first=Jules|title=Taglu Gas Field, Beaufort Basin, Northwest Territories, in North American Oil and Gas Fields|date=1976|publisher=The American Association of Petroleum Geologists|location=Tulsa|isbn=0891813004|pages=51–71}} followed by the Parson Lake field and Niglintgak field. The estimated gas reserves of these fields are {{convert|58600|km3|abbr=on}}, {{convert|35400|and|13600|km3|abbr=on}}, respectively. Moreover, further into the sea from the Mackenzie delta lies the Amauligak field. This, the largest known oil deposit of the Beaufort Sea, was discovered in 1984, and is estimated to contain {{convert|37.3|km3|abbr=on}} of oil and {{convert|38500|km3|abbr=on}} of gas. The development of these fields is hindered by their remote location. This problem was alleviated for Prudhoe Bay by constructing the Trans-Alaska Pipeline, but is limiting regular commercial production at Mackenzie River deposits. For example, the Amauligak Project was started soon after the discovery of the field. In September 1985, the tanker Gulf Beaufort has transported {{convert|50300000|L|oilbbl|abbr=on|0}} of crude oil to Japan, which was the first shipment of oil from the Arctic deposits.David L. VanderZwaag, Cynthia Lamson [https://books.google.com/books?id=FbazRimOybEC&pg=PA61 The Challenge of arctic shipping: science, environmental assessment, and human values], McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP, 1990 {{ISBN|0-7735-0700-0}}, p. 61 However, the project has stalled after that.

In July 2017, the U.S. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management approved a plan to allow Eni, an Italian multinational oil and gas company, to drill four oil exploration wells on Spy Island, one of four artificial islands in the Beaufort Sea.{{cite news|title=US approves oil drilling in Alaska waters, prompting fears for marine life|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/jul/13/us-approves-oil-drilling-in-alaska-waters-marine-life-fear|access-date=1 January 2018|work=The Guardian|agency=Associated Press|date=13 July 2017}}

Stan Rogers references the Beaufort Sea in his popular Canadian Folk Song "Northwest Passage".

• Arctic policy of the United States
• Canadian Internal Waters
• List of areas disputed by Canada and the United States
• Northwest Passage
• Petroleum exploration in the Arctic

{{reflist}}

• L. S. Parsons, William Henry Lear, National Research Council of Canada [https://books.google.com/books?id=QHpklp_F26oC&pg=PA216 Perspectives on Canadian marine fisheries management], NRC Research Press, 1993 {{ISBN|0-660-15003-4}}

• {{cite journal|author1=David G. Barber |author2=Ryan Galley |author3=Matthew G. Asplin |author4=Roger De Abreu |author5=Kerri-Ann Warner |author6=Monika Pu?ko |author7=Mukesh Gupta |author8=Simon Prinsenberg |author9=Stéphane Julien |s2cid=56326055 |name-list-style=amp|year=2009|title=Perennial pack ice in the southern Beaufort Sea was not as it appeared in the summer of 2009|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|volume=36|issue=24|pages=L24501|doi=10.1029/2009GL041434|bibcode=2009GeoRL..3624501B|doi-access=}}
• {{cite book|author=Dawn Russell|chapter=International Ocean Boundary Issues and Management Arrangements|editor=David VanderZwaag|title=Canadian Ocean Law and Policy|location=Toronto|publisher=Butterworths|year=1992|pages=463–505}}
• {{cite journal|author=Donat Pharand|title=The Legal Regime of the Arctic: Some Outstanding Issues|journal=International Journal|volume=39|issue=4|date=Autumn 1984|pages=742–799|doi=10.2307/40202296|jstor=40202296}}
• {{cite journal|author=Karin L. Lawson|year=1981|title=Delimiting Continental Shelf Boundaries in the Arctic: The United States—Canada Beaufort Sea Boundary|journal=Virginia International Law Journal|volume=22|pages=221–246}}

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20061001015952/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=17353 Sea Ice in the Beaufort Sea ] from NASA Earth Observatory
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20130509075138/http://gfp.usgs.gov/sites/beaufort_sea_asi/index.html CAC (Civil Applications Committee)/USGS Global Fiducials Program web page containing scientific description and interactive map viewer featuring declassified high-resolution time-series imagery]

{{List of seas}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Canada–United States border disputes

Category:Disputed waters

Category:Geography of the Inuvialuit Settlement Region

Category:Bodies of water of North Slope Borough, Alaska

Category:Seas of the Arctic Ocean

Category:Seas of the United States

Category:Bodies of water of Alaska

Category:Arctic Watershed of North America

Category:Bodies of water of Yukon

Category:Bodies of water of the Northwest Territories

Category:Seas of Canada

Category:Seas of North America