Bitcoin#Transactions

{{Main|History of bitcoin}}

Before bitcoin, several digital cash technologies were released, starting with David Chaum's ecash in the 1980s. The idea that solutions to computational puzzles could have some value was first proposed by cryptographers Cynthia Dwork and Moni Naor in 1992.{{Citation |last=Dwork |first=Cynthia |title=Pricing via Processing or Combatting Junk Mail |date=1993 |work=Advances in Cryptology — CRYPTO’ 92 |volume=740 |pages=139–147 |editor-last=Brickell |editor-first=Ernest F. |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/3-540-48071-4_10 |access-date=2025-01-02 |place=Berlin, Heidelberg |publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg |language=en |doi=10.1007/3-540-48071-4_10 |isbn=978-3-540-57340-1 |last2=Naor |first2=Moni}} The concept was independently rediscovered by Adam Back who developed Hashcash, a proof-of-work scheme for spam control in 1997. The first proposals for distributed digital scarcity-based cryptocurrencies came from cypherpunks Wei Dai (b-money) and Nick Szabo (bit gold) in 1998.{{Cite journal |last1=Tschorsch |first1=Florian |last2=Scheuermann |first2=Bjorn |date=2 March 2016 |title=Bitcoin and Beyond: A Technical Survey on Decentralized Digital Currencies |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7423672 |journal=IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=2084–2123 |doi=10.1109/COMST.2016.2535718 |s2cid=5115101 |issn=1553-877X |access-date=23 November 2023 |archive-date=19 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231119025114/http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7423672 |url-status=live }} In 2004, Hal Finney developed the first currency based on reusable proof of work.{{cite book |last1=Judmayer |first1=Aljosha |chapter=History of Cryptographic Currencies |date=2017 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-02352-1_3 |title=Blocks and Chains |pages=15–18 |publisher=Springer |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-02352-1_3 |isbn=978-3-031-01224-2 |last2=Stifter |first2=Nicholas |last3=Krombholz |first3=Katharina |last4=Weippl |first4=Edgar |series=Synthesis Lectures on Information Security, Privacy, and Trust |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-02352-1 |access-date=22 November 2023 |archive-date=22 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231122135006/https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-02352-1 |url-status=live }} These various attempts were not successful: Chaum's concept required centralized control and no banks wanted to sign on, Hashcash had no protection against double-spending, while b-money and bit gold were not resistant to Sybil attacks.{{Cite journal |last1=Narayanan |first1=Arvind |last2=Clark |first2=Jeremy |date=27 November 2017 |title=Bitcoin's academic pedigree |url=https://queue.acm.org/detail.cfm?id=3136559 |journal=Communications of the ACM |volume=60 |issue=12 |pages=36–45 |doi=10.1145/3132259 |s2cid=6425116 |issn=0001-0782 |access-date=22 November 2023 |archive-date=14 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231014120907/https://queue.acm.org/detail.cfm?id=3136559 |url-status=live }}

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The domain name bitcoin.org was registered on 18 August 2008.{{Cite news |last=Bernard |first=Zoë |date=2 December 2017 |title=Everything you need to know about Bitcoin, its mysterious origins, and the many alleged identities of its creator |work=Business Insider |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/bitcoin-history-cryptocurrency-satoshi-nakamoto-2017-12 |url-status=live |access-date=15 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615010015/http://www.businessinsider.com/bitcoin-history-cryptocurrency-satoshi-nakamoto-2017-12 |archive-date=15 June 2018}} On 31 October 2008, a link to a white paper authored by Satoshi Nakamoto titled Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System was posted to a cryptography mailing list.{{Cite news |last=Finley |first=Klint |date=31 October 2018 |title=After 10 Years, Bitcoin Has Changed Everything—And Nothing |magazine=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/story/after-10-years-bitcoin-changed-everything-nothing/ |url-status=live |access-date=9 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105070656/https://www.wired.com/story/after-10-years-bitcoin-changed-everything-nothing/ |archive-date=5 November 2018}} Nakamoto's identity remains unknown.{{r|whoissn}} According to computer scientist Arvind Narayanan, all individual components of bitcoin originated in earlier academic literature. Nakamoto's innovation was their complex interplay resulting in the first decentralized, Sybil resistant, Byzantine fault tolerant digital cash system, that would eventually be referred to as the first blockchain.{{Cite news |last=Economist Staff |date=31 October 2015 |title=Blockchains: The great chain of being sure about things |url=https://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21677228-technology-behind-bitcoin-lets-people-who-do-not-know-or-trust-each-other-build-dependable |url-status=live |newspaper=The Economist |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160703000844/http://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21677228-technology-behind-bitcoin-lets-people-who-do-not-know-or-trust-each-other-build-dependable |archive-date=3 July 2016 |access-date=18 June 2016 }} Nakamoto's paper was not peer reviewed and was initially ignored by academics, who argued that it could not work.

Nakamoto released bitcoin as open-source software.{{cn|date=April 2025}} On 3 January 2009, the bitcoin network was created when Nakamoto mined the starting block of the chain, known as the genesis block.{{Cite magazine |last=Wallace, Benjamin |date=23 November 2011 |title=The Rise and Fall of Bitcoin |url=https://www.wired.com/2011/11/mf-bitcoin/ |url-status=live |magazine=Wired |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031043919/http://www.wired.com/magazine/2011/11/mf_bitcoin |archive-date=31 October 2013 |access-date=13 October 2012}} Embedded in this block was the text "The Times 03/Jan/2009 Chancellor on brink of second bailout for banks", which is the date and headline of an issue of The Times newspaper. Nine days later, Hal Finney received the first bitcoin transaction: ten bitcoins from Nakamoto.{{Cite news |last=Popper |first=Nathaniel |date=30 August 2014 |title=Hal Finney, Cryptographer and Bitcoin Pioneer, Dies at 58 |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/31/business/hal-finney-cryptographer-and-bitcoin-pioneer-dies-at-58.html |url-status=live |access-date=2 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903162835/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/31/business/hal-finney-cryptographer-and-bitcoin-pioneer-dies-at-58.html |archive-date=3 September 2014}} Wei Dai and Nick Szabo were also early supporters. On May 22, 2010, the first known commercial transaction using bitcoin occurred when programmer Laszlo Hanyecz bought two Papa John's pizzas for ₿10,000, in what would later be celebrated as "Bitcoin Pizza Day".{{cite news |last1=Cooper |first1=Anderson |title=Meet the man who spent millions worth of bitcoin on pizza |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/meet-the-man-who-spent-millions-worth-of-bitcoin-on-pizza-60-minutes-2019-05-16 |work=CBS News |date=16 May 2019 |access-date=8 December 2021 |archive-date=8 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211208180706/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/meet-the-man-who-spent-millions-worth-of-bitcoin-on-pizza-60-minutes-2019-05-16/ |url-status=live }}

Blockchain analysts estimate that Nakamoto had mined about one million bitcoins{{Cite news |last=McMillan |first=Robert |title=Who Owns the World's Biggest Bitcoin Wallet? The FBI |magazine=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/2013/12/fbi-wallet/ |url-status=live |access-date=7 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021221609/https://www.wired.com/2013/12/fbi-wallet/ |archive-date=21 October 2016}} before disappearing in 2010 when he handed the network alert key and control of the code repository over to Gavin Andresen. Andresen later became lead developer at the Bitcoin Foundation,{{cite news |last=Simonite |first=Tom |title=Meet Gavin Andresen, the most powerful person in the world of Bitcoin |date=15 August 2014 |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/2014/08/15/12784/the-man-who-really-built-bitcoin |work=MIT Technology Review |access-date=22 November 2023 |archive-date=22 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231122163924/https://www.technologyreview.com/2014/08/15/12784/the-man-who-really-built-bitcoin |url-status=live }}{{Cite news |last=Odell |first=Matt |date=21 September 2015 |title=A Solution To Bitcoin's Governance Problem |work=TechCrunch |url=https://techcrunch.com/2015/09/21/a-solution-to-bitcoins-governance-problem/ |url-status=live |access-date=24 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126051521/http://techcrunch.com/2015/09/21/a-solution-to-bitcoins-governance-problem/ |archive-date=26 January 2016}} an organization founded in September 2012 to promote bitcoin.{{Cite news |last=Bustillos |first=Maria |date=1 April 2013 |title=The Bitcoin Boom |magazine=The New Yorker |url=https://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/the-bitcoin-boom |url-status=live |access-date=30 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180702064450/https://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/the-bitcoin-boom |archive-date=2 July 2018}}

After early "proof-of-concept" transactions, the first major users of bitcoin were black markets, such as the dark web Silk Road. During its 30 months of existence, beginning in February 2011, Silk Road exclusively accepted bitcoins as payment, transacting ₿9.9 million, worth about $214 million.{{rp|222}}

In March 2013, the US Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN) established regulatory guidelines for "decentralized virtual currencies" such as bitcoin, classifying American bitcoin miners who sell their generated bitcoins as money services businesses, subject to registration and other legal obligations.{{cite news |last=Lee |first=Timothy B. |date=19 March 2013 |title=US regulator Bitcoin Exchanges Must Comply With Money Laundering Laws |url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2013/03/us-regulator-bitcoin-exchanges-must-comply-with-money-laundering-laws/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021203745/http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2013/03/us-regulator-bitcoin-exchanges-must-comply-with-money-laundering-laws/ |archive-date=21 October 2013 |access-date=28 July 2017 |work=Ars Technica}} In May 2013, US authorities seized the unregistered exchange Mt. Gox.{{cite news |last=Dillet |first=Romain |title=Feds Seize Assets From Mt. Gox's Dwolla Account, Accuse It Of Violating Money Transfer Regulations |url=https://techcrunch.com/2013/05/16/mt-gox-dwolla-account-money-seizure/ |work=TechCrunch |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131009161856/http://techcrunch.com/2013/05/16/mt-gox-dwolla-account-money-seizure/ |archive-date=9 October 2013 |access-date=15 May 2013}} In June 2013, the US Drug Enforcement Administration seized ₿11.02 from an individual attempting to use them to purchase illicit drugs. This marked the first time a government agency had seized bitcoins.{{Cite news |last=Sampson |first=Tim |year=2013 |title=U.S. government makes its first-ever Bitcoin seizure |work=The Daily Dot |url=http://www.dailydot.com/business/11-bitcoins-seized-government-dea/ |url-status=live |access-date=15 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130712010826/http://www.dailydot.com/business/11-bitcoins-seized-government-dea/ |archive-date=12 July 2013}} The FBI seized about ₿30,000 in October 2013 from Silk Road, following the arrest of its founder Ross Ulbricht.{{Cite news |last=Hill |first=Kashmir |title=The FBI's Plan For The Millions Worth Of Bitcoins Seized From Silk Road |work=Forbes |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/kashmirhill/2013/10/04/fbi-silk-road-bitcoin-seizure/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502154935/http://www.forbes.com/sites/kashmirhill/2013/10/04/fbi-silk-road-bitcoin-seizure/ |archive-date=2 May 2014}}

In December 2013, the People's Bank of China prohibited Chinese financial institutions from using bitcoin.{{Cite news |last=Kelion, Leo |date=18 December 2013 |title=Bitcoin sinks after China restricts yuan exchanges |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-25428866 |url-status=live |access-date=20 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219214615/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-25428866 |archive-date=19 December 2013}} After the announcement, the value of bitcoin dropped,{{Cite news |date=6 December 2013 |title=China bans banks from bitcoin transactions |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |publisher=Reuters |url=https://www.smh.com.au/business/markets/currencies/china-bans-banks-from-bitcoin-transactions-20131206-2yugy.html |url-status=live |access-date=31 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323102824/http://www.smh.com.au/business/markets/currencies/china-bans-banks-from-bitcoin-transactions-20131206-2yugy.html |archive-date=23 March 2014}} and Baidu no longer accepted bitcoins for certain services.{{Cite news |date=7 December 2013 |title=Baidu Stops Accepting Bitcoins After China Ban |work=Bloomberg |location=New York |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-12-07/baidu-stops-accepting-bitcoins-after-china-ban.html |url-status=live |access-date=11 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131210214547/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-12-07/baidu-stops-accepting-bitcoins-after-china-ban.html |archive-date=10 December 2013}} Buying real-world goods with any virtual currency had been illegal in China since at least 2009.{{cite web |date=29 June 2009 |title=China bars use of virtual money for trading in real goods |url=http://english.mofcom.gov.cn/aarticle/newsrelease/commonnews/200906/20090606364208.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131129184312/http://english.mofcom.gov.cn/aarticle/newsrelease/commonnews/200906/20090606364208.html |archive-date=29 November 2013 |access-date=10 January 2014 |publisher=English.mofcom.gov.cn}}

Research produced by the University of Cambridge estimated that in 2017, there were 2.9 to 5.8 million unique users using a cryptocurrency wallet, most of them using bitcoin.{{cite web |last1=Hileman |first1=Garrick |last2=Rauchs |first2=Michel |title=Global Cryptocurrency Benchmarking Study |url=https://www.jbs.cam.ac.uk/fileadmin/user_upload/research/centres/alternative-finance/downloads/2017-global-cryptocurrency-benchmarking-study.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170410130007/https://www.jbs.cam.ac.uk/fileadmin/user_upload/research/centres/alternative-finance/downloads/2017-global-cryptocurrency-benchmarking-study.pdf |archive-date=10 April 2017 |access-date=14 April 2017 |publisher=Cambridge University}} In August 2017, the SegWit software upgrade was activated. Segwit was intended to support the Lightning Network as well as improve scalability.{{Cite news |last=Vigna |first=Paul |date=21 July 2017 |title=Bitcoin Rallies Sharply After Vote Resolves Bitter Scaling Debate |work=The Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/bitcoin-rallies-sharply-after-vote-resolves-bitter-scaling-debate-1500656084 |access-date=21 November 2023 |archive-date=21 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231121164350/https://www.wsj.com/articles/bitcoin-rallies-sharply-after-vote-resolves-bitter-scaling-debate-1500656084 |url-status=live }} SegWit opponents, who supported larger blocks as a scalability solution, forked to create Bitcoin Cash, one of many forks of bitcoin.{{Cite news |last=Selena Larson |date=1 August 2017 |title=Bitcoin split in two, here's what that means |work=CNN Tech |publisher=Cable News Network |url=https://money.cnn.com/2017/08/01/technology/business/bitcoin-cash-new-currency/index.html |url-status=live |access-date=2 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180227214042/https://money.cnn.com/2017/08/01/technology/business/bitcoin-cash-new-currency/index.html |archive-date=27 February 2018}}

In December 2017, the first futures on bitcoin was introduced by the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME).{{Cite web |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/12/17/worlds-largest-futures-exchange-set-to-launch-bitcoin-futures-sunday-night.html |title=Bitcoin debuts on the world's largest futures exchange, and prices fall slightly |date=17 December 2017 |access-date=19 January 2024 |website=CNBC |last=Cheng |first=Evelyn |archive-date=18 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118182719/https://www.cnbc.com/2017/12/17/worlds-largest-futures-exchange-set-to-launch-bitcoin-futures-sunday-night.html |url-status=live }}

In February 2018, the price crashed after China imposed a complete ban on bitcoin trading.{{Cite news |last=French |first=Sally |date=9 February 2017 |title=Here's proof that this bitcoin crash is far from the worst the cryptocurrency has seen |publisher=Market Watch |url=https://www.marketwatch.com/story/heres-proof-that-this-bitcoin-crash-is-far-from-the-worst-the-cryptocurrency-has-seen-2018-02-09 |url-status=live |access-date=3 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180703220246/https://www.marketwatch.com/story/heres-proof-that-this-bitcoin-crash-is-far-from-the-worst-the-cryptocurrency-has-seen-2018-02-09 |archive-date=3 July 2018}} The percentage of bitcoin trading in the Chinese renminbi fell from over 90% in September 2017 to less than 1% in June 2018.{{Cite news |date=7 July 2018 |title=RMB Bitcoin trading falls below 1 pct of world total |publisher=Xinhuanet |agency=Xinhua |url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-07/07/c_137308879.htm |url-status=live |access-date=10 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180710225218/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-07/07/c_137308879.htm |archive-date=10 July 2018}} During the same year, bitcoin prices were negatively affected by several hacks or thefts from cryptocurrency exchanges.{{Cite news |last=Chavez-Dreyfuss |first=Gertrude |date=3 July 2018 |title=Cryptocurrency exchange theft surges in first half of 2018: report |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-crypto-currencies-ciphertrace/cryptocurrency-exchange-theft-surges-in-first-half-of-2018-report-idUSKBN1JT1Q5 |url-status=live |access-date=10 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180704120854/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-crypto-currencies-ciphertrace/cryptocurrency-exchange-theft-surges-in-first-half-of-2018-report-idUSKBN1JT1Q5 |archive-date=4 July 2018}}

File:Bitcoin Price.webp |date=4 December 2024 |url=https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?g=1BVJt |access-date=4 December 2024 |publisher=Federal Reserve Economic Data}}}} December 1, 2014 -
December 4, 2024]]

In 2020, some major companies and institutions started to acquire bitcoin: MicroStrategy invested $250 million in bitcoin as a treasury reserve asset,{{Cite news |date=13 September 2021 |title=MicroStrategy buys another $250m worth of bitcoin in hope of 100X price growth |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/tech/microstrategy-bitcoin-crypto-price-prediction-b1919178.html |access-date=22 November 2023 |work=The Independent |first=Anthony |last=Cuthbertson |language=en |archive-date=22 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231122163924/https://www.independent.co.uk/tech/microstrategy-bitcoin-crypto-price-prediction-b1919178.html |url-status=live }} Square, Inc., $50 million,{{cite news |author=Oliver Effron |title=Square just bought $50 million in bitcoin |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/10/08/business/square-bitcoin-crypto-investment/index.html |access-date=22 October 2020 |work=CNN |archive-date=24 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024101610/https://www.cnn.com/2020/10/08/business/square-bitcoin-crypto-investment/index.html |url-status=live }} and MassMutual, $100 million.{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-12-10/169-year-old-insurer-massmutual-invests-100-million-in-bitcoin |title=169-Year-Old MassMutual Invests $100 Million in Bitcoin |date=11 December 2020 |work=Bloomberg |access-date=26 December 2020 |author=Olga Kharif |archive-date=19 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201219220543/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-12-10/169-year-old-insurer-massmutual-invests-100-million-in-bitcoin |url-status=live }} In November 2020, PayPal added support for bitcoin in the US.{{cite news |date=13 November 2020 |title=PayPal says all users in US can now buy, hold and sell cryptocurrencies |url=https://techcrunch.com/2020/11/12/paypal-says-all-users-in-u-s-can-now-buy-hold-and-sell-cryptocurrencies/ |access-date=26 November 2020 |work=Techcrunch |archive-date=24 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124050031/https://techcrunch.com/2020/11/12/paypal-says-all-users-in-u-s-can-now-buy-hold-and-sell-cryptocurrencies/ |url-status=live }}

In February 2021, bitcoin's market capitalization reached $1 trillion for the first time.{{Cite news |last1=Chavez-Dreyfuss |first1=Gertrude |last2=Wilson |first2=Tom |date=19 February 2021 |title=Bitcoin hits $1 trillion market cap, surges to fresh all-time peak |language=en-US |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com.article/idUSKBN2AJ0GC/ |access-date=24 November 2023}} In November 2021, the Taproot soft-fork upgrade was activated, adding support for Schnorr signatures, improved functionality of smart contracts and Lightning Network.{{cite news |last=Sigalos |first=MacKenzie |date=14 November 2021 |title=Bitcoin's biggest upgrade in four years just happened – here's what changes |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/11/14/bitcoin-taproot-upgrade-what-it-means-for-investors.html |access-date=15 November 2021 |work=CNBC |archive-date=14 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114215032/https://www.cnbc.com/2021/11/14/bitcoin-taproot-upgrade-what-it-means-for-investors.html |url-status=live }} Before, bitcoin only used a custom elliptic curve with the ECDSA algorithm to produce signatures.{{Cite book |last1=Van Hijfte |first1=Stijn |title=Blockchain Platforms: A Look at the Underbelly of Distributed Platforms |publisher=Morgan & Claypool Publishers |year=2020 |isbn=978-1681738925}}{{rp|101}} In September 2021, bitcoin became legal tender in El Salvador, alongside the US dollar. In October 2021, the first bitcoin futures exchange-traded fund (ETF), called BITO, from ProShares was approved by the SEC and listed on the CME.{{Cite web |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/a-bitcoin-etf-is-almost-here-what-does-that-mean-for-investors-11634376601 |title=A Bitcoin ETF Is Here. What Does That Mean for Investors? |date=19 October 2021 |access-date=11 January 2024 |website=The Wall Street Journal |last=Wursthorn |first=Michael |url-access=subscription |archive-date=10 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240110200308/https://www.wsj.com/articles/a-bitcoin-etf-is-almost-here-what-does-that-mean-for-investors-11634376601 |url-status=live }}

In early 2022, during the Canadian trucker protests opposing COVID-19 vaccine mandates, organizers turned to bitcoin to receive donations after traditional financial platforms restricted access to funding.{{Cite web |last=Loh |first=Matthew |title=Canada says it will freeze the bank accounts of 'Freedom Convoy' truckers who continue their anti-vaccine mandate blockades |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/trudeau-canada-freeze-bank-accounts-freedom-convoy-truckers-2022-2 |access-date=2025-01-19 |website=Business Insider |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |date=2024-12-08 |title=Crypto enthusiasts keep funding convoy protests as traditional banks take action against it - The Globe and Mail |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208224444/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/business/article-crypto-enthusiasts-keep-funding-convoy-protests-as-traditional-banks/ |access-date=2025-01-19 |website=The Globe and Mail}} Proponents highlighted bitcoin's use as a tool for fundraising in situations where access to conventional financial systems may be restricted.{{Cite web |date=2024-06-20 |title=Meet Greg Foss: A Former Bitcoin Fundraiser For Canada’s ‘Freedom Convoy’ Protest |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240620070940/https://www.forbes.com/sites/jasonbrett/2022/02/17/meet-greg-foss-a-former-bitcoin-fundraiser-for-canadas-freedom-convoy-protest/ |access-date=2025-01-19 |website=Forbes}}{{Cite web |date=2022-03-13 |title=Elon Musk–backed ‘freedom truckers’ in Canada get Bitcoin lifeline after GoFundMe freezes millions in donations |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220313170541/https://finance.yahoo.com/news/elon-musk-backed-freedom-truckers-200403223.html |access-date=2025-01-19 |website=Yahoo! Finance}} In May and June 2022, the bitcoin price fell following the collapses of TerraUSD, a stablecoin,{{cite news|last=Browne|first=Ryan|date=10 May 2022|title=Bitcoin investors are panicking as a controversial crypto experiment unravels|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/05/10/bitcoin-btc-investors-panic-as-terrausd-ust-sinks-below-1-peg.html|work=CNBC|access-date=11 May 2022|archive-date=11 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511021259/https://www.cnbc.com/2022/05/10/bitcoin-btc-investors-panic-as-terrausd-ust-sinks-below-1-peg.html|url-status=live}} and the Celsius Network, a cryptocurrency loan company.{{cite news|last1=Milmo|first1=Dan|title=Bitcoin value slumps below $20,000 in cryptocurrencies turmoil|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2022/jun/18/bitcoin-value-falls-cryptocurrency-markets-turmoil|access-date=19 June 2022|work=The Guardian|date=18 June 2022|language=en|archive-date=18 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220618231120/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2022/jun/18/bitcoin-value-falls-cryptocurrency-markets-turmoil|url-status=live}}{{cite news|last=Yaffe-Bellany|first=David|date=13 June 2022|title=Celsius Network Leads Crypto Markets Into Another Free Fall|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/13/technology/bitcoin-ether-price.html|work=The New York Times|access-date=14 June 2022|archive-date=14 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220614030021/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/13/technology/bitcoin-ether-price.html|url-status=live}}

In 2023, ordinals—non-fungible tokens (NFTs)—on bitcoin, went live.{{Cite journal |last=Behrendt |first=Philipp |date=2023 |title=Taxation of the New Age: New Guidance for the World of Digital Assets |url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/jtaxpp25&id=105&div=&collection= |journal=Journal of Tax Practice & Procedure |volume=25 |pages=47 |access-date=21 November 2023 |archive-date=21 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231121164911/https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/jtaxpp25&id=105&div=&collection= |url-status=live }} As of June 2023, River Financial estimated that bitcoin had 81.7 million users, about 1% of the global population.{{cite web |date=2024-03-01 |title=As banks buy up bitcoins, who else are the 'Bitcoin whales'? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-68434579 |access-date=2024-03-14 |website=BBC Home}} In January 2024, the first 11 US spot bitcoin ETFs began trading, offering direct exposure to bitcoin for the first time on American stock exchanges.{{Cite news |last=Schmitt |first=Will |date=12 January 2024 |title=Bitcoin trading volumes surge after debut of long-awaited US ETFs |url=https://www.ft.com/content/f30ece62-0f1c-492a-8ccd-63ec9730573c |access-date=12 January 2024 |work=Financial Times |archive-date=12 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240112025105/https://www.ft.com/content/f30ece62-0f1c-492a-8ccd-63ec9730573c |url-status=live }}{{cite news|last1=Lang|first1=Hannah|title=US bitcoin ETFs see $4.6B in volume in first day of trading|url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/spot-bitcoin-etfs-start-trading-big-boost-crypto-industry-2024-01-11/|access-date=12 January 2024|work=Reuters|date=11 January 2024|language=en}} In December 2024, bitcoin price reached $100,000 for the first time, as US president-elect Donald Trump promised to make the US the "crypto capital of the planet" and to stockpile bitcoin.{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/bitcoin-tops-100000-optimism-over-trump-crypto-plans-2024-12-05/|title=Bitcoin storms above $100,000 as Trump 2.0 fuels crypto euphoria|work=Reuters|date=2024-12-05}} The same month, BlackRock, the world's largest asset manager, recommended investors to allocate up to 2% of their portfolio to bitcoin.{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/markets/us/blackrock-recommends-bitcoin-portfolio-weighting-up-2-interested-investors-2024-12-12/ | title=BlackRock recommends bitcoin portfolio weighting of up to 2% for interested investors|date=2024-12-12|first=Suzanne|last= McGee|work=Reuters}}

In March 2025, President Trump signed an executive order to establish a strategic bitcoin reserve.{{cite web |last1=Bose |first1=Nandita |last2=Ward |first2=Jasper |title=Trump signs order to establish strategic bitcoin reserve |url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/trump-signs-order-establish-strategic-bitcoin-reserve-white-house-crypto-czar-2025-03-07/ |website=Reuters |access-date=10 March 2025 |location=Washington |date=7 March 2025}}

{{Main|Bitcoin protocol}}

The unit of account of the bitcoin system is the bitcoin. It is most commonly represented with the symbol ₿ and the currency code BTC. However, the BTC code does not conform to ISO 4217 as BT is the country code of Bhutan,{{Cite journal |last1=Alexander |first1=Carol |last2=Imeraj |first2=Arben |date=2019 |title=Introducing the BITIX: The Bitcoin Fear Gauge |url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=3383734 |journal=SSRN Electronic Journal |language=en |doi=10.2139/ssrn.3383734 |issn=1556-5068|quote=XBT satisfies the norm ‘ISO 4217’ by the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) as BTC goes against the name of Bhutan’s currency. In general, transaction instruments that are not national currencies, like gold or silver, begin with an X. However, the symbol XBT is not officially recognised by ISO.}} and ISO 4217 requires the first letter used in global commodities to be 'X'. XBT, a code that conforms to ISO 4217 though not officially part of it, is used by Bloomberg L.P.{{Cite news |last=Romain Dillet |date=9 August 2013 |title=Bitcoin Ticker Available On Bloomberg Terminal For Employees |work=TechCrunch |url=https://techcrunch.com/2013/08/09/bitcoin-ticker-available-on-bloomberg-terminal/ |url-status=live |access-date=2 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101232825/http://techcrunch.com/2013/08/09/bitcoin-ticker-available-on-bloomberg-terminal/ |archive-date=1 November 2014}}

No uniform capitalization convention exists; some sources use Bitcoin, capitalized, to refer to the technology and network, and bitcoin, lowercase, for the unit of account.{{Cite magazine |last=Bustillos, Maria |date=2 April 2013 |title=The Bitcoin Boom |url=https://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/the-bitcoin-boom |url-status=live |magazine=The New Yorker |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727185121/http://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/the-bitcoin-boom |archive-date=27 July 2014 |access-date=22 December 2013}} The Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary and the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary use the capitalized and lowercase variants without distinction.[https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/bitcointm?q=bitcoin Bitcoin], Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary[https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/bitcoin bitcoin] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503092252/http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/bitcoin |date=3 May 2022 }}, Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary

One bitcoin is divisible to eight decimal places.{{rp|ch. 5}} Units for smaller amounts of bitcoin are the millibitcoin (mBTC), equal to {{frac|1|1000}} bitcoin, and the satoshi{{efn|name=satoshi|Named after Satoshi Nakamoto}} (sat), representing {{frac|1|{{val|100000000}}}} (one hundred millionth) bitcoin, the smallest amount possible. 100,000 satoshis are one mBTC.{{Cite news |last1=Katie Pisa |last2=Natasha Maguder |date=9 July 2014 |title=Bitcoin your way to a double espresso |work=CNN |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2014/06/18/business/bitcoin-your-way-to-a-double-espresso/ |url-status=live |access-date=23 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150618072429/http://edition.cnn.com/2014/06/18/business/bitcoin-your-way-to-a-double-espresso/ |archive-date=18 June 2015 }}

{{further|Blockchain#Structure and design}}

As a decentralized system, bitcoin operates without a central authority or single administrator,{{Cite journal |last1=Gervais |first1=Arthur |last2=Karame |first2=Ghassan O. |last3=Capkun |first3=Vedran |last4=Capkun |first4=Srdjan |date=May 2014 |title=Is Bitcoin a Decentralized Currency? |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6824541 |journal=IEEE Security & Privacy |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=54–60 |doi=10.1109/MSP.2014.49 |s2cid=13948781 |issn=1540-7993 |access-date=22 November 2023 |archive-date=19 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231119101600/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6824541/ |url-status=live }} so that anyone can create a new bitcoin address and transact without needing any approval.{{r|Antonopoulos2014|page=ch. 1}} This is accomplished through a specialized distributed ledger called a blockchain that records bitcoin transactions.{{r|econbc}}

The blockchain is implemented as an ordered list of blocks. Each block contains a SHA-256 hash of the previous block, chaining them in chronological order.{{rp|ch. 7}} The blockchain is maintained by a peer-to-peer network.{{rp|215–219}} Individual blocks, public addresses, and transactions within blocks are public information, and can be examined using a blockchain explorer.{{Cite web| url=https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/ir/2021/NIST.IR.8301.pdf| publisher=National Institute of Standards Technology (NIST)| access-date=29 December 2022| title=Blockchain Networks: Token Design and Management Overview| page=32| archive-date=24 December 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221224003108/https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/ir/2021/NIST.IR.8301.pdf| url-status=live}}

Nodes validate and broadcast transactions, each maintaining a copy of the blockchain for ownership verification.{{Cite news |last=Sparkes, Matthew |date=9 June 2014 |title=The coming digital anarchy |work=The Daily Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/news/10881213/The-coming-digital-anarchy.html |url-status=live |access-date=7 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150123190900/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/news/10881213/The-coming-digital-anarchy.html |archive-date=23 January 2015}} A new block is created every 10 minutes on average, updating the blockchain across all nodes without central oversight. This process tracks bitcoin spending, ensuring each bitcoin is spent only once. Unlike a traditional ledger that tracks physical currency, bitcoins exist digitally as unspent outputs of transactions.{{rp|ch. 5}}

File:Bitcoin Transaction Visual.svg

In the blockchain, bitcoins are linked to specific strings called addresses. Most often, an address encodes a hash of a single public key. Creating such an address involves generating a random private key and then computing the corresponding address. This process is almost instant, but the reverse (finding the private key for a given address) is nearly impossible.{{rp|ch. 4}} Publishing such a bitcoin address does not risk its private key, and it is extremely unlikely to accidentally generate a used key with funds. To use bitcoins, owners need their private key to digitally sign transactions, which are verified by the network using the public key, keeping the private key secret.{{rp|ch. 5}} An address may encode the hash of a bitcoin script that specifies more complex requirements to spend the funds. One common example is "multisig", in which multiple distinct private keys must mutually sign any transaction that attempts to spend the funds.{{rp|ch. 7}}

Bitcoin transactions use a Forth-like scripting language,{{r|Antonopoulos2014|p=ch. 5}} involving one or more inputs and outputs. When sending bitcoins, a user specifies the recipients' addresses and the amount for each output. This allows sending bitcoins to several recipients in a single transaction. To prevent double-spending, each input must refer to a previous unspent output in the blockchain.{{Cite conference |last1=Kroll |first1=Joshua A. |last2=Davey |first2=Ian C. |last3=Felten |first3=E. |title=The Economics of Bitcoin Mining, or Bitcoin in the Presence of Adversaries |conference=The Twelfth Workshop on the Economics of Information Security (WEIS 2013) |location=Washington, DC|date= 11–12 June 2013|s2cid=2794725 }} Using multiple inputs is similar to using multiple coins in a cash transaction. As in a cash transaction, the sum of inputs can exceed the intended sum of payments. In such a case, an additional output can return the change back to the payer. Unallocated input satoshis in the transaction become the transaction fee.

Losing a private key means losing access to the bitcoins, with no other proof of ownership accepted by the protocol. For instance, in 2013, a user lost ₿7,500, valued at US$7.5 million, by accidentally discarding a hard drive with the private key.{{Cite news |date=29 November 2013 |title=Man Throws Away 7,500 Bitcoins, Now Worth $7.5 Million |work=CBS DC |url=http://washington.cbslocal.com/2013/11/29/man-throws-away-7500-bitcoins-now-worth-7-5-million/ |url-status=live |access-date=23 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140115062630/http://washington.cbslocal.com/2013/11/29/man-throws-away-7500-bitcoins-now-worth-7-5-million/ |archive-date=15 January 2014}} It is estimated that around 20% of all bitcoins are lost.{{Cite news |last=Krause |first=Elliott |date=5 July 2018 |title=A Fifth of All Bitcoin Is Missing. These Crypto Hunters Can Help |work=The Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/a-fifth-of-all-bitcoin-is-missing-these-crypto-hunters-can-help-1530798731 |url-status=live |access-date=8 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180709010939/https://www.wsj.com/articles/a-fifth-of-all-bitcoin-is-missing-these-crypto-hunters-can-help-1530798731 |archive-date=9 July 2018}} The private key must also be kept secret as its exposure, such as through a data breach, can lead to theft of the associated bitcoins.{{rp|ch. 10}}{{Cite news |last=Jeffries |first=Adrianne |date=19 December 2013 |title=How to steal Bitcoin in three easy steps |work=The Verge |url=https://www.theverge.com/2013/12/19/5183356/how-to-steal-bitcoin-in-three-easy-steps |url-status=live |access-date=17 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727141228/https://www.theverge.com/2013/12/19/5183356/how-to-steal-bitcoin-in-three-easy-steps |archive-date=27 July 2019}} {{As of|2017|12}}, approximately ₿980,000 had been stolen from cryptocurrency exchanges.{{Cite news |last1=Harney |first1=Alexandra |last2=Stecklow |first2=Steve |date=16 November 2017 |title=Twice burned – How Mt. Gox's bitcoin customers could lose again |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/bitcoin-gox/ |url-status=live |access-date=6 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829052101/https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/bitcoin-gox/ |archive-date=29 August 2019}}

{{See also|Bitcoin protocol#Mining}}

File:Argo Blockchain Mirabel Facility.jpg with large amounts of mining hardware]]

The mining process in bitcoin involves maintaining the blockchain through computer processing power. Miners group and broadcast new transactions into blocks, which are then verified by the network.{{Cite news |date=31 October 2015 |title=The great chain of being sure about things |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/briefing/2015/10/31/the-great-chain-of-being-sure-about-things |access-date=22 November 2023 |archive-date=4 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231204154941/https://www.economist.com/briefing/2015/10/31/the-great-chain-of-being-sure-about-things |url-status=live }} Each block must contain a proof of work (PoW) to be accepted, involving finding a nonce number that, combined with the block content, produces a hash numerically smaller than the network's difficulty target.{{rp|ch. 8}} This PoW is simple to verify but hard to generate, requiring many attempts.{{rp|ch. 8}} PoW forms the basis of bitcoin's consensus mechanism.{{Cite conference |last1=Mingxiao |first1=Du |last2=Xiaofeng |first2=Ma |last3=Zhe |first3=Zhang |last4=Xiangwei |first4=Wang |last5=Qijun |first5=Chen |date=5–8 October 2017 |title=A review on consensus algorithm of blockchain |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8123011 |publisher=IEEE |pages=2567–2572 |doi=10.1109/SMC.2017.8123011 |isbn=978-1-5386-1645-1 |conference=2017 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics (SMC) |location=Banff, AB, Canada |access-date=29 November 2023 |archive-date=24 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124215821/http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8123011 |url-status=live }}

The difficulty of generating a block is deterministically adjusted based on the mining power on the network by changing the difficulty target, which is recalibrated every 2,016 blocks (approximately two weeks) to maintain an average time of ten minutes between new blocks. The process requires significant computational power and specialized hardware.{{rp|ch. 8}}{{cite news |date=4 January 2014 |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/biz/archives/2014/01/04/2003580449 |title=Bitcoin boom benefiting TSMC: report |newspaper=Taipei Times |access-date=22 October 2021 |archive-date=29 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230129102127/https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/biz/archives/2014/01/04/2003580449 |url-status=live }}

Miners who successfully create a new block with a valid nonce can collect transaction fees from the included transactions and a fixed reward in bitcoins.{{Cite magazine |last=Ashlee |first= Vance |author-link=Ashlee Vance |date=14 November 2013 |title=2014 Outlook: Bitcoin Mining Chips, a High-Tech Arms Race |url=http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2013-11-14/2014-outlook-bitcoin-mining-chips-a-high-tech-arms-race |url-status=dead |magazine=BusinessWeek |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131121225123/http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2013-11-14/2014-outlook-bitcoin-mining-chips-a-high-tech-arms-race |archive-date=21 November 2013 |access-date=24 November 2013}} To claim this reward, a special transaction called a coinbase is included in the block, with the miner as the payee. All bitcoins in existence have been created through this type of transaction.{{rp|ch. 8}} This reward is halved every 210,000 blocks until ₿21 million{{efn|name=supply|The exact number is ₿20,999,999.9769.{{r|Antonopoulos2014|page=ch. 8}}}} have been issued in total, which is expected to occur around the year 2140. Afterward, miners will only earn from transaction fees. These fees are determined by the transaction's size and the amount of data stored, measured in satoshis per byte.{{cite news |first1=Ritchie S. |last1=King |first2=Sam |last2=Williams |first3=David |last3=Yanofsky |date=17 December 2013 |title=By reading this article, you're mining bitcoins |url=http://qz.com/154877/by-reading-this-page-you-are-mining-bitcoins |work=Quartz |access-date=17 December 2013 |archive-date=17 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217221429/http://qz.com/154877/by-reading-this-page-you-are-mining-bitcoins/ |url-status=live }}{{rp|ch. 8}}

The proof of work system and the chaining of blocks make blockchain modifications very difficult, as altering one block requires changing all subsequent blocks. As more blocks are added, modifying older blocks becomes increasingly challenging.{{Cite news |last=Hampton |first=Nikolai |date=5 September 2016 |title=Understanding the blockchain hype: Why much of it is nothing more than snake oil and spin |work=Computerworld |url=http://www.computerworld.com.au/article/606253/understanding-blockchain-hype-why-much-it-nothing-more-than-snake-oil-spin/ |url-status=live |access-date=5 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160906171838/http://www.computerworld.com.au/article/606253/understanding-blockchain-hype-why-much-it-nothing-more-than-snake-oil-spin/ |archive-date=6 September 2016}} In case of disagreement, nodes trust the longest chain, which required the greatest amount of effort to produce. To tamper or censor the ledger, one needs to control the majority of the global hashrate. The high cost required to reach this level of computational power secures the bitcoin blockchain.

The environmental impact of bitcoin mining is controversial and has attracted the attention of regulators, leading to restrictions or incentives in various jurisdictions.{{Cite report |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep51839 |title=Climate Impacts of Bitcoin Mining in the U.S. |last1=Stoll |first1=Christian |last2=Klaaßen |first2=Lena |date=June 2023 |publisher=MIT Center for Energy and Environmental Policy Research |last3=Gallersdörfer |first3=Ulrich |last4=Neumüller |first4=Alexander |series=Working Paper Series |access-date=24 November 2023 |archive-date=18 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118132421/https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep51839 |url-status=live }} {{As of|2025}}, a non-peer-reviewed study by the Cambridge Centre for Alternative Finance (CCAF) estimated that bitcoin mining represented {{sigfig|0.54|1}}% of global electricity consumption and {{sigfig|0.08|1}}% of world greenhouse gas emissions, comparable to Slovakia's emissions.{{Cite web |title=Cambridge Digital Mining Industry Report: Global Operations, Sentiment, and Energy Use - CCAF publications |url=https://www.jbs.cam.ac.uk/faculty-research/centres/alternative-finance/publications/cambridge-digital-mining-industry-report/ |access-date=2025-04-29 |website=Cambridge Judge Business School |language=en-GB}} About half of the electricity used is generated through fossil fuels.{{Cite news |last1=Huang |first1=Jon |last2=O'Neill |first2=Claire |last3=Tabuchi |first3=Hiroko |date=3 September 2021 |title=Bitcoin Uses More Electricity Than Many Countries. How Is That Possible? |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2021/09/03/climate/bitcoin-carbon-footprint-electricity.html |issn=0362-4331 |access-date=16 January 2022 |archive-date=17 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217105559/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2021/09/03/climate/bitcoin-carbon-footprint-electricity.html |url-status=live }} Moreover, mining hardware's short lifespan results in electronic waste.{{Cite journal |last1=de Vries |first1=Alex |last2=Stoll |first2=Christian |date=December 2021 |title=Bitcoin's growing e-waste problem |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344921005103 |url-status=live |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |volume=175 |page=105901 |bibcode=2021RCR...17505901D |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105901 |issn=0921-3449 |s2cid=240585651 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123145025/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0921344921005103 |archive-date=23 November 2021 |access-date=24 November 2023}}

Bitcoin is pseudonymous, with funds linked to addresses, not real-world identities. While the owners of these addresses are not directly identified, all transactions are public on the blockchain. Patterns of use, like spending coins from multiple inputs, can hint at a common owner. Public data can sometimes be matched with known address owners.{{cite news |last=Simonite |first=Tom |date=5 September 2013 |title=Mapping the Bitcoin Economy Could Reveal Users' Identities |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/2013/09/05/176558/mapping-the-bitcoin-economy-could-reveal-users-identities/ |access-date=2 April 2014 |work=MIT Technology Review |archive-date=27 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927062235/https://www.technologyreview.com/2013/09/05/176558/mapping-the-bitcoin-economy-could-reveal-users-identities/ |url-status=live }} Bitcoin exchanges might also need to collect personal data as per legal requirements.{{Cite news |last=Lee, Timothy |date=21 August 2013 |title=Five surprising facts about Bitcoin |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2013/08/21/five-surprising-facts-about-bitcoin-2 |access-date=21 November 2023 |archive-date=9 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220709135222/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2013/08/21/five-surprising-facts-about-bitcoin-2/ |url-status=live }} For enhanced privacy, users can generate a new address for each transaction.{{Cite magazine |last=McMillan, Robert |date=6 June 2013 |title=How Bitcoin lets you spy on careless companies |url=https://www.wired.com/2013/06/bitcoin-retai/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209202222/http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2013-06/06/bitcoin-retail |archive-date=9 February 2014 |access-date=3 April 2020 |magazine=Wired UK }}

In the bitcoin network, each bitcoin is treated equally, ensuring basic fungibility. However, users and applications can choose to differentiate between bitcoins. While wallets and software treat all bitcoins the same, each bitcoin's transaction history is recorded on the blockchain. This public record allows for chain analysis, where users can identify and potentially reject bitcoins from controversial sources.{{Cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=Ross |last2=Shumailov |first2=Ilia |last3=Ahmed |first3=Mansoor |title=Security Protocols XXVI |chapter=Making Bitcoin Legal |series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |date=24 November 2018 |volume=11286 |chapter-url=https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/en/publications/making-bitcoin-legal |language=en |publisher=Springer |pages=243–253 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-03251-7_29 |isbn=978-3-030-03250-0 |editor-last=Matyáš |editor-first=Vashek |editor2-last=Švenda |editor2-first=Petr |editor3-last=Stajano |editor3-first=Frank |editor4-last=Christianson |editor4-first=Bruce |access-date=24 November 2023 |archive-date=24 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124165246/https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/en/publications/making-bitcoin-legal |url-status=live }} For example, in 2012, Mt. Gox froze accounts containing bitcoins identified as stolen.{{Cite conference |last1=Möser |first1=Malte |last2=Böhme |first2=Rainer |last3=Breuker |first3=Dominic |year=2013 |title=An Inquiry into Money Laundering Tools in the Bitcoin Ecosystem |url=https://maltemoeser.de/paper/money-laundering.pdf |conference=2013 APWG eCrime Researchers Summit |publisher=IEEE |isbn=978-1-4799-1158-5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180626110754/https://maltemoeser.de/paper/money-laundering.pdf |archive-date=26 June 2018 |access-date=19 June 2019 |url-status=live}}

{{Broader|Cryptocurrency wallet}}

{{multiple image

| total_width = 600

| align = center

| image1 = Bitcoin-core-v0.10.0.png

| caption1 = Screenshot of Bitcoin Core

| image2 = Sample Bitcoin paper wallet.png

| caption2 = A paper wallet with the address as a QR code while the private key is hidden

| image3 = 10elqpi.jpg

| caption3 = A hardware wallet which processes bitcoin transactions without exposing private keys

}}

Bitcoin wallets were the first cryptocurrency wallets, enabling users to store the information necessary to transact bitcoins.{{cite news |first1=Adam |last1=Serwer |first2=Dana|last2= Liebelson |date=10 April 2013 |title=Bitcoin, Explained |url=https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2013/04/what-is-bitcoin-explained |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140427022315/https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2013/04/what-is-bitcoin-explained |archive-date=27 April 2014 |access-date=26 April 2014 |work=Mother Jones}}{{r|Antonopoulos2014|p=ch. 1, glossary}} The first wallet program, simply named Bitcoin, and sometimes referred to as the Satoshi client, was released in 2009 by Nakamoto as open-source software.{{cn|date=April 2025}} Bitcoin Core is among the best known clients. Forks of Bitcoin Core exist such as Bitcoin Unlimited.{{Cite news |last=Vigna |first=Paul |date=17 January 2016 |title=Is Bitcoin Breaking Up? |work=The Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/is-bitcoin-breaking-up-1453044493 |url-status=live |access-date=8 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820144312/http://www.wsj.com/articles/is-bitcoin-breaking-up-1453044493 |archive-date=20 August 2016}} Wallets can be full clients, with a full copy of the blockchain to check the validity of mined blocks,{{r|Antonopoulos2014|p=ch. 1}} or lightweight clients, just to send and receive transactions without a local copy of the entire blockchain.{{Cite book |last1=Gervais |first1=Arthur |last2=Capkun |first2=Srdjan |last3=Karame |first3=Ghassan O. |last4=Gruber |first4=Damian |title=Proceedings of the 30th Annual Computer Security Applications Conference |chapter=On the privacy provisions of Bloom filters in lightweight bitcoin clients |date=8 December 2014 |chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1145/2664243.2664267 |series=ACSAC '14 |location=New York, NY, USA |publisher=Association for Computing Machinery |pages=326–335 |doi=10.1145/2664243.2664267 |isbn=978-1-4503-3005-3 |s2cid=9161497 |access-date=22 November 2023 |archive-date=21 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240421113526/https://consent.cookiebot.com/uc.js |url-status=live }} Third-party internet services, called online wallets or hot wallets, store users' credentials on their servers, making them susceptible of hacks.{{Cite news |first=Bill |last=Barhydt |date=4 June 2014 |title=3 reasons Wall Street can't stay away from bitcoin |publisher=CNBC |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2014/06/04/3-reasons-wall-street-cant-stay-away-from-bitcoin.html |access-date=22 November 2023 |archive-date=4 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231204140256/https://www.cnbc.com/2014/06/04/3-reasons-wall-street-cant-stay-away-from-bitcoin.html |url-status=live }} Cold storage protects bitcoins from such hacks by keeping private keys offline, either through specialized hardware wallets or paper printouts.{{Cite news |last=Roberts |first=Daniel |date=15 December 2017 |title=How to send bitcoin to a hardware wallet |work=Yahoo Finance |url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/send-bitcoin-hardware-wallet-140141385.html |url-status=live |access-date=17 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180217142235/https://finance.yahoo.com/news/send-bitcoin-hardware-wallet-140141385.html |archive-date=17 February 2018}}{{rp|ch. 4}}

{{Main|Bitcoin scalability problem}}

Nakamoto limited the block size to one megabyte.{{Cite news |last=Mike Orcutt |date=19 May 2015 |title=Leaderless Bitcoin Struggles to Make Its Most Crucial Decision |work=MIT Technology Review |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/537486/leaderless-bitcoin-struggles-to-make-its-most-crucial-decision/ |access-date=15 November 2016 |archive-date=18 October 2017 |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171018075515/https://www.technologyreview.com/s/537486/leaderless-bitcoin-struggles-to-make-its-most-crucial-decision/ |url-status=live }} The limited block size and frequency can lead to delayed processing of transactions, increased fees and a bitcoin scalability problem.{{Cite news |last=Orcutt |first=Mike |date=19 May 2015 |title=Leaderless Bitcoin Struggles to Make Its Most Crucial Decision |work=MIT Technology Review |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/537486/leaderless-bitcoin-struggles-to-make-its-most-crucial-decision/ |url-status=live |access-date=22 June 2017 |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171018075515/https://www.technologyreview.com/s/537486/leaderless-bitcoin-struggles-to-make-its-most-crucial-decision/ |archive-date=18 October 2017}} The Lightning Network, second-layer routing network, is a potential scaling solution.{{rp|ch. 8}}

Research shows a trend towards centralization in bitcoin as miners join pools for stable income.{{Cite journal |last1=Rainer Böhme |last2=Nicolas Christin |last3=Benjamin Edelman |last4=Tyler Moore |year=2015 |title=Bitcoin: Economics, Technology, and Governance |journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=213–238 |doi=10.1257/jep.29.2.213 |doi-access=free |issn=0895-3309}}{{rp|215, 219–222}}{{Cite journal |last1=Tschorsch |first1=Florian |last2=Scheuermann |first2=Björn |year=2016 |title=Bitcoin and Beyond: A Technical Survey on Decentralized Digital Currencies |journal=IEEE Communications Surveys and Tutorials |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=2084–2123 |doi=10.1109/comst.2016.2535718 |s2cid=5115101}}{{rp|3}} If a single miner or pool controls more than 50% of the hashing power, it would allow them to censor transactions and double-spend coins. In 2014, mining pool Ghash.io reached 51% mining power, causing safety concerns, but later voluntarily capped its power at 39.99% for the benefit of the whole network.{{Cite news |last=Wilhelm |first=Alex |title=Popular Bitcoin Mining Pool Promises To Restrict Its Compute Power To Prevent Feared '51%' Fiasco |work=TechCrunch |url=https://techcrunch.com/2014/07/16/popular-bitcoin-mining-pool-promises-to-restrict-its-compute-power-to-prevent-feared-51-fiasco/ |url-status=live |access-date=25 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171205042008/https://techcrunch.com/2014/07/16/popular-bitcoin-mining-pool-promises-to-restrict-its-compute-power-to-prevent-feared-51-fiasco/ |archive-date=5 December 2017}} A few entities also dominate other parts of the ecosystem such as the client software, online wallets, and simplified payment verification (SPV) clients.

{{Main|Economics of bitcoin}}

According to the European Central Bank, the decentralization of money offered by bitcoin has its theoretical roots in the Austrian school of economics, especially with Friedrich Hayek's The Denationalisation of Money, in which he advocates a complete free market in the production, distribution and management of money to end the monopoly of central banks.{{cite book |author=European Central Bank |url=http://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/pdf/other/virtualcurrencyschemes201210en.pdf |title=Virtual Currency Schemes |year=2012 |publisher=European Central Bank |isbn=978-92-899-0862-7 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106053452/http://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/pdf/other/virtualcurrencyschemes201210en.pdf |archive-date=6 November 2012 |url-status=live|oclc=1044382974|doi=10.2866/47380 }}{{rp|22}} Sociologist Nigel Dodd argues that the essence of the bitcoin ideology is to remove money from social, as well as governmental, control.{{cite journal |last1=Dodd |first1=Nigel |date=May 2018 |title=The Social Life of Bitcoin |url=https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/69229/1/Dodd_The%20social%20life%20of%20Bitcoin_author_2017%20LSERO.pdf |journal=Theory, Culture & Society |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=35–56 |doi=10.1177/0263276417746464 |s2cid=51914607 |issn=0263-2764 |authorlink1=Nigel Dodd |access-date=22 November 2023 |archive-date=22 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231122163925/https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/69229/1/Dodd_The%20social%20life%20of%20Bitcoin_author_2017%20LSERO.pdf |url-status=live }} The Economist describes bitcoin as "a techno-anarchist project to create an online version of cash, a way for people to transact without the possibility of interference from malicious governments or banks". These philosophical ideas initially attracted libertarians and anarchists.{{cite news |last=Feuer |first=Alan |date=14 December 2013 |title=The Bitcoin Ideology |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/15/sunday-review/the-bitcoin-ideology.html |url-status=live |access-date=1 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180701222302/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/15/sunday-review/the-bitcoin-ideology.html |archive-date=1 July 2018}} Economist Paul Krugman argues that cryptocurrencies like bitcoin are only used by bank skeptics and criminals.{{r|Krugman}}

{{Legal status of bitcoin|300px}}

Money serves three purposes: a store of value, a medium of exchange, and a unit of account.{{Cite news |date=15 March 2014 |title=Free Exchange. Money from nothing. Chronic deflation may keep Bitcoin from displacing its rivals. |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/news/finance-and-economics/21599053-chronic-deflation-may-keep-bitcoin-displacing-its-fiat-rivals-money |url-status=live |access-date=25 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325085119/http://www.economist.com/news/finance-and-economics/21599053-chronic-deflation-may-keep-bitcoin-displacing-its-fiat-rivals-money |archive-date=25 March 2014}} According to The Economist in 2014, bitcoin functions best as a medium of exchange. In 2015, The Economist noted that bitcoins had three qualities useful in a currency: they are "hard to earn, limited in supply and easy to verify".{{Cite news |date=13 January 2015 |title=The magic of mining |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/news/business/21638124-minting-digital-currency-has-become-big-ruthlessly-competitive-business-magic |url-status=live |access-date=13 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150112165531/http://www.economist.com/news/business/21638124-minting-digital-currency-has-become-big-ruthlessly-competitive-business-magic |archive-date=12 January 2015}} However, a 2018 assessment by The Economist stated that cryptocurrencies met none of these three criteria.{{Cite news |date=30 August 2018 |title=Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies are useless |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/leaders/2018/08/30/bitcoin-and-other-cryptocurrencies-are-useless |url-status=live |access-date=4 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180904040905/https://www.economist.com/leaders/2018/08/30/bitcoin-and-other-cryptocurrencies-are-useless |archive-date=4 September 2018 }} Per some researchers, {{as of|2015|lc=yes}}, bitcoin functions more as a payment system than as a currency. In 2014, economist Robert J. Shiller wrote that bitcoin has potential as a unit of account for measuring the relative value of goods, as with Chile's Unidad de Fomento, but that "Bitcoin in its present form... doesn't really solve any sensible economic problem".{{Cite news |last=Shiller |first=Robert |date=1 March 2014 |title=In Search of a Stable Electronic Currency |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/02/business/in-search-of-a-stable-electronic-currency.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141024120222/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/02/business/in-search-of-a-stable-electronic-currency.html |archive-date=24 October 2014}} François R. Velde, Senior Economist at the Chicago Fed, described bitcoin as "an elegant solution to the problem of creating a digital currency".{{cite web |last=Velde |first=François |date=December 2013 |title=Bitcoin: A primer |url=https://www.chicagofed.org/digital_assets/publications/chicago_fed_letter/2013/cfldecember2013_317.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141026065254/http://www.chicagofed.org/digital_assets/publications/chicago_fed_letter/2013/cfldecember2013_317.pdf |archive-date=26 October 2014 |access-date=3 September 2016 |website=Chicago Fed letter |publisher=Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago |page=4 |issue=317}} David Andolfatto, Vice President at the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, stated that bitcoin is a threat to the establishment, which he argues is a good thing for the Federal Reserve System and other central banks, because it prompts these institutions to operate sound policies.{{cite news |last=Wile|first= Rob |date=6 April 2014 |title=St. Louis Fed Economist: Bitcoin Could Be A Good Threat To Central Banks |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/interview-with-david-andolfatto-2014-4 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924095030/http://www.businessinsider.com/interview-with-david-andolfatto-2014-4 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |access-date=16 April 2014 |work=Business Insider}}

The legal status of bitcoin varies substantially from one jurisdiction to another. Because of its decentralized nature and its global presence, regulating bitcoin is difficult. However, the use of bitcoin can be criminalized, and shutting down exchanges and the peer-to-peer economy in a given country would constitute a de facto ban.{{cite news |first=Jacob |last=Weindling |date=18 September 2017 |title=China May Be Gearing Up to Ban Bitcoin |url=https://www.pastemagazine.com/politics/bitcoin/china-may-be-gearing-up-to-ban-bitcoin |work=Paste |access-date=22 November 2023 |archive-date=22 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231122163924/https://www.pastemagazine.com/politics/bitcoin/china-may-be-gearing-up-to-ban-bitcoin |url-status=live }} The use of bitcoin by criminals has attracted the attention of financial regulators, legislative bodies, and law enforcement.{{Cite news |last=Lavin|first= Tim |date=8 August 2013 |title=The SEC Shows Why Bitcoin Is Doomed |work=Bloomberg News |url=http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2013-08-08/did-the-sec-just-validate-bitcoin-no- |url-status=live |access-date=20 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325214514/http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2013-08-08/did-the-sec-just-validate-bitcoin-no- |archive-date=25 March 2014}} Nobel-prize winning economist Joseph Stiglitz says that bitcoin's anonymity encourages money laundering and other crimes.{{Cite news |last=Montag |first=Ali |date=9 July 2018 |title=Nobel-winning economist: Authorities will bring down 'hammer' on bitcoin |publisher=CNBC |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2018/07/09/nobel-prize-winning-economist-joseph-stiglitz-criticizes-bitcoin.html |url-status=live |access-date=11 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180711200915/https://www.cnbc.com/2018/07/09/nobel-prize-winning-economist-joseph-stiglitz-criticizes-bitcoin.html |archive-date=11 July 2018}} This is the main justification behind bitcoin bans. {{As of|2021|11}}, nine countries applied an absolute ban (Algeria, Bangladesh, China, Egypt, Iraq, Morocco, Nepal, Qatar, and Tunisia) while another 42 countries had an implicit ban.{{cite web |title=Regulation of Cryptocurrency Around the World: November 2021 Update |url=https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/llglrd/2021687419/2021687419.pdf |publisher=United States Library of Congress |access-date=28 December 2022 |archive-date=24 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211224043203/https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/llglrd/2021687419/2021687419.pdf |url-status=live }}{{Update inline|reason=Many things have changed since Nov 2021.|date=November 2023}} Bitcoin is only legal tender in El Salvador.

File:De Waag Bitcoin.jpg accepting Bitcoin]]

{{As of|2018}}, bitcoin is rarely used in transactions with merchants, but it is popular to purchase illegal goods online.{{Cite news |title=Monetarists Anonymous |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/finance-and-economics/2012/09/29/monetarists-anonymous |date=29 September 2012 |access-date=22 November 2023 |issn=0013-0613 |archive-date=1 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901043303/https://www.economist.com/finance-and-economics/2012/09/29/monetarists-anonymous |url-status=live }}{{Cite news |last=Ball |first=James |date=22 March 2013 |title=Silk Road: the online drug marketplace that officials seem powerless to stop |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/mar/22/silk-road-online-drug-marketplace |access-date=22 November 2023 |issn=0261-3077 |archive-date=12 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012012106/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/mar/22/silk-road-online-drug-marketplace |url-status=live }} Prices are not usually quoted in bitcoin and trades involve conversions into fiat currencies. Commonly cited reasons for not using bitcoin include high costs, the inability to process chargebacks, high price volatility, long transaction times, and transaction fees (especially for small purchases).{{Cite news |last=Murphy |first=Hannah |date=8 June 2018 |title=Who really owns bitcoin now? |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/29259448-69b3-11e8-b6eb-4acfcfb08c11 |url-status=live |access-date=10 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180610051316/https://www.ft.com/content/29259448-69b3-11e8-b6eb-4acfcfb08c11 |archive-date=10 June 2018}}{{cite news |last=Katz |first=Lily |date=12 July 2017 |title=Bitcoin Acceptance Among Retailers Is Low and Getting Lower |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-07-12/bitcoin-acceptance-among-retailers-is-low-and-getting-lower |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180125204553/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-07-12/bitcoin-acceptance-among-retailers-is-low-and-getting-lower |archive-date=25 January 2018 |access-date=25 January 2018 |work=Bloomberg News}} Bloomberg reported that bitcoin was being used for large-item purchases on the site Overstock.com and for cross-border payments to freelancers.{{Cite news |last=Kharif |first=Olga |date=1 August 2018 |title=Bitcoin's Use in Commerce Keeps Falling Even as Volatility Eases |work=Bloomberg News|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-08-01/bitcoin-s-use-in-commerce-keeps-falling-even-as-volatility-eases |url-status=live |access-date=2 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802073219/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-08-01/bitcoin-s-use-in-commerce-keeps-falling-even-as-volatility-eases |archive-date=2 August 2018}} {{As of|2015}}, there was little sign of bitcoin use in international remittances despite high fees charged by banks and Western Union who compete in this market.{{Cite news |last=Chan |first=Bernice |date=16 January 2015 |title=Bitcoin transactions cut the cost of international money transfers |work=South China Morning Post |url=https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/technology/article/1679904/bitcoin-transactions-cut-cost-international-money-transfers |url-status=live |access-date=31 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531060301/https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/technology/article/1679904/bitcoin-transactions-cut-cost-international-money-transfers |archive-date=31 May 2019}} Despite associated risks and costs, in 2022, a growing use of bitcoin, alongside cash and cards, was reported in restaurant business.{{Cite web |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/business/bitcoin-bitcoin-restaurants-start-accept-cryptocurrencies-rcna21211 |title=Bitcoin by bitcoin, restaurants start to accept cryptocurrencies |date=2022-04-11 |access-date=2024-10-07 |website=NBC News |last=Sheidlower |first=Noah}}

In September 2021, the Bitcoin Law made bitcoin legal tender in El Salvador, alongside the US dollar. The adoption has been criticized internationally and within El Salvador.{{cite news |date=2 September 2021 |title=Majority of Salvadorans do not want bitcoin, poll shows |url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/majority-salvadorans-do-not-want-bitcoin-poll-shows-2021-09-02/ |access-date=30 November 2021 |work=Reuters |archive-date=30 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130154620/https://www.reuters.com/technology/majority-salvadorans-do-not-want-bitcoin-poll-shows-2021-09-02/ |url-status=live }} In 2022, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) urged El Salvador to reverse its decision.{{cite news |date=26 January 2022 |title=IMF urges El Salvador to remove Bitcoin as legal tender |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-60135552 |access-date=26 January 2022 |archive-date=26 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126154241/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-60135552 |url-status=live }} {{As of|2022}}, the use of Bitcoin in El Salvador remains low: 80% of businesses refused to accept it.{{cite report |title=Are Cryptocurrencies Currencies? Bitcoin as Legal Tender in El Salvador |last1=Alvarez |first1=Fernando |last2=Argente |first2=David |publisher=National Bureau of Economic Research |doi=10.3386/w29968 |page= |last3=Van Patten |first3=Diana |doi-access=free |publication-place=Cambridge, MA |year=2022}} In April 2022, the Central African Republic (CAR) adopted bitcoin as legal tender alongside the CFA franc,{{Cite news |date=28 April 2022 |title=Bitcoin Declared Legal Currency in Central African Republic |work=Bloomberg |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-04-28/bitcoin-is-declared-a-legal-currency-in-central-african-republic-l2isppnb |access-date=28 April 2022 |archive-date=28 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428141222/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-04-28/bitcoin-is-declared-a-legal-currency-in-central-african-republic-l2isppnb |url-status=live }} but repealed the reform one year later.{{Cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions on Central African Republic |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Countries/CAF/central-african-republic-qandas |access-date=11 August 2023 |website=International Monetary Fund |language=en |archive-date=11 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811002905/https://www.imf.org/en/Countries/CAF/central-african-republic-qandas |url-status=live }}

Bitcoin is also used by some governments. For instance, the Iranian government initially opposed cryptocurrencies, but later saw them as an opportunity to circumvent sanctions.{{cite news |date=3 November 2020 |title=Iran Is Pivoting to Bitcoin |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/qjppx3/iran-bitcoin-us-sanctions |work=Vice |last=Rasool |first=Mohammed |access-date=10 November 2020 |archive-date=3 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201103235640/https://www.vice.com/en/article/qjppx3/iran-bitcoin-us-sanctions |url-status=live }} Since 2020, Iran has required local bitcoin miners to sell bitcoin to the Central Bank of Iran, allowing the central bank to use it for imports.{{cite news |date=31 October 2020 |title=Iran: New Crypto Law Requires Selling Bitcoin Directly to Central Bank to Fund Imports |url=https://english.aawsat.com/home/article/2596686/iran-new-crypto-law-requires-selling-bitcoin-directly-central-bank-fund-imports |work=Asharq Al-Awsat |access-date=31 October 2020 |archive-date=31 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031235032/https://english.aawsat.com/home/article/2596686/iran-new-crypto-law-requires-selling-bitcoin-directly-central-bank-fund-imports |url-status=live }} Some constituent states also accept tax payments in bitcoin, including Colorado (US){{Cite news |date=21 September 2022 |title=Colorado accepts cryptocurrency to pay taxes, moving the state "tech forward" |url=https://www.denverpost.com/2022/09/21/colorado-accepts-cryptocurrency-taxes/ |first=Judith |last=Kohler |work=The Denver Post |language=en-US |access-date=29 December 2022 |archive-date=29 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221229090417/https://www.denverpost.com/2022/09/21/colorado-accepts-cryptocurrency-taxes/ |url-status=live }} and Zug (Switzerland).{{Cite news |date=3 September 2020 |title='Crypto Valley' canton to accept Bitcoin for tax payments |url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/business/-crypto-valley--canton-to-accept-bitcoin-for-tax-payments/46010364 |work=SWI swissinfo |language=en |access-date=22 November 2023 |archive-date=22 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231122163924/https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/business/-crypto-valley--canton-to-accept-bitcoin-for-tax-payments/46010364 |url-status=live }} As of 2023, the US government owned more than $5 billion worth of seized bitcoin.{{Cite news |last=Huang |first=Vicky Ge |title=Why the U.S. Government Has $5 Billion in Bitcoin |url=https://www.wsj.com/finance/currencies/federal-government-bitcoin-5-billion-78ce0938 |date=15 October 2023 |work=The Wall Street Journal |language=en-US |access-date=20 February 2024 |archive-date=20 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240220023509/https://www.wsj.com/finance/currencies/federal-government-bitcoin-5-billion-78ce0938 |url-status=live }}{{Cite news |last=Castillo |first=Michael del |title=U.S. Government Owns Way More Bitcoin Than Any Other Country–So Why Aren't They Selling It? |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/michaeldelcastillo/2023/06/16/us-government-owns-way-more-bitcoin-than-any-other-countryso-why-arent-they-selling-it |date=16 June 2023 |website=Forbes |language=en |access-date=21 February 2024 |archive-date=21 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240221155659/https://www.forbes.com/sites/michaeldelcastillo/2023/06/16/us-government-owns-way-more-bitcoin-than-any-other-countryso-why-arent-they-selling-it/ |url-status=live }}

{{Further|Cryptocurrency bubble}}

File:El Salvador Bitcoin reserves.png

{{As of|2018}}, the overwhelming majority of bitcoin transactions took place on cryptocurrency exchanges. Since 2014, regulated bitcoin funds also allow exposure to the asset or to futures as an investment.{{Cite news |date=10 July 2014 |title=Jersey approve Bitcoin fund launch on island |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-jersey-28247796 |url-status=live |access-date=10 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140710211917/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-jersey-28247796 |archive-date=10 July 2014}}{{Cite news |date=18 December 2017 |title=Chicago Mercantile Exchange jumps into bitcoin futures |work=CBS News |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/chicago-mercantile-exchange-jumps-into-bitcoin-futures/ |url-status=live |access-date=31 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531054602/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/chicago-mercantile-exchange-jumps-into-bitcoin-futures/ |archive-date=31 May 2019}} Bitcoin is used as a store of value:{{Cite news |date=2021-10-25 |title=Gold or Bitcoin? Store-of-value debate rages as Bitcoin grows |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/professional/insights/trading/gold-or-bitcoin-store-of-value-debate-rages-as-bitcoin-grows/ |access-date=2024-10-02 |work=Bloomberg Professional Services |language=en-US}}{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/business/finance/goldman-sachs-says-bitcoin-will-compete-with-gold-store-value-2022-01-05/|title=Goldman Sachs says bitcoin will compete with gold as "store of value"|website=Reuters|date=2022-01-05}} individuals and companies such as the Winklevoss twins{{Cite news |last=Lee |first=Timothy B. |title=The $11 million in bitcoins the Winklevoss brothers bought is now worth $32 million |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2013/11/09/the-11-million-in-bitcoins-the-winklevoss-brothers-bought-is-now-worth-32-million/ |url-status=live |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706111658/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2013/11/09/the-11-million-in-bitcoins-the-winklevoss-brothers-bought-is-now-worth-32-million/ |archive-date=6 July 2017}} and Elon Musk's companies SpaceX and Tesla have massively invested in bitcoin.{{cite news |last1=Maidenberg |first1=Micah |last2=Driebusch |first2=Corrie |last3=Jin |first3=Berber |title=A Rare Look Into the Finances of Elon Musk's Secretive SpaceX |url=https://www.wsj.com/tech/behind-the-curtain-of-elon-musks-secretive-spacex-revenue-growth-and-rising-costs-2c828e2b |access-date=19 November 2023 |work=The Wall Street Journal |date=17 August 2023 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=17 August 2023 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230817224420/https://www.wsj.com/tech/behind-the-curtain-of-elon-musks-secretive-spacex-revenue-growth-and-rising-costs-2c828e2b |url-status=live }}{{Cite news |last1=Ostroff |first1=Caitlin |last2=Elliott |first2=Rebecca |date=8 February 2021 |title=Tesla Buys $1.5 Billion in Bitcoin |language=en-US |work=The Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/tesla-buys-1-5-billion-in-bitcoin-11612791688 |access-date=22 November 2023 |issn=0099-9660 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106160013/https://www.wsj.com/articles/tesla-buys-1-5-billion-in-bitcoin-11612791688 |url-status=live }} Bitcoin wealth is highly concentrated, with 0.01% holding 27% of in-circulation currency, as of 2021.{{Cite news |last1=Vigna |first1=Paul |title=Bitcoin's 'One Percent' Controls Lion's Share of the Cryptocurrency's Wealth |work=Wall Street Journal |date=20 December 2021 |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/bitcoins-one-percent-controls-lions-share-of-the-cryptocurrencys-wealth-11639996204 |issn=0099-9660 |url-access=subscription |access-date=22 December 2021 |archive-date=22 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211222180909/https://www.wsj.com/articles/bitcoins-one-percent-controls-lions-share-of-the-cryptocurrencys-wealth-11639996204 |url-status=live }} A 2024 survey from the Pew Research Center found that 17% of American adults have invested in, traded or used a cryptocurrency.{{cite web |last1=Faverio |first1=Michelle |last2=Dawson |first2=Wyatt |last3=Sidoti |first3=Olivia |title=Majority of Americans aren’t confident in the safety and reliability of cryptocurrency |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2024/10/24/majority-of-americans-arent-confident-in-the-safety-and-reliability-of-cryptocurrency/ |website=Pew Research Center |access-date=8 March 2025 |date=24 October 2024}}

{{As of|2023|9}}, El Salvador had $76.5 million worth of bitcoin in its international reserves.{{Cite news |last=Cota |first=Isabella |date=2 September 2023 |title=Two years of bitcoin in Bukele's El Salvador: An opaque experiment with a little-used currency |url=https://english.elpais.com/international/2023-09-02/two-years-of-bitcoin-in-bukeles-el-salvador-an-opaque-experiment-with-a-little-used-currency.html |website=El País |language=en-us |access-date=24 November 2023 |archive-date=24 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124082557/https://english.elpais.com/international/2023-09-02/two-years-of-bitcoin-in-bukeles-el-salvador-an-opaque-experiment-with-a-little-used-currency.html |url-status=live }}

In 2018, research published in the Journal of Monetary Economics concluded that price manipulation occurred during the Mt. Gox bitcoin theft and that the market remained vulnerable to manipulation.{{cite journal |last1=Gandal |first1=Neil |last2=Hamrick |first2=J.T. |last3=Moore |first3=Tyler |last4=Oberman |first4=Tali |date=May 2018 |title=Price manipulation in the Bitcoin ecosystem |journal=Journal of Monetary Economics |volume=95 |pages=86–96 |doi=10.1016/j.jmoneco.2017.12.004 |s2cid=26358036 |doi-access=free}} Research published in The Journal of Finance also suggested that trading associated with increases in the amount of the Tether cryptocurrency and associated trading at the Bitfinex exchange accounted for about half of the price increase in bitcoin in late 2017.{{Cite journal |last1=Griffin |first1=John M. |last2=Shams |first2=Amin |date=August 2020 |title=Is Bitcoin Really Untethered? |url= |journal=The Journal of Finance |language=en |volume=75 |issue=4 |pages=1913–1964 |doi=10.1111/jofi.12903 |doi-access=free|s2cid=229576274 |issn=0022-1082}}{{Cite news |last=Popper |first=Nathaniel |date=13 June 2018 |title=Bitcoin's Price Was Artificially Inflated Last Year, Researchers Say |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/13/technology/bitcoin-price-manipulation.html |url-status=live |access-date=13 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613100732/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/13/technology/bitcoin-price-manipulation.html |archive-date=13 June 2018}}

Bitcoin, along with other cryptocurrencies, has been described as an economic bubble by several economists, including Nobel Prize in Economics laureates, such as Joseph Stiglitz,{{Cite news |last=Costelloe |first=Kevin |date=29 November 2017 |title=Bitcoin 'Ought to Be Outlawed,' Nobel Prize Winner Stiglitz Says |work=Bloomberg News |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-11-29/bitcoin-ought-to-be-outlawed-nobel-prize-winner-stiglitz-says-jal10hxd |url-status=live |access-date=5 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612224313/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-11-29/bitcoin-ought-to-be-outlawed-nobel-prize-winner-stiglitz-says-jal10hxd |archive-date=12 June 2018 |quote=It doesn't serve any socially useful function. |url-access=subscription}} James Heckman, and Paul Krugman.{{Cite news |last=Mohamed |first=Theron |title=Nobel economist Paul Krugman slams crypto as mostly useless, after saying it's hugely overpriced and helps criminals |url=https://markets.businessinsider.com/news/currencies/paul-krugman-crypto-bitcoin-price-bubble-crime-cbdc-desantis-banks-2023-5 |date=30 May 2023 |website=Business Insider |language=en-US |access-date=23 November 2023 |archive-date=23 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231123131322/https://markets.businessinsider.com/news/currencies/paul-krugman-crypto-bitcoin-price-bubble-crime-cbdc-desantis-banks-2023-5 |url-status=live }} Another recipient of the prize, Robert Shiller, argues that bitcoin is rather a fad that may become an asset class. He describes its price growth as an "epidemic", driven by contagious narratives.{{Cite news |date=9 June 2021 |title=Don't Call Bitcoin a Bubble. It's an Epidemic |language=en |work=Bloomberg.com |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2021-06-09/don-t-call-bitcoin-a-bubble-it-s-an-epidemic |first=John |last=Authers|author-link=John Authers|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610021335/https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2021-06-09/don-t-call-bitcoin-a-bubble-it-s-an-epidemic |archive-date=10 June 2021 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription}} In 2024, Jean Tirole, also Nobel laureate, described bitcoin as a "pure bubble" as its intrinsic value is zero. According to him, some bubbles are long-lasting such as gold and fiat currencies, and it's impossible to predict whether bitcoin will collapse like other financial bubbles or become the new gold.{{Cite news |date=2024-02-01 |title=Cryptocurrencies: an economist's view |url=https://www.tse-fr.eu/cryptocurrencies-economists-view |access-date=2024-11-15 |language=en | first1=Jean|last1=Tirole|author-link1=Jean Tirole|work=La Jaune et la Rouge|issue=792|volume=February 2024}} The same year, Federal Reserve Chair Jerome Powell described bitcoin as a digital competitor to gold but not to the dollar as he argued it is a highly volatile speculative asset not used as a form of payment.{{Cite news |author= |date= |title=Bitcoin breaks $100,000 barrier amid post-election cryptocurrency surge |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2024/12/04/bitcoin-price-100k-crypto-trump/ |access-date=5 December 2024 |newspaper=Washington Post |quote=“People use bitcoin as a speculative asset. It’s like gold, it’s just like gold, only it’s virtual, it’s digital. People are not using it as a form of payment or a store of value,” he said. “It’s highly volatile. It’s not a competitor for the dollar; it’s really a competitor for gold.”}}

According to research published in the International Review of Financial Analysis in 2018, bitcoin as an asset is highly volatile and does not behave like any other conventional asset.{{Cite journal |last1=Klein |first1=Tony |last2=Pham Thu |first2=Hien |last3=Walther |first3=Thomas |date=October 2018 |title=Bitcoin is not the New Gold – A comparison of volatility, correlation, and portfolio performance |url=https://pureadmin.qub.ac.uk/ws/files/155247201/crypto_V2.pdf |journal=International Review of Financial Analysis |language=en |volume=59 |pages=105–116 |doi=10.1016/j.irfa.2018.07.010 |s2cid=158400153 |doi-access= |access-date=24 November 2023 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125164037/https://pureadmin.qub.ac.uk/ws/files/155247201/crypto_V2.pdf |url-status=live }} According to one 2022 analysis published in The Journal of Alternative Investments, bitcoin was less volatile than oil, silver, US Treasuries, and 190 stocks in the S&P 500 during and after the 2020 stock market crash.{{Cite journal |last=Mazur |first=Mieszko |date=31 March 2022 |title=Misperceptions of Bitcoin Volatility |url= |journal=The Journal of Alternative Investments |language=en |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=33–44 |doi=10.3905/jai.2022.1.153 |s2cid=247843794 |issn=1520-3255 |doi-access=}} The term {{wikt-lang|en|hodl}} was created in December 2013 for holding bitcoin rather than selling it during periods of volatility.{{cite news |last1=Montag |first1=Ali |title='HODL,' 'whale' and 5 other cryptocurrency slang terms explained |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2018/01/23/what-hodl-whale-and-other-cryptocurrency-slang-terms-mean.html |work=CNBC |date=26 August 2018 |access-date=16 March 2021 |archive-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220112091630/https://www.cnbc.com/2018/01/23/what-hodl-whale-and-other-cryptocurrency-slang-terms-mean.html |url-status=live }}{{Cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-11-19/what-the-heck-is-hodl-bitcoin-lingo-for-crypto-noobs-quicktake |title=All the Bitcoin Lingo You Need to Know as Crypto Heats Up |last=Hajric |first=Vildana |date=19 November 2020 |work=Bloomberg |access-date=1 December 2020 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=29 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129234847/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-11-19/what-the-heck-is-hodl-bitcoin-lingo-for-crypto-noobs-quicktake |url-status=live }}

Other economists, investors, and the central bank of Estonia have described bitcoin as a potential Ponzi scheme.{{cite news |last=Clinch |first=Matt |date=10 March 2014 |title=Roubini launches stinging attack on bitcoin |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2014/03/10/nches-stinging-attack-on-bitcoin.html |publisher=CNBC |access-date=22 November 2023 |archive-date=9 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220709232801/https://www.cnbc.com/2014/03/10/nches-stinging-attack-on-bitcoin.html |url-status=live }}{{cite news |title=This Billionaire Just Called Bitcoin a 'Pyramid Scheme' |work=Fortune|url=https://fortune.com/2017/07/27/howard-marks-bitcoin-pyramid-scheme |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924045918/http://fortune.com/2017/07/27/howard-marks-bitcoin-pyramid-scheme/ |archive-date=24 September 2017 |access-date=23 September 2017}}{{cite news |last1=Ott Ummelas |last2=Milda Seputyte |date=31 January 2014 |title=Bitcoin 'Ponzi' Concern Sparks Warning From Estonia Bank |work=Bloomberg News |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-01-30/bitcoin-ponzi-scheme-worry-sparks-estonia-central-bank-caution.html |url-status=live |access-date=1 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140329214501/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-01-30/bitcoin-ponzi-scheme-worry-sparks-estonia-central-bank-caution.html |archive-date=29 March 2014 |url-access=subscription}} Legal scholar Eric Posner disagrees, however, as "a real Ponzi scheme takes fraud; bitcoin, by contrast, seems more like a collective delusion".{{Cite news |last=Posner |first=Eric |author-link=Eric Posner |date=11 April 2013 |title=Fool's Gold |language=en-US |work=Slate |url=https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2013/04/bitcoin-is-a-ponzi-scheme-the-internet-currency-will-collapse.html |access-date=22 November 2023 |issn=1091-2339 |archive-date=8 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708202651/https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2013/04/bitcoin-is-a-ponzi-scheme-the-internet-currency-will-collapse.html |url-status=live }} A 2014 World Bank report also concluded that bitcoin was not a deliberate Ponzi scheme.{{Cite book |last1=Davradakis |first1=Emmanouil |last2=Santos |first2=Ricardo |url=https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2867/11329 |title=Blockchain, FinTechs and their relevance for international financial institutions |date=2019 |publisher=European Investment Bank |doi=10.2867/11329 |isbn=978-92-861-4184-3 |access-date=24 November 2023 |archive-date=21 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240421113801/https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/ae472145-237a-11e9-8d04-01aa75ed71a1/language-en |url-status=live }}

• Alternative currency
• List of cryptocurrencies

{{Notelist}}

{{Reflist}}

• {{cite web|last=Nakamoto|first=Satoshi|date=31 October 2008|title=Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System|url=https://bitcoin.org/bitcoin.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140320135003/https://bitcoin.org/bitcoin.pdf|archive-date=20 March 2014|access-date=28 April 2014|publisher=bitcoin.org}}

{{Wiktionary}}

{{Bitcoin}}

{{Cryptocurrencies}}

{{Currency symbols}}

{{Authority control}}

{{Subject bar|commons=Bitcoin|portal1=Business and economics|portal2=Free and open-source software|portal3=Internet|portal4=Numismatics|portal5=Money}}

Category:Cryptocurrencies