Biwa

The {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} arrived in Japan in the 7th century, having evolved from the Chinese bent-neck {{transliteration|zh|pipa}} ({{zh|c=曲項琵琶|p=quxiang pipa|labels=no}}),{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/biwa|title=Biwa | musical instrument|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=21 April 2021}} while the {{transliteration|zh|pipa}} itself was derived from similar instruments in West Asia. This type of {{transliteration|ja|biwa}}, known as the {{transliteration|ja|gaku-biwa}}, was later used in {{transliteration|ja|gagaku}} ensembles and became the most commonly known type. However, another variant of the {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} – known as the {{transliteration|ja|mōsō-biwa}} or the {{transliteration|ja|kōjin-biwa}} – also found its way to Japan, first appearing in the Kyushu region. Though its origins are unclear, this thinner variant of the {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} was used in ceremonies and religious rites.

The {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} became known as an instrument commonly played at the Japanese Imperial court, where {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} players, known as {{transliteration|ja|biwa hōshi}}, found employment and patronage. However, following the collapse of the Ritsuryō state, {{transliteration|ja|biwa hōshi}} employed at the court were faced with the court's reconstruction and sought asylum in Buddhist temples. There, they assumed the role of Buddhist monks and encountered the {{transliteration|ja|mōsō-biwa}}. Seeing its relative convenience and portability, the monks combined these features with their large and heavy {{transliteration|ja|gaku-biwa}} to create the {{transliteration|ja|heike-biwa}}, which, as indicated by its namesake, was used primarily for recitations of The Tale of the {{transliteration|ja|Heike}}.

Through the next several centuries, players of both traditions intersected frequently and developed new music styles and new instruments. By the Kamakura period (1185–1333), the {{transliteration|ja|heike-biwa}} had emerged as a more popular instrument, a cross between both the {{transliteration|ja|gaku-biwa}} and {{transliteration|ja|mōsō-biwa}}, retaining the rounded shape of the {{transliteration|ja|gaku-biwa}} and played with a large plectrum like the {{transliteration|ja|mōsō-biwa}}. The {{transliteration|ja|heike-biwa}}, smaller than the {{transliteration|ja|mōsō-biwa}}, was used for similar purposes.

While the modern {{transliteration|ja|satsuma-biwa}} and {{transliteration|ja|chikuzen-biwa}} both originated from the {{transliteration|ja|mōsō-biwa}}, the {{transliteration|ja|satsuma-biwa}} was used for moral and mental training by samurai of the Satsuma Domain during the Warring States period, and later for general performances. The {{transliteration|ja|chikuzen-biwa}} was used by Buddhist monks visiting private residences to perform memorial services, not only for Buddhist rites, but also to accompany the telling of stories and news.

File:騎龍弁財天-Benzaiten (Goddess of Music and Good Fortune) Seated on a White Dragon MET DP135895.jpg (Goddess of Music and Good Fortune) playing a biwa, 1832 woodblock print (surimono)]]

Though formerly popular, little was written about the performance and practice of the {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} from roughly the 16th century to the mid-19th century. What is known is that three main streams of {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} practice emerged during this time: {{transliteration|ja|zato}} (the lowest level of the state-controlled guild of blind {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} players), {{transliteration|ja|shifu}} (samurai style), and {{transliteration|ja|chofu}} (urban style). These styles emphasized {{nihongo||琵琶歌|biwa-uta}} – vocalisation with {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} accompaniment – and formed the foundation for {{nihongo||江戸歌|edo-uta}} styles of playing, such as {{transliteration|ja|shinnai}} and {{transliteration|ja|kota}}.Allan Marett 103

From these styles also emerged the two principal survivors of the {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} tradition: {{transliteration|ja|satsuma-biwa}} and {{transliteration|ja|chikuzen-biwa}}.Waterhouse 15 From roughly the Meiji period (1868–1912) until the Pacific War, the {{transliteration|ja|satsuma-biwa}} and {{transliteration|ja|chikuzen-biwa}} were popular across Japan, and, at the beginning of the Shōwa period (1925–1989), the {{transliteration|ja|nishiki-biwa}} was created and gained popularity. Of the remaining post-war {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} traditions, only {{transliteration|ja|higo-biwa}} remains a style almost solely performed by blind persons. The {{transliteration|ja|higo-biwa}} is closely related to the {{transliteration|ja|heike-biwa}} and, similarly, relies on an oral narrative tradition focusing on wars and legends.

By the middle of the Meiji period, improvements had been made to the instruments and easily understandable songs were composed in quantity. In the beginning of the Taishō period (1912–1926), the {{transliteration|ja|satsuma-biwa}} was modified into the {{transliteration|ja|nishiki-biwa}}, which became popular among female players at the time. With this, the {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} entered a period of popularity, with songs reflecting not just The Tale of the {{transliteration|ja|Heike}}, but also the Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War, with songs such as {{transliteration|ja|Takeo Hirose}}, {{transliteration|ja|Hitachimaru}} and Hill 203 gaining popularity.

However, the playing of the {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} nearly became extinct during the Meiji period following the introduction of Western music and instruments, until players such as Tsuruta Kinshi and others revitalized the genre with modern playing styles and collaborations with Western composers.{{Citation needed|reason=Assertion of historical facts without a source|date=August 2018}}

File:Biwa intro - 2022 8 31.webm

There are more than seven types of {{transliteration|ja|biwa}}, characterised by number of strings, sounds it could produce, the type of plectrum, and their use. As the {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} does not play in tempered tuning, pitches are approximated to the nearest note.

File:곡경비파 (2).JPG

The {{nihongo||雅楽琵琶|gagaku biwa}}, a large and heavy {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} with four strings and four frets, is used exclusively for {{transliteration|ja|gagaku}}. It produces distinctive {{nihongo||壱越調|ichikotsuchō}} and {{nihongo||平調|hyōjō}}. Its plectrum is small and thin, often rounded, and made from a hard material such as boxwood or ivory. It is not used to accompany singing. Like the {{transliteration|ja|heike-biwa}}, it is played held on its side, similar to a guitar, with the player sitting cross-legged. In {{transliteration|ja|gagaku}}, it is known as the {{nihongo||楽琵琶|gaku-biwa}}.

The {{nihongo3|{{lit|five-stringed {{transliteration|ja|biwa}}}}|五絃琵琶|gogen-biwa}}, a Tang variant of {{transliteration|ja|biwa}}, can be seen in paintings of court orchestras and was used in the context of {{transliteration|ja|gagaku}}; however, it was removed with the reforms and standardization made to the court orchestra during the late 10th century. It is assumed that the performance traditions died out by the 10th or 11th century (William P. Malm). This instrument also disappeared in the Chinese court orchestras. Recently, this instrument, much like the {{transliteration|zh|konghou}} harp, has been revived for historically informed performances and historical reconstructions. Not to be confused with the five-stringed variants of modern {{transliteration|ja|biwa}}, such as {{transliteration|ja|chikuzen-biwa}}.

The {{nihongo||盲僧琵琶|mōsō-biwa}}, a {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} with four strings, is used to play Buddhist mantras and songs. It is similar in shape to the {{transliteration|ja|chikuzen-biwa}}, but with a much more narrow body. Its plectrum varies in both size and materials. The four fret type is tuned to E, B, E and A, and the five fret type is tuned to B, e, f{{music|sharp}} and f{{music|sharp}}. The six fret type is tuned to B{{music|b}}, E{{music|b}}, B{{music|b}} and b{{music|b}}.

The {{nihongo||平家琵琶|heike-biwa}}, a {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} with four strings and five frets, is used to play The Tale of the {{transliteration|ja|Heike}}. Its plectrum is slightly larger than that of the {{transliteration|ja|gagaku-biwa}}, but the instrument itself is much smaller, comparable to a {{transliteration|ja|chikuzen-biwa}} in size. It was originally used by traveling {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} minstrels, and its small size lent it to indoor play and improved portability. Its tuning is A, c, e, a or A, c-sharp, e, a.

The {{nihongo||薩摩琵琶|satsuma-biwa}}, a {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} with four strings and four frets, was popularized during the Edo period in Satsuma Province (present-day Kagoshima) by Shimazu Tadayoshi. Modern {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} used for contemporary compositions often have five or more frets, and some have a doubled fourth string. The frets of the {{transliteration|ja|satsuma-biwa}} are raised {{convert|4|cm}} from the neck allowing notes to be bent several steps higher, each one producing the instrument's characteristic {{transliteration|ja|sawari}}, or buzzing drone. Its boxwood plectrum is much wider than others, often reaching widths of {{convert|25|cm|abbr=on}} or more. Its size and construction influences the sound of the instrument as the curved body is often struck percussively with the plectrum during play.

The {{transliteration|ja|satsuma-biwa}} is traditionally made from Japanese mulberry, although other hard woods such as Japanese zelkova are sometimes used in its construction. Due to the slow growth of the Japanese mulberry, the wood must be taken from a tree at least 120 years old and dried for 10 years before construction can begin.

The strings are made of wound silk. Its tuning is A, E, A, B, for traditional {{transliteration|ja|biwa}}, G, G, c, g, or G, G, d, g for contemporary compositions, among other tunings, but these are only examples as the instrument is tuned to match the key of the player's voice. The first and second strings are generally tuned to the same note, with the 4th (or doubled 4th) string is tuned one octave higher.

The most eminent 20th century {{transliteration|ja|satsuma-biwa}} performer was Tsuruta Kinshi, who developed her own version of the instrument, which she called the {{transliteration|ja|tsuruta-biwa}}. This {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} often has five strings (although it is essentially a 4-string instrument as the 5th string is a doubled 4th that are always played together) and five or more frets, and the construction of the tuning head and frets vary slightly. Ueda Junko and Tanaka Yukio, two of Tsuruta's students, continue the tradition of the modern {{transliteration|ja|satsuma-biwa}}. Carlo Forlivesi's compositions Boethius ({{lang|ja|ボエティウス}}) and {{lang|it|Nuove Musiche per Biwa}} ({{lang|ja|琵琶のための新曲}}) were both written for performance on the {{transliteration|ja|satsuma-biwa}} designed by Tsuruta and Tanaka.

These works present a radical departure from the compositional languages usually employed for such an instrument. Also, thanks to the possibility of relying on a level of virtuosity never before attempted in this specific repertory, the composer has sought the renewal of the acoustic and aesthetic profile of the {{transliteration|ja|biwa}}, bringing out the huge potential in the sound material: attacks and resonance, tempo (conceived not only in the chronometrical but also deliberately empathetical sense), chords, balance and dialogue (with the occasional use of two {{transliteration|ja|biwa}}s in {{lang|it|Nuove Musiche per Biwa}}), dynamics and colour.ALM Records ALCD-76

File:Biwa plectra.jpg

The {{nihongo||筑前琵琶|Chikuzen-biwa}}, a {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} with four strings and four frets or five strings and five frets, was popularised in the Meiji period by Tachibana Satosada. Most contemporary performers use the five string version. Its plectrum is much smaller than that of the {{transliteration|ja|satsuma-biwa}}, usually about {{cvt|13|cm}} in width, although its size, shape, and weight depends on the sex of the player. The plectrum is usually made from rosewood with boxwood or ivory tips for plucking the strings. The instrument itself also varies in size, depending on the player. Male players typically play {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} that are slightly wider and/or longer than those used by women or children. The body of the instrument is never struck with the plectrum during play, and the five string instrument is played upright, while the four string is played held on its side. The instrument is tuned to match the key of the singer. An example tuning of the four string version is B, e, f{{music|sharp}} and b, and the five string instrument can be tuned to C, G, C, d and g. For the five string version, the first and third strings are tuned the same note, the second string three steps down, the fifth string an octave higher than the second string, and the fourth string a step down from the fifth. So the previously mentioned tuning can be tuned down to B{{music|b}}, F, B{{music|b}}, c, d. Asahikai and Tachibanakai are the two major schools of {{transliteration|ja|chikuzen-biwa}}. Popularly used by female {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} players such as Uehara Mari.

The {{nihongo||錦琵琶|nishiki-biwa}}, a modern {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} with five strings and five frets, was popularised by the 20th-century {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} player and composer {{nihongo|Suitō Kinjō|水藤錦穣||extra=1911–1973}}. Its plectrum is the same as that used for the {{transliteration|ja|satsuma-biwa}}. Its tuning is C, G, c, g, g.

Types of Biwa, Japanese traditional instrument.jpg|{{transliteration|ja|Gaku-biwa, chikuzen-biwa, heike-biwa, mōsō-biwa, satsuma-biwa}} and their plectra

The {{transliteration|ja|biwa}}, considered one of Japan's principal traditional instruments, has both influenced and been influenced by other traditional instruments and compositions throughout its long history; as such, a number of different musical styles played with the {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} exist.

• {{nihongo3|Japanese traditional music|邦楽|Hōgaku}}: In {{transliteration|ja|hōgaku}}, musical instruments usually serve as accompaniments to vocal performances, which dominate the musical style, with the overwhelming majority of {{transliteration|ja|hōgaku}} compositions being vocal.Dean 156
• {{nihongo3|Japanese court music|雅楽|Gagaku}}: {{transliteration|ja|Gagaku}} was usually patronized by the imperial court or the shrines and temples. {{transliteration|ja|Gagaku}} ensembles were composed of string, wind, and percussion instruments, where string and wind instruments were more respected and percussion instruments were considered lesser instruments. Among the string instruments, the {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} seems to have been the most important instrument in orchestral {{transliteration|ja|gagaku}} performances.Garfias, Gradual Modifications of the Gagaku Tradition 16
• {{nihongo3|Buddhist chanting|声明|Shōmyō}}: While {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} was not used in {{transliteration|ja|shōmyō}}, the style of {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} singing is closely tied to {{transliteration|ja|shōmyō}}, especially {{transliteration|ja|mōsō-}} and {{transliteration|ja|heike-}}style {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} singing.Matisoff 36 Both {{transliteration|ja|shōmyō}} and {{transliteration|ja|mōsō-biwa}} are rooted in Buddhist rituals and traditions. Before arriving in Japan, {{transliteration|ja|shōmyō}} was used in Indian Buddhism. The {{transliteration|ja|mōsō-biwa}} was also rooted in Indian Buddhism, and the {{transliteration|ja|heike-biwa}}, as a predecessor to the {{transliteration|ja|mōsō-biwa}}, was the principal instrument of the {{transliteration|ja|biwa hōshi}}, who were blind Buddhist priests.

Generally speaking, {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} have four strings, though modern {{transliteration|ja|satsuma-}} and {{transliteration|ja|chikuzen-biwa}} may have five strings. The strings on a {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} range in thickness, with the first string being thickest and the fourth string being thinnest; on {{transliteration|ja|chikuzen-biwa}}, the second string is the thickest, with the fourth and fifth strings being the same thickness on {{transliteration|ja|chikuzen-}} and {{transliteration|ja|satsuma-biwa}}.Minoru Miki 75 The varying string thickness creates different timbres when stroked from different directions.

In {{transliteration|ja|biwa}}, tuning is not fixed. General tones and pitches can fluctuate up or down entire steps or microtones.Dean 157 When singing in a chorus, {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} singers often stagger their entry and often sing through non-synchronized, heterophony accompaniment.Dean 149 In solo performances, a {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} performer sings monophonically, with melismatic emphasis throughout the performance. These monophonic do not follow a set harmony. Instead, {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} singers tend to sing with a flexible pitch without distinguishing soprano, alto, tenor, or bass roles. This singing style is complemented by the {{transliteration|ja|biwa}}, which {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} players use to produce short glissandi throughout the performance.Morton Feldman 181 The style of singing accompanying {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} tends to be nasal, particularly when singing vowels, the consonant {{lang|ja|ん}}, and syllables beginning with "g", such as {{nihongo||が|ga}} and {{nihongo||ぎ|gi}}. {{transliteration|ja|Biwa}} performers also vary the volume of their voice between barely audible to very loud. Since {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} pieces were generally performed for small groups, singers did not need to project their voices as opera singers did in Western music tradition.

{{transliteration|ja|Biwa}} music is based on a pentatonic scale (sometimes referred to as a five-tone or five-note scale), meaning that each octave contains five notes. This scale sometimes includes supplementary notes, but the core remains pentatonic. The rhythm in {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} performances allows for a broad flexibility of pulse. Songs are not always metered, although more modern collaborations are metered. Notes played on the {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} usually begin slow and thin and progress through gradual accelerations, increasing and decreasing tempo throughout the performance. The texture of {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} singing is often described as "sparse".

The plectrum also contributes to the texture of {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} music. Different sized plectrums produced different textures; for example, the plectrum used on a {{transliteration|ja|mōsō-biwa}} was much larger than that used on a {{transliteration|ja|gaku-biwa}}, producing a harsher, more vigorous sound.Morley 51 The plectrum is also critical to creating the {{transliteration|ja|sawari}} sound, which is particularly utilized with {{transliteration|ja|satsuma-biwa}}.Rossing 181 What the plectrum is made of also changes the texture, with ivory and plastic plectrums creating a more resilient texture to the wooden plectrum's twangy hum.Malm 21

{{transliteration|ja|Biwa}} usage in Japan has declined greatly since the Heian period. Outside influence, internal pressures, and socio-political turmoil redefined {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} patronage and the image of the {{transliteration|ja|biwa}}; for example, the Ōnin War of the Muromachi period (1338–1573) and the subsequent Warring States period (15th–17th centuries) disrupted the cycle of tutelage for {{transliteration|ja|heikyoku}}{{citation needed|date=April 2018}}{{efn|{{transliteration|ja|Heikyoku}} is one of the oldest Japanese traditional music genres, originating in the 13th century. It is a semi-classical bardic tradition, not unlike the troubadour music of medieval Europe.}} performers. As a result, younger musicians turned to other instruments and interest in {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} music decreased. Even the {{transliteration|ja|biwa hōshi}} transitioned to other instruments such as the {{transliteration|ja|shamisen}} (a three-stringed lute).Gish 143

Interest in the {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} was revived during the Edo period (1600–1868), when Tokugawa Ieyasu unified Japan and established the Tokugawa shogunate. Ieyasu favored {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} music and became a major patron, helping to strengthen {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} guilds (called {{transliteration|ja|Todo}}) by financing them and allowing them special privileges. {{transliteration|ja|Shamisen}} players and other musicians found it financially beneficial to switch to the {{transliteration|ja|biwa}}, bringing new styles of {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} music with them. The Edo period proved to be one of the most prolific and artistically creative periods for the {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} in its long history in Japan.

In 1868, the Tokugawa shogunate collapsed, giving way to the Meiji period and the Meiji Restoration, during which the samurai class was abolished, and the {{transliteration|ja|Todo}} lost their patronage. {{transliteration|ja|Biwa}} players no longer enjoyed special privileges and were forced to support themselves. At the beginning of the Meiji period, it was estimated that there were at least one hundred traditional court musicians in Tokyo; however, by the 1930s, this number had reduced to just 46 in Tokyo, and a quarter of these musicians later died in World War II. Life in post-war Japan was difficult, and many musicians abandoned their music in favor of more sustainable livelihoods.Garfias, Gradual Modifications of the Gagaku Tradition 18

While many styles of {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} flourished in the early 1900s (such as {{transliteration|ja|kindai-biwa}} between 1900 and the 1930s), the cycle of tutelage was broken yet again by the war. In the present day, there are no direct means of studying the {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} in many {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} traditions.Ferranti, Relations between Music and Text in "Higo Biwa", The "Nagashi" Pattern as a Text-MusicSystem 150 Even {{transliteration|ja|higo-biwa}} players, who were quite popular in the early 20th century, may no longer have a direct means of studying oral composition, as the bearers of the tradition have either died or are no longer able to play. {{transliteration|ja|Kindai-biwa}} still retains a significant number of professional and amateur practitioners, but the {{transliteration|ja|zato}}, {{transliteration|ja|heike}}, and {{transliteration|ja|moso-biwa}} styles have all but died out.Tokita 83

As {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} music declined in post-Pacific War Japan, many Japanese composers and musicians found ways to revitalize interest in it. They recognized that studies in music theory and music composition in Japan almost entirely consisted in Western theory and instruction. Beginning in the late 1960s, these musicians and composers began to incorporate Japanese music and Japanese instruments into their compositions; for example, one composer, Tōru Takemitsu, collaborated with Western composers and compositions to include the distinctly Asian {{transliteration|ja|biwa}}. His well-received compositions, such as November Steps, which incorporated {{transliteration|ja|biwa heikyoku}} with Western orchestral performance, revitalized interest in the {{transliteration|ja|biwa}} and sparked a series of collaborative efforts by other musician in genres ranging from J-Pop and {{transliteration|ja|enka}} to {{transliteration|ja|shin-hougaku}} and {{transliteration|ja|gendaigaku}}.Tonai 25

Other musicians, such as Yamashika Yoshiyuki, considered by most ethnomusicologists to be the last of the {{transliteration|ja|biwa hōshi}}, preserved scores of songs that were almost lost forever. Yamashika, born in the late Meiji period, continued the {{transliteration|ja|biwa hōshi}} tradition until his death in 1996. Beginning in the late 1960s to the late 1980s, composers and historians from all over the world visited Yamashika and recorded many of his songs; before this time, the {{transliteration|ja|biwa hōshi}} tradition had been a completely oral tradition. When Yamashika died in 1996, the era of the {{transliteration|ja|biwa hōshi}} tutelage died with him, but the music and genius of that era continues thanks to his recordings.Sanger

• Silenziosa Luna – {{lang|ja|沈黙の月}} / ALM Records ALCD-76 (2008).

• History and evolution of the lute
• {{transliteration|ko|Bipa}}

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• [https://web.archive.org/web/20141225045624/http://homepage3.nifty.com/heikebiwa-arao/HEIKYOKUGAIRONNENGLISH.htm Introduction to the Hei-kyoku]
• [http://blog.goo.ne.jp/blogem/e/ac80d4429af4a24dbaa7ea6558a9c46b Picture of Biwa school about 1900]

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