Black yeast

{{Short description|Group of fungi}}

Black yeasts, sometimes also black fungi, dematiaceous fungi, microcolonial fungi or meristematic fungi{{cite book |doi=10.1007/3-540-30985-3_20 |chapter=Black Yeasts and Meristematic Fungi: Ecology, Diversity and Identification |title=Biodiversity and Ecophysiology of Yeasts |series=The Yeast Handbook |year=2006 |last1=Sterflinger |first1=Katja |isbn=978-3-540-26100-1 |pages=501–14 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GgIN0vU1B_0C&pg=PA501 |editor1-first=Carlos |editor1-last=Rosa |editor2-first=Péter |editor2-last=Gábor}} is a diverse group of slow-growing microfungi which reproduce mostly asexually (fungi imperfecti). Only few genera reproduce by budding cells, while in others hyphal or meristematic (isodiametric) reproduction is preponderant.{{cite journal |doi=10.3114/sim.2008.61.15 |title=The neurotropic black yeast Exophiala dermatitidis has a possible origin in the tropical rain forest |year=2008 |last1=Sudhadham |first1=M. |last2=Prakitsin |first2=S. |last3=Sivichai |first3=S. |last4=Chaiyarat |first4=R. |last5=Dorrestein |first5=G. M. |last6=Menken |first6=S.B.J. |last7=De Hoog |first7=G.S. |journal=Studies in Mycology |volume=61 |pages=145–55 |pmid=19287537 |pmc=2610309}}{{cite journal |last1=de Hoog |first1=GS |last2=Hermanides-Nijhof |first2=EJ |year=1977 |title=The Black Yeasts and Allied Hyphomycetes |journal=Studies in Mycology |volume=15 |pages=1–222 |oclc=222951121}}{{cite journal |doi=10.1515/BOT.2005.007 |title=Melanized halophilic fungi are eukaryotic members of microbial communities in hypersaline waters of solar salterns |year=2005 |last1=Butinar |first1=Lorena |last2=Sonjak |first2=Silva |last3=Zalar |first3=Polona |last4=Plemenitaš |first4=Ana |last5=Gunde-Cimerman |first5=Nina |journal=Botanica Marina |volume=48|s2cid=12181468 }}{{cite journal |pmid=12421284 |year=2002 |last1=Matos |first1=T |last2=De Hoog |first2=GS |last3=De Boer |first3=AG |last4=De Crom |first4=I |last5=Haase |first5=G |s2cid=4842988 |title=High prevalence of the neurotrope Exophiala dermatitidis and related oligotrophic black yeasts in sauna facilities |volume=45 |issue=9–10 |pages=373–7 |journal=Mycoses |doi=10.1046/j.1439-0507.2002.00779.x|doi-access=free }} Black yeasts share some distinctive characteristics, in particular a dark colouration (melanisation) of their cell wall. Morphological plasticity, incrustation of the cell wall with melanins and presence of other protective substances like carotenoids and mycosporines{{cite journal |doi=10.3114/sim.2008.61.09 |title=Cellular responses of microcolonial rock fungi to long-term desiccation and subsequent rehydration |year=2008 |last1=Gorbushina |first1=A.A. |last2=Kotlova |first2=E.R. |last3=Sherstneva |first3=O.A. |journal=Studies in Mycology |volume=61 |pages=91–7 |pmid=19287531 |pmc=2610304}} represent passive physiological adaptations which enable black fungi to be highly resistant against environmental stresses.{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1574-6941.2009.00794.x |title=Extremotolerance in fungi: Evolution on the edge |year=2010 |last1=Gostinčar |first1=Cene |last2=Grube |first2=Martin |last3=De Hoog |first3=Sybren |last4=Zalar |first4=Polona |last5=Gunde-Cimerman |first5=Nina |journal=FEMS Microbiology Ecology |volume=71 |pages=2–11 |pmid=19878320 |issue=1|doi-access=free }} The term "polyextremotolerance" has been introduced to describe this phenotype, an example of which is the species Aureobasidium pullulans.{{cite journal | last1 = Gostinčar | first1 = C. | last2 = Grube | first2 = M. | last3 = Gunde-Cimerman | first3 = N. | year = 2011 | title = Evolution of Fungal Pathogens in Domestic Environments? | journal = Fungal Biology | volume = 115 | issue = 10| pages = 1008–1018 | doi = 10.1016/j.funbio.2011.03.004 | pmid = 21944213 }} Presence of 1,8-dihydroxynaphthalene melanin in the cell wall{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0378-1097(04)00073-4 |title=Evidence for 1,8-dihydroxynaphthalene melanin in three halophilic black yeasts grown under saline and non-saline conditions |year=2004 |last1=Kogej |first1=Tina |last2=Wheeler |first2=Michael H |last3=Lanišnik Rižner |first3=Tea |last4=Gunde-Cimerman |first4=Nina |journal=FEMS Microbiology Letters |volume=232 |issue=2 |pages=203–9 |pmid=15033240|doi-access=free }} confers to the microfungi their characteristic olivaceous to dark brown/black colour.

The consortium comprises two phylogenetically very different fungal groups.{{cite journal |doi=10.3114/sim.2008.61.11 |title=A rock-inhabiting ancestor for mutualistic and pathogen-rich fungal lineages |year=2008 |last1=Gueidan |first1=C. |last2=Villasenor |first2=C. R. |last3=De Hoog |first3=G. S. |last4=Gorbushina |first4=A. A. |last5=Untereiner |first5=W. A. |last6=Lutzoni |first6=F. |journal=Studies in Mycology |volume=61 |pages=111–9 |pmid=19287533 |pmc=2610302}}{{cite journal |doi=10.3114/sim.2009.64.06 |title=Phylogeny of rock-inhabiting fungi related to Dothideomycetes |year=2010 |last1=Ruibal |first1=C. |last2=Gueidan |first2=C. |last3=Selbmann |first3=L. |last4=Gorbushina |first4=A.A. |last5=Crous |first5=P.W. |last6=Groenewald |first6=J.Z. |last7=Muggia |first7=L. |last8=Grube |first8=M. |last9=Isola |first9=D. |last10=Schoch |first10=C.L. |last11=Staley |first11=J.T. |last12=Lutzoni |first12=F. |last13=De Hoog |first13=G.S. |journal=Studies in Mycology |volume=64 |pages=123–133S7 |pmid=20169026 |pmc=2816969}} Many are found in the orders Capnodiales, Dothideales, and Pleosporales (class Dothideomycetes). These black fungi mostly have an extremotolerant life style. Many representatives of this group can colonize bare rocks, e.g. in the Mediterranean basin or in hot and cold dry deserts, and are therefore referred to as rock-inhabiting fungi, or occur in salterns.{{cite journal |doi=10.3114/sim.2008.61.06 |title=Adaptation of extremely halotolerant black yeast Hortaea werneckii to increased osmolarity: A molecular perspective at a glance |year=2008 |last1=Plemenitaš |first1=A. |last2=Vaupotič |first2=T. |last3=Lenassi |first3=M. |last4=Kogej |first4=T. |last5=Gunde-Cimerman |first5=N. |journal=Studies in Mycology |volume=61 |pages=67–75 |pmid=19287528 |pmc=2610308}} These black yeasts are believed to be the most resistant eukaryotic organisms known to-date. They were firstly described in the early 80s by three almost concomitant seminal research articles.{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.215.4536.1093 |title=Microcolonial Fungi: Common Inhabitants on Desert Rocks? |year=1982 |last1=Staley |first1=J. T. |last2=Palmer |first2=F. |last3=Adams |first3=J. B. |journal=Science |volume=215 |issue=4536 |pages=1093–5 |pmid=17771840|bibcode=1982Sci...215.1093S |s2cid=9032744 }}{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/BF00378791 |pmid=28310059 |title=Biogenic rock varnishes of the negev desert (Israel) an ecological study of iron and manganese transformation by cyanobacteria and fungi |year=1981 |last1=Krumbein |first1=W. E. |last2=Jens |first2=K. |journal=Oecologia |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=25–38|bibcode=1981Oecol..50...25K |s2cid=27020398 }}{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.215.4536.1045 |title=Endolithic Microorganisms in the Antarctic Cold Desert |year=1982 |last1=Friedmann |first1=E. I. |journal=Science |volume=215 |issue=4536 |pages=1045–53 |pmid=17771821|bibcode=1982Sci...215.1045I |s2cid=42255976 }} Members of Chaetothyriales (class Eurotiomycetes) are found in hydrocarbon-rich environments or in nutrient-poor, moist indoor environments, and may occur as opportunistic pathogens of vertebrate hosts, such as Exophiala (Wangiella) dermatitidis.De Hoog GS, Guarro J, Gené J, Figueras MJ (2009). [http://www.clinicalfungi.org/ Atlas of Clinical Fungi], third ed. Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures, Utrecht, The Netherlands. Several species are associated with lichens{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s11046-012-9598-8 |pmid=23161018 |title=The Lichen Connections of Black Fungi |year=2012 |last1=Muggia |first1=Lucia |last2=Gueidan |first2=Cecile |last3=Knudsen |first3=Kerry |last4=Perlmutter |first4=Gary |last5=Grube |first5=Martin |journal=Mycopathologia|volume=175 |issue=5–6 |pages=523–35 |s2cid=14170265 }}{{cite journal |doi=10.3114/sim.2008.61.08 |title=Black fungi in lichens from seasonally arid habitats |year=2008 |last1=Harutyunyan |first1=S. |last2=Muggia |first2=L. |last3=Grube |first3=M. |journal=Studies in Mycology |volume=61 |pages=83–90 |pmid=19287530 |pmc=2610299}} as well as other phototrophs{{cite journal |doi=10.3389/fmicb.2012.00390 |pmid=23162543 |pmc=3492852 |title=Polyextremotolerant black fungi: Oligotrophism, adaptive potential, and a link to lichen symbioses |year=2012 |last1=Gostinčar |first1=Cene |last2=Muggia |first2=Lucia |last3=Grube |first3=Martin |journal=Frontiers in Microbiology |volume=3|pages=390 |doi-access=free }} and sometimes with ants in specific ant-fungi associations.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.funbio.2010.11.006 |title=The diversity of ant-associated black yeasts: Insights into a newly discovered world of symbiotic interactions |year=2011 |last1=Voglmayr |first1=Hermann |last2=Mayer |first2=Veronika |last3=Maschwitz |first3=Ulrich |last4=Moog |first4=Joachim |last5=Djieto-Lordon |first5=Champlain |last6=Blatrix |first6=Rumsaïs |journal=Fungal Biology |volume=115 |issue=10 |pages=1077–91 |pmid=21944219}}

In recent years, black fungi such as E. dermatitidis or Hortaea werneckii have attracted increasingly attention as model microorganisms in studies on astrobiology,{{cite journal |doi=10.3114/sim.2008.61.10 |title=Resistance of Antarctic black fungi and cryptoendolithic communities to simulated space and Martian conditions |year=2008 |last1=Onofri |first1=S. |last2=Barreca |first2=D. |last3=Selbmann |first3=L. |last4=Isola |first4=D. |last5=Rabbow |first5=E. |last6=Horneck |first6=G. |last7=De Vera |first7=J.P.P. |last8=Hatton |first8=J. |last9=Zucconi |first9=L. |journal=Studies in Mycology |volume=61 |pages=99–109 |pmid=19287532 |pmc=2610303 }} bioremediation of polluted ecosystems by biofiltration,{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1574-6976.2005.00007.x |title=Fungi growing on aromatic hydrocarbons: Biotechnology's unexpected encounter with biohazard? |year=2006 |last1=Prenafeta-Boldú |first1=Francesc X. |last2=Summerbell |first2=Richard |last3=Sybren De Hoog |first3=G. |journal=FEMS Microbiology Reviews |volume=30 |pages=109–30 |pmid=16438682 |issue=1|doi-access= }} effect of ionizing radiation in contaminated areas,{{cite journal |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0048674 |title=Adaptation of the Black Yeast Wangiella dermatitidis to Ionizing Radiation: Molecular and Cellular Mechanisms |year=2012 |editor1-last=Nielsen |editor1-first=Kirsten |last1=Robertson |first1=Kelly L. |last2=Mostaghim |first2=Anahita |last3=Cuomo |first3=Christina A. |last4=Soto |first4=Carissa M. |last5=Lebedev |first5=Nikolai |last6=Bailey |first6=Robert F. |last7=Wang |first7=Zheng |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=7 |issue=11 |pages=e48674 |pmid=23139812 |pmc=3490873|bibcode=2012PLoSO...748674R |doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0000457 |title=Ionizing Radiation Changes the Electronic Properties of Melanin and Enhances the Growth of Melanized Fungi |year=2007 |editor1-last=Rutherford |editor1-first=Julian |last1=Dadachova |first1=Ekaterina |last2=Bryan |first2=Ruth A. |last3=Huang |first3=Xianchun |last4=Moadel |first4=Tiffany |last5=Schweitzer |first5=Andrew D. |last6=Aisen |first6=Philip |last7=Nosanchuk |first7=Joshua D. |last8=Casadevall |first8=Arturo |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=e457 |pmid=17520016 |pmc=1866175|bibcode=2007PLoSO...2..457D |doi-access=free }} biodeterioration of materials,{{cite journal |doi=10.1128/AEM.02220-06 |title=Synthetic Consolidants Attacked by Melanin-Producing Fungi: Case Study of the Biodeterioration of Milan (Italy) Cathedral Marble Treated with Acrylics |year=2006 |last1=Cappitelli |first1=F. |last2=Nosanchuk |first2=J. D. |last3=Casadevall |first3=A. |last4=Toniolo |first4=L. |last5=Brusetti |first5=L. |last6=Florio |first6=S. |last7=Principi |first7=P. |last8=Borin |first8=S. |last9=Sorlini |first9=C. |journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology |volume=73 |pages=271–7 |pmid=17071788 |issue=1 |pmc=1797126 }}{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/01490459309377952 |title=Role of black fungi in color change and biodeterioration of antique marbles |year=1993 |last1=Gorbushina |first1=A. A. |last2=Krumbein |first2=W. E. |last3=Hamman |first3=C. H. |last4=Panina |first4=L. |last5=Soukharjevski |first5=S. |last6=Wollenzien |first6=U. |journal=Geomicrobiology Journal |volume=11 |issue=3–4 |pages=205–221|bibcode=1993GmbJ...11..205G }} and mechanisms of adaptation to high salt concentrations. A collaborative effort coordinated by the Broad Institute is currently ongoing to sequence the genomes of several black fungi to shed light into their ecology, phylogeny and pathogenicity.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}

In 2011, a research paper about occurrence of potentially pathogenic black fungi in household dishwashers{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.funbio.2011.04.007 |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/06/110620133138.htm |access-date=June 20, 2011 |title=Dishwashers – A man-made ecological niche accommodating human opportunistic fungal pathogens |year=2011 |last1=Zalar |first1=P. |last2=Novak |first2=M. |last3=De Hoog |first3=G.S. |last4=Gunde-Cimerman |first4=N. |journal=Fungal Biology |volume=115 |issue=10 |pages=997–1007 |pmid=21944212}} was partially misreported by the media and went viral.{{citation needed|date=December 2012}}

Black yeasts are not related to the edible cloud ear fungus Auricularia polytricha.