Bio-based building materials

Building impacts belong to two distinct but interrelated types of carbon emissions: operational and embodied carbon. Operational carbon includes emissions related to the building's functioning, such as lighting and heating; embodied carbon encompasses emissions resulting from the physical construction of buildings, including the processing of materials, material waste, transportation, assembly, and disassembly.{{Cite web |title=Operational & Embodied Carbon. Explainer Guide |url=https://ukgbc.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/operational-and-embodied-carbon-1.pdf |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=UK Green Building Council}}

While research and policy over the past decades have primarily focused on reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions during building operations, by enacting, for instance, the EU Energy Performance of Buildings Directive,{{cite web |title=Energy Performance of Buildings Directive |url=https://energy.ec.europa.eu/topics/energy-efficiency/energy-efficient-buildings/energy-performance-buildings-directive_en |website=energy.ec.europa.eu |access-date=10 July 2024}} the embodied carbon associated with building materials has only recently gained significant attention.{{Cite journal |last1=Piccardo |first1=Chiara |last2=Dodoo |first2=Ambrose |last3=Gustavsson |first3=Leif |last4=Tettey |first4=Uniben |date=2020 |title=Retrofitting with different building materials: Life-cycle primary energy implications |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0360544219323436 |journal=Energy |language=en |volume=192 |pages=116648 |doi=10.1016/j.energy.2019.116648|bibcode=2020Ene...19216648P |url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last1=Mirabella |first1=Nadia |last2=RöCk |first2=Martin |last3=Ruschi Mendes SAADE |first3=Marcella |last4=Spirinckx |first4=Carolin |last5=Bosmans |first5=Marc |last6=Allacker |first6=Karen |last7=Passer |first7=Alexander |date=2018-08-12 |title=Strategies to Improve the Energy Performance of Buildings: A Review of Their Life Cycle Impact |journal=Buildings |language=en |volume=8 |issue=8 |pages=105 |doi=10.3390/buildings8080105 |doi-access=free |issn=2075-5309}}{{Cite journal |last1=Röck |first1=Martin |last2=Saade |first2=Marcella Ruschi Mendes |last3=Balouktsi |first3=Maria |last4=Rasmussen |first4=Freja Nygaard |last5=Birgisdottir |first5=Harpa |last6=Frischknecht |first6=Rolf |last7=Habert |first7=Guillaume |last8=Lützkendorf |first8=Thomas |last9=Passer |first9=Alexander |date=2020 |title=Embodied GHG emissions of buildings – The hidden challenge for effective climate change mitigation |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0306261919317945 |journal=Applied Energy |language=en |volume=258 |pages=114107 |doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.114107|bibcode=2020ApEn..25814107R |hdl=20.500.11850/381047 |hdl-access=free }} This tendency has consequently resulted in a growing interest in the use of low-carbon bio-based materials.{{Cite journal |last1=Mouton |first1=Lise |last2=Allacker |first2=Karen |last3=Röck |first3=Martin |date=2023 |title=Bio-based building material solutions for environmental benefits over conventional construction products – Life cycle assessment of regenerative design strategies (1/2) |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2022.112767 |journal=Energy and Buildings |volume=282 |pages=112767 |doi=10.1016/j.enbuild.2022.112767 |bibcode=2023EneBu.28212767M |issn=0378-7788}}{{Cite journal |last1=Churkina |first1=Galina |last2=Organschi |first2=Alan |last3=Reyer |first3=Christopher P. O. |last4=Ruff |first4=Andrew |last5=Vinke |first5=Kira |last6=Liu |first6=Zhu |last7=Reck |first7=Barbara K. |last8=Graedel |first8=T. E. |last9=Schellnhuber |first9=Hans Joachim |date=2020-01-27 |title=Buildings as a global carbon sink |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-019-0462-4 |journal=Nature Sustainability |language=en |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=269–276 |doi=10.1038/s41893-019-0462-4 |bibcode=2020NatSu...3..269C |issn=2398-9629|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last1=Rockström |first1=Johan |last2=Gaffney |first2=Owen |last3=Rogelj |first3=Joeri |last4=Meinshausen |first4=Malte |last5=Nakicenovic |first5=Nebojsa |last6=Schellnhuber |first6=Hans Joachim |date=2017-03-24 |title=A roadmap for rapid decarbonization |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aah3443 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=355 |issue=6331 |pages=1269–1271 |doi=10.1126/science.aah3443 |pmid=28336628 |bibcode=2017Sci...355.1269R |issn=0036-8075}}

Bio-materials and their co-products offer various benefits: they are renewable, often locally available and during the plant’s growth carbon is sequestered, which enhances the production of possible alternative bio-components.{{cite journal |last1=Breton |first1=Charles |last2=Blanchet |first2=Pierre |last3=Amor |first3=Ben |last4=Beauregard |first4=Robert |last5=Chang |first5=Wen Shao |date=2018 |title=Assessing the Climate Change Impacts of Biogenic Carbon in Buildings: A Critical Review of Two Main Dynamic Approaches |journal=Sustainability |volume=10 |issue=6 |page=2020 |doi=10.3390/su10062020|doi-access=free |hdl=20.500.11794/30525 |hdl-access=free }}

This means that when bio-based construction materials are used as buildings’ components, their lifespan is usually defined by the building’s service life and results in a temporary reduction of the CO₂ concentration in the atmosphere.{{Cite journal |last1=Mequignon |first1=Marc |last2=Adolphe |first2=Luc |last3=Thellier |first3=Françoise |last4=Ait Haddou |first4=Hassan |date= 2013|title=Impact of the lifespan of building external walls on greenhouse gas index |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BUILDENV.2012.09.020 |journal=Building and Environment |volume=59 |pages=654–661 |doi=10.1016/j.buildenv.2012.09.020 |bibcode=2013BuEnv..59..654M |issn=0360-1323|url-access=subscription }}

During this time, carbon is stored in the building and its emissions are thus slowed down.{{Cite journal |last1=Gustavsson |first1=Leif |last2=Haus |first2=Sylvia |last3=Lundblad |first3=Mattias |last4=Lundström |first4=Anders |last5=Ortiz |first5=Carina A. |last6=Sathre |first6=Roger |last7=Truong |first7=Nguyen Le |last8=Wikberg |first8=Per-Erik |date= 2017|title=Climate change effects of forestry and substitution of carbon-intensive materials and fossil fuels |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2016.09.056 |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |volume=67 |pages=612–624 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2016.09.056 |bibcode=2017RSERv..67..612G |issn=1364-0321|url-access=subscription }}

Researchers proved that incorporating a larger share of bio-materials can reduce a building's embodied energy by about 20%.{{cite journal |last1=Thormark |first1=C. |date=2006 |title=The effect of material choice on the total energy need and recycling potential of a building |journal=Building and Environment |volume=41 |issue=8 |pages=1019–1026 |doi=10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.04.026|bibcode=2006BuEnv..41.1019T }}

Looking at the wider perspective, studies demonstrated that the use of bio-based materials in the built environment would have the potential to reduce over 320,000 tons of carbon dioxide emissions by 2050, which is set as target date by European Union to reach carbon neutrality.{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Lin |last2=Zhang |first2=Yubing |last3=Chen |first3=Zhonghao |last4=Dong |first4=Yitong |last5=Jiang |first5=Yushan |last6=Hua |first6=Jianmin |last7=Liu |first7=Yunfei |last8=Osman |first8=Ahmed I. |last9=Farghali |first9=Mohamed |last10=Huang |first10=Lepeng |last11=Rooney |first11=David W. |last12=Yap |first12=Pow-Seng |date=2024 |title=Biomaterials technology and policies in the building sector: a review |journal=Environmental Chemistry Letters |language= |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=715–750 |doi=10.1007/s10311-023-01689-w |bibcode=2024EnvCL..22..715C |issn=1610-3661|doi-access=free }} Moreover, with buildings becoming more energy-efficient, the embodied impacts from producing and installing new materials contribute significantly to total lifecycle emissions, ranging from 10% to as much as 80% in highly efficient buildings. This scenario highlights the potential for bio-based materials to have a substantial impact on reducing overall building energy emissions.{{cite journal |last1=Röck |first1=Martin |last2=Saade |first2=Marcella |last3=Ruschi |first3=Mendes |last4=Balouktsi |first4=Maria |last5=Rasmussen |first5=Freja Nygaard |last6=Birgisdottir |first6=Harpa |last7=Frischknecht |first7=Rolf |last8=Habert |first8=Guillaume |last9=Lützkendorf |first9=Thomas |last10=Passer |first10=Alexander |title=Embodied GHG emissions of buildings – The hidden challenge for effective climate change mitigation |journal=Applied Energy |date=2020 |volume=258 |doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.114107 |bibcode=2020ApEn..25814107R |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.114107|hdl=20.500.11850/381047 |hdl-access=free }}

File:Embodied and operational carbon of buildings.jpg

Bio-based building materials can be classified depending on their natural origins and on their physical properties, which influence their behaviour when applied to the building system.{{Cite journal |last1=Rosa Latapie |first1=Séverine |last2=Abou-Chakra |first2=Ariane |last3=Sabathier |first3=Vincent |date=2023 |title=Microstructure of Bio-Based Building Materials: New Insights into the Hysteresis Phenomenon and Its Consequences |journal=Buildings |language=en |volume=13 |issue=7 |pages=1650 |doi=10.3390/buildings13071650 |doi-access=free |issn=2075-5309}} According to their chemical structure and to their characteristic of being renewable, bio-based materials can be divided into lignocellulosic materials, which come from forestry, vegetation, agriculture; protein-based materials, coming from farming, such as wool and feathers;{{Citation |last1=Castellano |first1=Giorgio |title=Bio-based Solutions for the Retrofit of the Existing Building Stock: A Systematic Review |date=2023 |work=Bio-Based Building Materials |volume=45 |pages=399–419 |editor-last=Amziane |editor-first=Sofiane |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-33465-8_31 |access-date=2024-07-11 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer Nature Switzerland |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-33465-8_31 |isbn=978-3-031-33464-1 |last2=Paoletti |first2=Ingrid Maria |last3=Malighetti |first3=Laura Elisabetta |last4=Carcassi |first4=Olga Beatrice |last5=Pradella |first5=Federica |last6=Pittau |first6=Francesco |editor2-last=Merta |editor2-first=Ildiko |editor3-last=Page |editor3-first=Jonathan|url-access=subscription }} earth;{{Cite journal |last1=Morel |first1=Jean-Claude |last2=Charef |first2=Rabia |last3=Hamard |first3=Erwan |last4=Fabbri |first4=Antonin |last5=Beckett |first5=Chris |last6=Bui |first6=Quoc-Bao |date=2021-09-27 |title=Earth as construction material in the circular economy context: practitioner perspectives on barriers to overcome |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |language=en |volume=376 |issue=1834 |pages=20200182 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2020.0182 |issn=0962-8436 |pmc=8349625 |pmid=34365821}} living materials made of micro-organisms such as mycelium and algae.{{Cite journal |last1=Chayaamor-Heil |first1=Natasha |last2=Perricone |first2=Valentina |last3=Gruber |first3=Petra |last4=Guéna |first4=François |date=2023-07-01 |title=Bioinspired, biobased and living material designs: a review of recent research in architecture and construction |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-3190/acd82e |journal=Bioinspiration & Biomimetics |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=041001 |doi=10.1088/1748-3190/acd82e |pmid=37220762 |bibcode=2023BiBi...18d1001C |issn=1748-3182|url-access=subscription }}

Natural materials have been traditionally used in architecture since the vernacular period. Presently, these materials stand out through innovative applications,{{Cite web |last=Chiusoli |first=Alberto |date=2021-01-21 |title=3D printed house TECLA - Eco-housing |url=https://www.3dwasp.com/en/3d-printed-house-tecla/ |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=3D Printers {{!}} WASP |language=en-US}} while novel bio-materials, such as living materials, and bio-wastes, enter the discussion intending to enhance circular business models.File:Eco-sustainable 3D printed house "Tecla".jpg

Among bio-materials, timber, as part of a long, preindustrial history of buildings, has always received the main attention from policy and industry and, in recent years, it has been mainly advocated by researchers and policymakers to replace concrete, iron and steel in the construction sector.{{cite journal |last1=Churkina |first1=Galina |last2=Organschi |first2=Alan |last3=Reyer |first3=Christopher P.O. |last4=Ruff |first4=Andrew |last5=Vinke |first5=Kira |last6=Liu |first6=Zhu |last7=Reck |first7=Barbara K. |last8=Graedel |first8=T. E. |last9=Schellnhuber |first9=K. |last10=Hans |first10=Joachim |date=2020 |title=Buildings as a global carbon sink |journal=Nature Sustainability |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=269–276 |doi=10.1038/s41893-019-0462-4|bibcode=2020NatSu...3..269C }}{{cite journal |last1=Mishra |first1=Abhijeet |last2=Humpenöder |first2=Florian |last3=Churkina |first3=Galina |last4=Reyer |first4=Christopher P.O. |last5=Beier |first5=Felicitas |last6=Bodirsky |first6=Benjamin Leon |last7=Schellnhuber |first7=Hans Joachim |last8=Lotze-campen |first8=Hermann |last9=Popp |first9=Alexander |date=2022 |title=Land use change and carbon emissions of a transformation to timber cities |journal=Nature Communications |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=4889 |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-32244-w|pmid=36042197 |pmc=9427734 |bibcode=2022NatCo..13.4889M }} Indeed, modular timber construction, such as Plywood, Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL), Panels, Cross Laminated Timber (CLT), allows for storing a significant amount of carbon in the structure (50% of the mass){{cite journal |last1=Pittau |first1=Francesco |last2=Malighetti |first2=Laura E. |last3=Iannaccone |first3=Giuliana |last4=Masera |first4=Gabriele |date=2017 |title=Prefabrication as Large-scale Efficient Strategy for the Energy Retrofit of the Housing Stock: An Italian Case Study |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017.04.276 |journal=Procedia Engineering |volume=180 |pages=1160–1169|doi=10.1016/j.proeng.2017.04.276 |hdl=11311/1024876 |hdl-access=free }} and releases significant less GHGs into the atmosphere compared with mineral-based construction.{{cite journal |last1=Heeren |first1=N. |last2=Mutel |first2=C. |last3=Steubing |first3=B. |last4=Ostermeyer |first4=Y. |last5=Wallbaum |first5=H. |last6=Hellweg |first6=S. |date=2015 |title=Environmental Impact of Buildings - what Matters?. |journal=Environmental Science and Technology |volume=49 |issue=16 |pages=9832–9841|doi=10.1021/acs.est.5b01735 |pmid=26176213 |bibcode=2015EnST...49.9832H |hdl=20.500.11850/103124 |hdl-access=free }} Moreover, wood is considered highly recyclable, as it enables several reuse options.{{Cite book |last1=Sandak |first1=Anna |title=Environmental Footprints and Eco-design of Products and Processes Bio-based Building Skin |last2=Sandak |first2=Jakub |last3=Brzezicki |first3=Marcin |last4=Kutnar |first4=Andreja |publisher=Springer Open |year=2019 |isbn=978-981-13-3746-8 |location=Singapore |doi=10.1007/978-981-13-3747-5}}

However, it is important to consider that the climate benefit associated with biogenic carbon storage is only achieved when replaced by the growth of another tree, which normally takes decades. Therefore, even if still representing a renewable resource, within a short time horizon, such as 2050, timber construction can't be climate neutral.{{cite journal |last1=Hawkins |first1=W. |last2=Cooper |first2=S. |last3=Allen |first3=S. |last4=Roynon |first4=J. |last5=Ibell |first5=T. |date=2021 |title=Embodied carbon assessment using a dynamic climate model: Case-study comparison of a concrete, steel and timber building structure. |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2020.12.013 |journal=Structures |volume=33 |pages=90–98|doi=10.1016/j.istruc.2020.12.013 }} Moreover, in the European context, studies have shown that there is an insufficient quantity of timber to meet the expected demand if there were to be a complete shift towards a timber-based built environment.{{cite journal |last1=Göswein |first1=Verena |last2=Arehart |first2=Jay |last3=Phan-huy |first3=Catherine |last4=Pomponi |first4=Francesco |last5=Habert |first5=Guillaume |date=2022 |title=Barriers and opportunities of fast-growing biobased material use in buildings |journal=Buildings and Cities |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=745–755 |doi=10.5334/bc.254|doi-access=free |hdl=20.500.11850/587227 |hdl-access=free }}

Due to its strength, durability, non-combustibility, and ability to enhance indoor air quality, also rammed earth has been largely used in construction, starting from the 16th and 17th centuries.{{Cite book |title=Pisé - Stampflehm: Tradition und Potenzial |date=2020 |publisher=Triest |isbn=978-3-03863-028-9 |editor-last=Boltshauser |editor-first=Roger |edition=2. überarbeitete Auflage |location=Zürich |editor-last2=Maillard |editor-first2=Nadia |editor-last3=Veillon |editor-first3=Cyril |editor-last4=Anger |editor-first4=Romain |editor-last5=Brumaud |editor-first5=Coralie |editor-last6=Heckhausen |editor-first6=Philip}} With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, however, standardizing earthen materials became difficult, making it challenging to utilize them as effectively as concrete and bricks.

Nowadays, because of low embodied carbon, availability, safety, and thermal characteristics of these building materials, they become a particularly attractive alternatives to more traditional ones. Moreover, there is the potentiality to circumvent disadvantages, such as on-site weather-dependency, by using prefabricated elements{{Cite journal |last1=Ben-Alon |first1=Lola |last2=Loftness |first2=Vivian |last3=Harries |first3=Kent A. |last4=DiPietro |first4=Gwen |last5=Hameen |first5=Erica Cochran |date=2019 |title=Cradle to site Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of natural vs conventional building materials: A case study on cob earthen material |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0360132319303464 |journal=Building and Environment |language=en |volume=160 |pages=106150 |doi=10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.05.028|bibcode=2019BuEnv.16006150B |url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last1=Maierdan |first1=Yierfan |last2=Cui |first2=Qi |last3=Chen |first3=Bing |last4=Aminul Haque |first4=M. |last5=Yiming |first5=Ayizekeranmu |date=2021 |title=Effect of varying water content and extreme weather conditions on the mechanical performance of sludge bricks solidified/stabilized by hemihydrate phosphogypsum, slag, and cement |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0950061821030270 |journal=Construction and Building Materials |language=en |volume=310 |pages=125286 |doi=10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.125286|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last1=Maierdan |first1=Yierfan |last2=Gu |first2=Kang |last3=Chen |first3=Bing |last4=Haque |first4=M. Aminul |last5=Zhang |first5=Ying |last6=Zhao |first6=Ling |date=2022 |title=Recycling of heavy metal contaminated river sludge into unfired green bricks: Strength, water resistance, and heavy metals leaching behavior – A laboratory simulation study |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0959652622005200 |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |language=en |volume=342 |pages=130882 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.130882|bibcode=2022JCPro.34230882M |url-access=subscription }} and innovative manufacturing processes. In this regard, the Austrian company Erden{{Cite web |title=ERDEN |url=https://www.erden.at/ |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=www.erden.at}} has developed a technique to prefabricate rammed earth wall elements that can be stacked to construct large-scale buildings. The Belgian BC Materials,{{Cite web |title=BC Materials |url=https://bcmaterials.org/node/332 |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=BC Materials |language=en}} instead, transforms excavated earth into building materials, with the production of earth blocks masonry, plasters and paints.

Moreover, the use of additive manufacturing enters the debate as a method with the potentiality to enhance the level of quality in detailing, accuracy, finishing, and reproducibility, while reducing labour needs and increasing in pace.{{Cite journal |last1=Pajonk |first1=Adam |last2=Prieto |first2=Alejandro |last3=Blum |first3=Ulrich |last4=Knaack |first4=Ulrich |date=2022 |title=Multi-material additive manufacturing in architecture and construction: A review |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2352710221014613 |journal=Journal of Building Engineering |language=en |volume=45 |pages=103603 |doi=10.1016/j.jobe.2021.103603}}{{Cite journal |last1=Correa |first1=David |last2=Papadopoulou |first2=Athina |last3=Guberan |first3=Christophe |last4=Jhaveri |first4=Nynika |last5=Reichert |first5=Steffen |last6=Menges |first6=Achim |last7=Tibbits |first7=Skylar |date=2015 |title=3D-Printed Wood: Programming Hygroscopic Material Transformations |url=http://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/3dp.2015.0022 |journal=3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing |language=en |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=106–116 |doi=10.1089/3dp.2015.0022 |issn=2329-7662|hdl=1721.1/104845 |hdl-access=free }} In this regard, a recent collaboration between Mario Cucinella Architects {{Cite web |title=Mario Cucinella Architects |url=https://www.mcarchitects.it/ |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=www.mcarchitects.it}} and Wasp,{{Cite web |title=3D printers for sale online {{!}} WASP |url=https://www.3dwasp.com/en/ |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=3D Printers {{!}} WASP |language=en-US}} an Italian company specialised in 3D printing, has resulted in the first 3D-printed, fully circular housing constructions made by earth, called TECLA.

File:Hempcrete wall.jpg

Unlike timber, fast-growing materials are bio-resources that have rapid growth, making them readily available for harvest and use in a very short period.{{cite journal |last1=Cosentino |first1=Livia |last2=Fernandes |first2=Jorge |last3=Mateus |first3=Ricardo |date=2024 |title=Fast-Growing Bio-Based Construction Materials as an Approach to Accelerate United Nations Sustainable Development Goals |journal=Applied Sciences |volume=14 |issue=11 |page=4850 |doi=10.3390/app14114850|doi-access=free |hdl=1822/94217 |hdl-access=free }} Fast-growing materials are typically derived from agricultural by-products, such as hemp, straw, flax, kenaf, and several species of reed, but can also include trees like bamboo and eucalyptus.{{Cite journal |last1=Cosentino |first1=Livia |last2=Fernandes |first2=Jorge |last3=Mateus |first3=Ricardo |date=2024-06-03 |title=Fast-Growing Bio-Based Construction Materials as an Approach to Accelerate United Nations Sustainable Development Goals |journal=Applied Sciences |language=en |volume=14 |issue=11 |pages=4850 |doi=10.3390/app14114850 |doi-access=free |issn=2076-3417|hdl=1822/94217 |hdl-access=free }} Due to their short crops rotation periods, these materials, when used, are directly compensated by the regrowth of the new plants and, overall, this results in a cooling effect on the atmosphere.{{cite journal |last1=Göswein |first1=Verena |last2=Reichmann |first2=Jana |last3=Habert |first3=Guillaume |last4=Pittau |first4=Francesco |title=Land availability in Europe for a radical shift toward bio-based construction |journal=Sustainable Cities and Society |date=2021 |volume=70 |doi=10.1016/j.scs.2021.102929|bibcode=2021SusCS..7002929G |hdl=11311/1170056 |hdl-access=free }}

Over last decades, various construction projects displayed their versatility by using them for many different applications, going from structural components crafted from bamboo to finishing materials like plaster, flooring, siding, roofing shingles, acoustic and thermal panels.

Several studies document their applications in the built environment both as loose materials {{cite journal |last1=Shea |first1=A. |last2=Wall |first2=K. |last3=Walker |first3=P. |date=2013 |title=Evaluation of the thermal performance of an innovative prefabricated natural plant fibre building system |journal=Building Service Engineering Research and Technology |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=369–380 |doi=10.1177/0143624412450023|url=http://opus.bath.ac.uk/30137/1/Shea_BSERT_2012.pdf }}{{cite journal |last1=Costes |first1=Jean-Philippe |last2=Evrard |first2=Arnaud |last3=Biot |first3=Benjamin |last4=Keutgen |first4=Gauthier |last5=Daras |first5=Amaury |last6=Dubois |first6=Samuel |last7=Lebeau |first7=Frederic |last8=Courard |first8=Luc |date=2017 |title=Thermal Conductivity of Straw Bales: Full Size Measurements Considering the Direction of the Heat Flow |journal=Buildings |volume=7 |issue=4 |page=11 |doi=10.3390/buildings7010011|doi-access=free |hdl=10985/11615 |hdl-access=free }}{{cite journal |last1=Garas |first1=G. |last2=Allam |first2=M. |last3=El Dessuky |first3=R. |date=2009 |title=Straw Bale Construction As an Economic Environmental Building Alternative-a Case Study |journal=ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences |volume=4 |issue=9 |pages=54–59 |issn=1819-6608}} and as part of a bio-mixture, such as flax concrete,{{Cite journal |last1=Benmahiddine |first1=Ferhat |last2=Cherif |first2=Rachid |last3=Bennai |first3=Fares |last4=Belarbi |first4=Rafik |last5=Tahakourt |first5=Abdelkader |last6=Abahri |first6=Kamilia |date=2020 |title=Effect of flax shives content and size on the hygrothermal and mechanical properties of flax concrete |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120077 |journal=Construction and Building Materials |volume=262 |pages=120077 |doi=10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120077 |issn=0950-0618}} rice husks concrete,{{Cite journal |last1=Chabannes |first1=Morgan |last2=Bénézet |first2=Jean-Charles |last3=Clerc |first3=Laurent |last4=Garcia-Diaz |first4=Eric |date=2014 |title=Use of raw rice husk as natural aggregate in a lightweight insulating concrete: An innovative application |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.07.025 |journal=Construction and Building Materials |volume=70 |pages=428–438 |doi=10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.07.025 |issn=0950-0618|url-access=subscription }} straw fibers concrete,{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Guihua |last2=Han |first2=Yan |date=2018-08-07 |title=Research on the Performance of Straw Fiber Concrete |journal=IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering |volume=394 |issue=3 |pages=032080 |doi=10.1088/1757-899X/394/3/032080 |bibcode=2018MS&E..394c2080W |issn=1757-899X|doi-access=free }} or bamboo bio-concrete.{{Cite journal |last1=Correa de Melo |first1=Pedro |last2=Caldas |first2=Lucas Rosse |last3=Masera |first3=Gabriele |last4=Pittau |first4=Francesco |date=2023 |title=The potential of carbon storage in bio-based solutions to mitigate the climate impact of social housing development in Brazil |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.139862 |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |volume=433 |pages=139862 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.139862 |bibcode=2023JCPro.43339862C |issn=0959-6526|hdl=11311/1256523 |hdl-access=free }} Among the others, hempcrete, made of lime and hemp shives, stands out due to its structural and insulating features,{{Cite journal |last1=Bennai |first1=Fares |last2=Ferroukhi |first2=Mohammed Yacine |last3=Benmahiddine |first3=Ferhat |last4=Belarbi |first4=Rafik |last5=Nouviaire |first5=Armelle |date=2022-01-17 |title=Assessment of hygrothermal performance of hemp concrete compared to conventional building materials at overall building scale |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0950061821037399 |journal=Construction and Building Materials |volume=316 |pages=126007 |doi=10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.126007 |issn=0950-0618}}{{Cite journal |last1=Bennai |first1=F. |last2=Issaadi |first2=N. |last3=Abahri |first3=K. |last4=Belarbi |first4=R. |last5=Tahakourt |first5=A. |date=2018 |title=Experimental characterization of thermal and hygric properties of hemp concrete with consideration of the material age evolution |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00231-017-2221-2 |journal=Heat and Mass Transfer |language=en |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=1189–1197 |doi=10.1007/s00231-017-2221-2 |bibcode=2018HMT....54.1189B |issn=0947-7411|url-access=subscription }} while enabling large carbon savings.{{Cite journal |last1=Rahim |first1=M. |last2=Douzane |first2=O. |last3=Tran Le |first3=A.D. |last4=Promis |first4=G. |last5=Langlet |first5=T. |date=2016 |title=Characterization and comparison of hygric properties of rape straw concrete and hemp concrete |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.11.021 |journal=Construction and Building Materials |volume=102 |pages=679–687 |doi=10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.11.021 |issn=0950-0618|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last1=Kinnane |first1=Oliver |last2=Reilly |first2=Aidan |last3=Grimes |first3=John |last4=Pavia |first4=Sara |last5=Walker |first5=Rosanne |date=2016 |title=Acoustic absorption of hemp-lime construction |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.06.106 |journal=Construction and Building Materials |volume=122 |pages=674–682 |doi=10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.06.106 |issn=0950-0618}}{{Cite journal |last1=Benmahiddine |first1=Ferhat |last2=Belarbi |first2=Rafik |last3=Berger |first3=Julien |last4=Bennai |first4=Fares |last5=Tahakourt |first5=Abdelkader |date=2021 |title=Accelerated Aging Effects on the Hygrothermal Behaviour of Hemp Concrete: Experimental and Numerical Investigations |journal=Energies |language=en |volume=14 |issue=21 |pages=7005 |doi=10.3390/en14217005 |doi-access=free |issn=1996-1073}}

In this context, several start-ups and innovative enterprises, such as RiceHouse,{{Cite web |title=Home Page |url=https://www.ricehouse.it/ |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=Rice House |language=it-IT}} Ecological Building System,{{Cite web |title=Eco-Friendly Building Products for Energy Efficient Homes |url=https://www.ecologicalbuildingsystems.com/ |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=Ecological Building Systems |language=en}} and Strawcture,{{Cite web |date=2021-05-28 |title=Eco-Friendly Building Materials {{!}} BioPanels {{!}} AgriBioPanels |url=https://strawcture.com/ |access-date=2024-07-11 |language=en-US}} have already entered the market with competitive bio-composite alternatives, available either as loose materials or bound by natural or artificial binders. File:Myco-composite.jpg

Algae and mycelium are gaining interest as a research field for building applications.{{Cite journal |last1=Alemu |first1=Digafe |last2=Tafesse |first2=Mesfin |last3=Mondal |first3=Ajoy Kanti |date=2022-03-12 |editor-last=Seifalian |editor-first=Alexander |title=Mycelium-Based Composite: The Future Sustainable Biomaterial |journal=International Journal of Biomaterials |language=en |volume=2022 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1155/2022/8401528 |doi-access=free |issn=1687-8795 |pmc=8934219 |pmid=35313478}}{{Cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Mitchell |last2=Mautner |first2=Andreas |last3=Luenco |first3=Stefano |last4=Bismarck |first4=Alexander |last5=John |first5=Sabu |date=2020 |title=Engineered mycelium composite construction materials from fungal biorefineries: A critical review |journal=Materials & Design |language=en |volume=187 |pages=108397 |doi=10.1016/j.matdes.2019.108397|doi-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last1=Sarmadi |first1=Hanieh |last2=Mahdavinejad |first2=Mohammadjavad |date=2023 |title=A designerly approach to Algae-based large open office curtain wall Façades to integrated visual comfort and daylight efficiency |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0038092X23000270 |journal=Solar Energy |language=en |volume=251 |pages=350–365 |doi=10.1016/j.solener.2023.01.021|bibcode=2023SoEn..251..350S |url-access=subscription }}{{Cite web |title=SolarLeaf |url=https://www.arup.com/projects/solarleaf/ |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=www.arup.com |language=en}}

Algae are mainly discussed for their application on building facades for energy production through the development of bio-reactive façades.{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmadi |first1=Ferial |last2=Wilkinson |first2=Sara |last3=Rezazadeh |first3=Hamidreza |last4=Keawsawasvong |first4=Suraparb |last5=Najafi |first5=Qodsiye |last6=Masoumi |first6=Arash |date=2023 |title=Energy efficient glazing: A comparison of microalgae photobioreactor and Iranian Orosi window designs |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0360132322011726 |journal=Building and Environment |language=en |volume=233 |pages=109942 |doi=10.1016/j.buildenv.2022.109942|bibcode=2023BuEnv.23309942A |url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last=Pruvost |first=Jérémy |date=2014 |title=Symbiotic Integration Of Photobioreactors In A Factory building Façade For Mutual Benefit Between Buildings And Microalgae Needs |url=http://rgdoi.net/10.13140/2.1.2076.1920 |journal=A Factory building Façade for Mutual Benefit Between Buildings and Microalgae Needs |language=en |doi=10.13140/2.1.2076.1920}}{{Cite journal |last1=Talaei |first1=Maryam |last2=Mahdavinejad |first2=Mohammadjavad |last3=Azari |first3=Rahman |date=2020 |title=Thermal and energy performance of algae bioreactive façades: A review |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2352710219300841 |journal=Journal of Building Engineering |language=en |volume=28 |pages=101011 |doi=10.1016/j.jobe.2019.101011|url-access=subscription }} The SolarLeaf pilot project, implemented by Arup in Hamburg in 2013, marks the first real-world application of this technology in a residential context, showcasing its potential applicability to both new and existing buildings.

Due to its ability to act as a natural binder instead, mycelium, the vegetative part of fungi,{{Cite journal |last1=Al-Qahtani |first1=Shouq |last2=Koç |first2=Muammer |last3=Isaifan |first3=Rima J. |date=2023-09-03 |title=Mycelium-Based Thermal Insulation for Domestic Cooling Footprint Reduction: A Review |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=15 |issue=17 |pages=13217 |doi=10.3390/su151713217 |doi-access=free |issn=2071-1050}} is used as the binding agent of many composite materials. Over last years, the research on the topic has been exponential, due to the total biodegradability of the binder and to its ability to valorize waste material, by degrading them and using them as substrates for their growth.{{Cite journal |last1=Manan |first1=Sehrish |last2=Ullah |first2=Muhammad Wajid |last3=Ul-Islam |first3=Mazhar |last4=Atta |first4=Omar Mohammad |last5=Yang |first5=Guang |title=Synthesis and applications of fungal mycelium-based advanced functional materials |journal=Journal of Bioresources and Bioproducts |publication-date=2021 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.1016/J.JOBAB.2021.01.001 |bibcode=2021JBiBi...6....1M |issn=2369-9698|doi-access=free }}

Different temporary projects have displayed the structural capacities of mycelium, both as monolithic and discrete separated elements.{{Cite book |last1=Ayres |first1=Phil |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/jj.11374766 |title=Fabricate 2024: Creating Resourceful Futures |last2=Thomsen |first2=Mette Ramsgaard |last3=Sheil |first3=Bob |last4=Skavara |first4=Marilena |date=2024-04-04 |publisher=UCL Press |isbn=978-1-80008-634-0 |doi=10.2307/jj.11374766.20}}

Mycelium bricks were tested in 2014 with the construction of the Hi-fi tower, built at the Museum of Modern Art of New York by Arup and Living architecture. Monolithic structures such as El Monolito Micelio{{Cite web |title=El Monolito Micelio — Jonathan Dessi-Olive |url=https://jdovaults.com/El-Monolito-Micelio |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=jdovaults.com |language=en}} or the BioKnit pavilion,{{Cite journal |last1=Kaiser |first1=Romy |last2=Bridgens |first2=Ben |last3=Elsacker |first3=Elise |last4=Scott |first4=Jane |date=2023-07-14 |title=BioKnit: development of mycelium paste for use with permanent textile formwork |journal=Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology |language=English |volume=11 |doi=10.3389/fbioe.2023.1229693 |doi-access=free |issn=2296-4185 |pmc=10374944 |pmid=37520299}} were developed instead to grow mycelium either on-site or in a growing chamber in a single piece.

The absence of established methods for producing large-scale mycelium-based composite components, primarily due to the low structural capabilities of such composites and various technological and design limitations, represents today the main obstacle to its industrial scalability for building applications.

However, the Italian MOGU{{Cite web |last=muvobit |title=Home Mogu |url=https://mogu.bio/ |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=mogu |language=en-US}} and the American Ecovative{{Cite web |title=Ecovative - Mycelium Technology |url=https://www.ecovative.com/ |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=Ecovative |language=en-US}} are two mycelium companies that were capable of scaling production to industrial levels, manufacturing and selling acoustic panels for indoor spaces. In this context, the project developed by the collaboration between Arup and the universities of Leuven (BE), Kassel (DE) and the Kalrsruher Institut für Technologie, named HOME,{{Cite journal |last1=Rossi |first1=A |last2=Javadian |first2=A |last3=Acosta |first3=I |last4=Özdemir |first4=E |last5=Nolte |first5=N |last6=Saeidi |first6=N |last7=Dwan |first7=A |last8=Ren |first8=S |last9=Vries |first9=L |last10=Hebel |first10=D |last11=Wurm |first11=J |last12=Eversmann |first12=P |date=2022-09-01 |title=HOME: Wood-Mycelium Composites for CO 2 -Neutral, Circular Interior Construction and Fittings |journal=IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science |volume=1078 |issue=1 |pages=012068 |doi=10.1088/1755-1315/1078/1/012068 |issn=1755-1307|doi-access=free }} aims to advance the upscaling of mycelium-based composites by developing prototypes and using diverse manufacturing processes for indoor acoustic insulation.File:Insulating material of recycled textile.jpg

Textile, papers and food wastes are also gaining progressive interest for buildings’ applications, as circular strategies enabling up-cycling processes and facilitating an effective transition toward a carbon-neutral society.{{Cite journal |last1=Aruta |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Ascione |first2=Fabrizio |last3=Bianco |first3=Nicola |last4=Iovane |first4=Teresa |last5=Mauro |first5=Gerardo Maria |date=2023 |title=A responsive double-skin façade for the retrofit of existing buildings: Analysis on an office building in a Mediterranean climate |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378778823000804 |journal=Energy and Buildings |language=en |volume=284 |pages=112850 |doi=10.1016/j.enbuild.2023.112850|bibcode=2023EneBu.28412850A |url-access=subscription }}

Literature documents building components developed from food wastes coming from olive pruning,{{Cite journal |last1=Martellotta |first1=Francesco |last2=Cannavale |first2=Alessandro |last3=De Matteis |first3=Valeria |last4=Ayr |first4=Ubaldo |date=2018 |title=Sustainable sound absorbers obtained from olive pruning wastes and chitosan binder |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0003682X18303128 |journal=Applied Acoustics |language=en |volume=141 |pages=71–78 |doi=10.1016/j.apacoust.2018.06.022|url-access=subscription }} almond skin wastes,{{Cite journal |last1=Liuzzi |first1=Stefania |last2=Rubino |first2=Chiara |last3=Stefanizzi |first3=Pietro |last4=Martellotta |first4=Francesco |date=2020-12-01 |title=Performance Characterization of Broad Band Sustainable Sound Absorbers Made of Almond Skins |journal=Materials |language=en |volume=13 |issue=23 |pages=5474 |doi=10.3390/ma13235474 |doi-access=free |issn=1996-1944 |pmc=7731410 |pmid=33271849|bibcode=2020Mate...13.5474L }} coffee beans and pea pods{{Cite journal |last1=La Gennusa |first1=Maria |last2=Marino |first2=Concettina |last3=Nucara |first3=Antonino |last4=Panzera |first4=Maria Francesca |last5=Pietrafesa |first5=Matilde |date=2021-12-14 |title=Insulating Building Components Made from a Mixture of Waste and Vegetal Materials: Thermal Characterization of Nine New Products |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=13 |issue=24 |pages=13820 |doi=10.3390/su132413820 |doi-access=free |issn=2071-1050|hdl=10447/578560 |hdl-access=free }} for the realization of acoustic panels and thermal insulating panels.

In the same way, research has also focused on the reuse of cardboard and waste paper to enable the realisation of bio-composite panels.{{Cite journal |last1=Mandili |first1=B. |last2=Taqi |first2=M. |last3=El Bouari |first3=A. |last4=Errouaiti |first4=M. |date=2019 |title=Experimental study of a new ecological building material for a thermal insulation based on waste paper and lime |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0950061819325395 |journal=Construction and Building Materials |language=en |volume=228 |pages=117097 |doi=10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117097|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last1=Liuzzi |first1=Stefania |last2=Rubino |first2=Chiara |last3=Martellotta |first3=Francesco |last4=Stefanizzi |first4=Pietro |date=2023-04-08 |title=Sustainable Materials from Waste Paper: Thermal and Acoustical Characterization |journal=Applied Sciences |language=en |volume=13 |issue=8 |pages=4710 |doi=10.3390/app13084710 |doi-access=free |issn=2076-3417}}{{Cite journal |last1=Aigbomian |first1=Eboziegbe Patrick |last2=Fan |first2=Mizi |date=2013 |title=Development of Wood-Crete building materials from sawdust and waste paper |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.11.018 |journal=Construction and Building Materials |volume=40 |pages=361–366 |doi=10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.11.018 |issn=0950-0618|url-access=subscription }} In this regard, the thermal properties of cellulose fibers sourced from paper and cardboard waste have been tested and found to be particularly effective, achieving a thermal conductivity of 0.042 W·m−1·K−1, which is comparable to traditional materials.{{Cite journal |last1=Brzyski |first1=Przemysław |last2=Kosiński |first2=Piotr |last3=Skoratko |first3=Aneta |last4=Motacki |first4=Wojciech |date=2019 |title=Thermal properties of cellulose fiber as insulation material in a loose state |url=https://pubs.aip.org/aip/acp/article/766766 |journal=AIP Conference Proceedings |series=Central European Symposium on Thermophysics 2019 (Cest) |volume=2133 |issue=1 |pages=020006 |doi=10.1063/1.5120136|bibcode=2019AIPC.2133b0006B |url-access=subscription }}

Due to the large waste generation caused by the fashion and clothing,{{Cite web |title=Management of used and waste textiles in Europe's circular economy — European Environment Agency |url=https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/management-of-used-and-waste-textiles#:~:text=The%20Waste%20Framework%20Directive%20(WFD,collection%20systems%20for%20used%20textiles. |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=www.eea.europa.eu |language=en}}{{Cite journal |last1=Briga-Sá |first1=Ana |last2=Gaibor |first2=Norma |last3=Magalhães |first3=Leandro |last4=Pinto |first4=Tiago |last5=Leitão |first5=Dinis |date=2022 |title=Thermal performance characterization of cement-based lightweight blocks incorporating textile waste |journal=Construction and Building Materials |language=en |volume=321 |pages=126330 |doi=10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.126330|doi-access=free |hdl=10198/25159 |hdl-access=free }} several studies {{Cite journal |last1=Rubino |first1=Chiara |last2=Bonet Aracil |first2=Marilés |last3=Liuzzi |first3=Stefania |last4=Stefanizzi |first4=Pietro |last5=Martellotta |first5=Francesco |date=2021 |title=Wool waste used as sustainable nonwoven for building applications |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0959652620339500 |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |language=en |volume=278 |pages=123905 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123905|bibcode=2021JCPro.27823905R |url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last1=Muthu |first1=Subramanian Senthilkannan |last2=Li |first2=Yi |last3=Hu |first3=Jun-Yan |last4=Mok |first4=Pik-Yin |date=2012 |title=Recyclability Potential Index (RPI): The concept and quantification of RPI for textile fibres |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.10.003 |journal=Ecological Indicators |volume=18 |pages=58–62 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.10.003 |bibcode=2012EcInd..18...58M |issn=1470-160X|url-access=subscription }} and various research projects, such as the RECYdress project (2022){{Cite journal |last1=Augello |first1=Andrea |last2=Carcassi |first2=Olga Beatrice |last3=Pittau |first3=Francesco |last4=Malighetti |first4=Laura Elisabetta |last5=De Angelis |first5=Enrico |date=2022-12-21 |title=Closing the loop of textile: Circular building renovation with novel recycled insulations from wasted clothes |url=https://ojs.cvut.cz/ojs/index.php/APP/article/view/8290 |journal=Acta Polytechnica CTU Proceedings |volume=38 |pages=203–209 |doi=10.14311/APP.2022.38.0203 |issn=2336-5382|doi-access=free |hdl=11311/1230952 |hdl-access=free }} and MATE.ria tessile (2023),{{Cite web |title=Seminario Mate.ria tessile |url=https://2023.festivalsvilupposostenibile.it/cal/245/seminario-materia-tessile |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=2023.festivalsvilupposostenibile.it |language=it}} both conducted at Politecnico di Milano, have been developed to investigate textiles treatments and their use as secondary raw materials in the building sector. Indeed, residual flows of textile are estimated to have a recycling potential of about 16 kWh of energy saved for each kilogram of textile.

In this regard, the Waste Framework Directive,{{Cite web |title=Waste Framework Directive - European Commission |url=https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/waste-and-recycling/waste-framework-directive_en |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=environment.ec.europa.eu |language=en}} which manages in Europe textile wastes obliging member states to ensure the separate collection of textiles for re-use and recycling, might be implemented in 2025 to promote extended producer responsibility schemes. This would require fashion brands and textile producers to pay fees in order to help fund the textile waste collection and treatment costs.{{Cite web |year=2024 |title=Waste framework directive: Council set to start talks on its revision |url=https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2024/06/17/waste-framework-directive-council-set-to-start-talks-on-its-revision/#:~:text=Textile%20sector,recycling%20by%201%20January%202025. |website=European Council}}

Several products leveraging recycled textiles for insulation are already available on the market. Inno-Therm,{{Cite web |title=Inno-Therm® - Homepage |url=https://inno-therm.com/ |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=Inno-Therm® |language=en-GB}} a company from Great Britain, produces insulation from recycled industrial cotton material-denim. Similarly, Le Relais,{{Cite web |title=Le Relais ! |url=https://www.lerelais.org/ |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=www.lerelais.org}} a French recycling company, which collects 45000 tons of used textiles annually, developed a thermal insulation product called Mettise. The product contains at least 85% recycled fibers and consists of cotton (70%), wool / acrylic (15%) and polyester (15%).{{Cite journal |last1=Jordeva |first1=Sonja |last2=Golomeova Longurova |first2=Sashka |last3=Kertakova |first3=Marija |last4=Mojsov |first4=Kiro |last5=Efremov |first5=Jordan |year=2019 |title=Тextile as a sustainable insulating material for buildings |journal=Tekstilna Industrija |volume=67 |issue=2 |pages=20–28 |doi=10.5937/tekstind1902020J|doi-access=free }}

To enable the wide utilization of bio-based materials in the built environment, there are several critical issues that require further investigation.{{Cite journal |last1=Göswein |first1=Verena |last2=Arehart |first2=Jay |last3=Phan-huy |first3=Catherine |last4=Pomponi |first4=Francesco |last5=Habert |first5=Guillaume |date=2022-10-06 |title=Barriers and opportunities of fast-growing biobased material use in buildings |journal=Buildings and Cities |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=745–755 |doi=10.5334/bc.254 |doi-access=free |issn=2632-6655|hdl=20.500.11850/587227 |hdl-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last1=Andrew |first1=J. Jefferson |last2=Dhakal |first2=H.N. |date=2022 |title=Sustainable biobased composites for advanced applications: recent trends and future opportunities – A critical review |journal=Composites Part C |volume=7 |pages=100220 |doi=10.1016/j.jcomc.2021.100220 |issn=2666-6820|doi-access=free }}

According to several researchers, one of the main issues of bio-based materials when applied to the construction sector is their required and expected performances, which shall be comparable to the ones of traditional engineered building materials.{{Cite journal |last1=Asdrubali |first1=Francesco |last2=D'Alessandro |first2=Francesco |last3=Schiavoni |first3=Samuele |date=2015 |title=A review of unconventional sustainable building insulation materials |journal=Sustainable Materials and Technologies |volume=4 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.1016/j.susmat.2015.05.002 |bibcode=2015SusMT...4....1A |issn=2214-9937|doi-access=free }} Extensive research is thus currently on-going to address the challenges allied with long-term durability, reliability, serviceability, properties and sustainable production.{{Cite journal |last1=Chang |first1=Boon Peng |last2=Mohanty |first2=Amar K. |last3=Misra |first3=Manjusri |date=2020 |title=Studies on durability of sustainable biobased composites: a review |url=https://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=C9RA09554C |journal=RSC Advances |language=en |volume=10 |issue=31 |pages=17955–17999 |doi=10.1039/C9RA09554C |issn=2046-2069 |pmc=9054028 |pmid=35517220|bibcode=2020RSCAd..1017955C }}

In the European context, in the framework of meeting climate mitigation objectives before 2050, European Union is trying to implement, among other measures, the production and utilization of bio-based materials in many diverse sectors and segments of society through regulations such as The European Industrial Strategy,{{Cite web |title=European industrial strategy |url=https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/priorities-2019-2024/europe-fit-digital-age/european-industrial-strategy_en |website=commission.europa.eu}} the EU Biotechnology and Biomanufacturing Initiative {{Cite web |year=2024 |title=Commission takes action to boost biotechnology and biomanufacturing in the EU |url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_24_1570 |website=ec.europa.eu}} and the Circular Action Plan.{{Cite web |title=Circular economy action plan |url=https://environment.ec.europa.eu/strategy/circular-economy-action-plan_en |website=environment.ec.europa.eu}}

However, as traditional materials still dominate the construction sector, there is a lack of understanding among some policymakers and developers regarding biomaterials. According to Göswein, the presence of a legal framework would reassure investors and insurance companies and enhance the promotion of circular economy dynamics.

• Bio-based material
• Mycelium-based materials
• Building material

• {{cite book |last1=McDonough |first1=William |title=From Cradle to Cradle |date=2002 |publisher=Vintage |isbn=0099535475}}
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• {{Cite book |last=Helmersson |first=Tobias |title=From the Ground Up - Research on Rammed Earth and Timber for a Residential Building |publisher=Master Thesis |year=2022}} https://issuu.com/tobiashelmersson/docs/tobias_helmersson-from_the_ground_up

• {{cite web |last1=Parkes |first1=James |title=The Dezeen guide to bio-based materials in architecture, design and interiors |url=https://www.dezeen.com/2021/12/09/dezeen-guide-biomaterials-architecture-design-interiors/ |website=Dezeen|date=9 December 2021 }}
• {{Cite web |last=Franco |first=José Tomás |date=February 18, 2021 |title=Round Houses of Raw Earth: 3D Printing Sustainable Homes in 200 Hours |url=https://www.archdaily.com/956854/round-houses-of-raw-earth-3d-printing-sustainable-homes-in-200-hours |website=archdaily.com}}
• {{Cite web |last=Frearson |first=Amy |orig-date=1 July 2014 |title=Tower of "grown" bio-bricks by The Living opens at MoMA PS1 |date=July 2014 |url=https://www.dezeen.com/2014/07/01/tower-of-grown-bio-bricks-by-the-living-opens-at-moma-ps1-gallery/}}
• {{Cite web |title=BioKnit Prototype displayed in the London Design Museum as part of the Future Observatory display |url=http://bbe.ac.uk/bioknit-prototype-displayed-in-the-london-design-museum-as-part-of-the-future-observatory-display/ |website=Hub for biotechnology in the built environment}}
• {{cite web |title=Bio-based products |url=https://single-market-economy.ec.europa.eu/sectors/biotechnology/bio-based-products_en |website=ec.europa.eu |access-date=11 July 2024}}

Category:Building materials

Category:Construction