Cancer research

File:Sidney Farber nci-vol-1926-300.jpg is regarded as the father of modern chemotherapy.]]

Cancer research has been ongoing for centuries. Early research focused on the causes of cancer.{{cite web|url=https://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancer-basics/history-of-cancer/cancer-causes-theories-throughout-history.html|title=Early Theories about Cancer Causes |publisher=American Cancer Society |access-date=9 May 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180509202956/https://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancer-basics/history-of-cancer/cancer-causes-theories-throughout-history.html|archive-date=9 May 2018}} Percivall Pott identified the first environmental trigger (chimney soot) for cancer in 1775 and cigarette smoking was identified as a cause of lung cancer in 1950. Early cancer treatment focused on improving surgical techniques for removing tumors. Radiation therapy took hold in the 1900s. Chemotherapeutics were developed and refined throughout the 20th century.

The U.S. declared a "War on Cancer" in the 1970s, and increased the funding and support for cancer research.{{cite web|url=https://dtp.cancer.gov/timeline/flash/milestones/M4_Nixon.htm|title=Milestone (1971): President Nixon declares war on cancer|website=dtp.cancer.gov|access-date=9 May 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171203021720/https://dtp.cancer.gov/timeline/flash/milestones/M4_Nixon.htm|archive-date=3 December 2017}}

Some of the most highly cited and most influential research reports include:

• The Hallmarks of Cancer, published in 2000, and Hallmarks of Cancer: The Next Generation, published in 2011, by Douglas Hanahan and Robert Weinberg. Together, these articles have been cited in over 30,000 published papers.

Cancer research encompasses a variety of types and interdisciplinary areas of research. Scientists involved in cancer research may be trained in areas such as chemistry, biochemistry, molecular biology, physiology, medical physics, epidemiology, and biomedical engineering. Research performed on a foundational level is referred to as basic research and is intended to clarify scientific principles and mechanisms. Translational research aims to elucidate mechanisms of cancer development and progression and transform basic scientific findings into concepts that can be applicable to the treatment and prevention of cancer. Clinical research is devoted to the development of pharmaceuticals, surgical procedures, and medical technologies for the eventual treatment of patients.

Epidemiologic analysis indicates that at least 35% of all cancer deaths in the world could now be avoided by primary prevention.{{cite journal |vauthors=Song M, Vogelstein B, Giovannucci EL, Willett WC, Tomasetti C |title=Cancer prevention: Molecular and epidemiologic consensus |journal=Science |volume=361 |issue=6409 |pages=1317–8 |date=September 2018 |pmid=30262488 |pmc=6260589 |doi=10.1126/science.aau3830 |bibcode=2018Sci...361.1317S }} According to a newer GBD systematic analysis, in 2019, ~44% of all cancer deaths — or ~4.5 million deaths or ~105 million lost disability-adjusted life years — were due to known clearly preventable risk factors, led by smoking, alcohol use and high BMI.{{cite journal |last1=Tran |first1=Khanh Bao |last2=Lang |first2=Justin J. |last3=Compton |first3=Kelly |last4=Xu |first4=Rixing |last5=Acheson |first5=Alistair R. |last6=Henrikson |first6=Hannah Jacqueline |last7=Kocarnik |first7=Jonathan M. |last8=Penberthy |first8=Louise |last9=Aali |first9=Amirali |last10=Abbas |first10=Qamar |display-authors=et al. |title=The global burden of cancer attributable to risk factors, 2010–19: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 |journal=The Lancet |date=20 August 2022 |volume=400 |issue=10352 |pages=563–591 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(22)01438-6 |pmid=35988567 |pmc=9395583 |doi-access=free}}

However, one 2015 study suggested that between ~70% and ~90% of cancers are due to environmental factors and therefore potentially preventable.{{cite journal |vauthors=Wu S, Powers S, Zhu W, Hannun YA |title=Substantial contribution of extrinsic risk factors to cancer development |journal=Nature |volume=529 |issue=7584 |pages=43–7 |date=January 2016 |pmid=26675728 |pmc=4836858 |doi=10.1038/nature16166|bibcode=2016Natur.529...43W }}{{contradictory inline|date=February 2023}} Furthermore, it is estimated that with further research cancer death rates could be reduced by 70% around the world even without the development of any new therapies. Cancer prevention research receives only 2–9% of global cancer research funding, albeit many of the options for prevention are already well-known without further cancer-specific research but are not reflected in economics and policy. Mutational signatures of various cancers, for example, could reveal further causes of cancer and support causal attribution.{{cite journal |last1=Degasperi |first1=Andrea |last2=Zou |first2=Xueqing |last3=Dias Amarante |first3=Tauanne |last4=Martinez-Martinez |first4=Andrea |display-authors=et al. |title=Substitution mutational signatures in whole-genome–sequenced cancers in the UK population |journal=Science |date=22 April 2022 |volume=376 |issue=6591 |pages=abl9283 |doi=10.1126/science.abl9283 |pmid=35949260 |pmc=7613262 |s2cid=248334490 }}

• University press release: {{cite news |title=Largest study of whole genome sequencing data reveals 'treasure trove' of clues about causes of cancer |url=https://medicalxpress.com/news/2022-04-largest-genome-sequencing-reveals-treasure.html |access-date=15 May 2022 |work=University of Cambridge |language=en}}{{additional citation needed|date=February 2023}}

{{Further|Cancer screening}}

{{See also|Biomarker}}

Prompt detection of cancer is important, since it is usually more difficult to treat in later stages. Accurate detection of cancer is also important because false positives can cause harm from unnecessary medical procedures. Some screening protocols are currently not accurate (such as prostate-specific antigen testing). Others such as a colonoscopy or mammogram are unpleasant and as a result some patients may opt out. Active research is underway to address all these problems, to develop novel ways of cancer screening and to increase detection rates.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}}{{explain|date=December 2022}}

For example:

• Multimodal learning AI systems are being developed to help detect many cancer types via integrating different types of data.{{cite news|last1=Quach |first1=Katyanna |title=Harvard boffins build multimodal AI system to predict cancer |url=https://www.theregister.com/2022/08/09/ai_cancer_multimodal/ |access-date=16 September 2022 |work=The Register |language=en}}{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Richard J. |last2=Lu |first2=Ming Y. |last3=Williamson |first3=Drew F. K. |last4=Chen |first4=Tiffany Y. |last5=Lipkova |first5=Jana |last6=Noor |first6=Zahra |last7=Shaban |first7=Muhammad |last8=Shady |first8=Maha |last9=Williams |first9=Mane |last10=Joo |first10=Bumjin |last11=Mahmood |first11=Faisal |title=Pan-cancer integrative histology-genomic analysis via multimodal deep learning |journal=Cancer Cell |date=8 August 2022 |volume=40 |issue=8 |pages=865–878.e6 |doi=10.1016/j.ccell.2022.07.004 |pmid=35944502 |pmc=10397370 |s2cid=251456162 |doi-access=free }}
• Teaching hospital press release: {{cite news |title=New AI technology integrates multiple data types to predict cancer outcomes |url=https://medicalxpress.com/news/2022-08-ai-technology-multiple-cancer-outcomes.html |access-date=18 September 2022 |work=Brigham and Women's Hospital via medicalxpress.com |language=en}}
• Scientists work on identifying and measurability of novel biomarkers or sets of such to detect cancer early, such as tumor-associated mycobiomes and bacterial microbiomes{{cite news |last1=Zimmer |first1=Carl |title=A New Approach to Spotting Tumors: Look for Their Microbes |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/29/science/cancer-tumors-fungi-bacteria-microbiome.html |access-date=19 October 2022 |work=The New York Times |date=29 September 2022}}{{cite journal |last1=Dohlman |first1=Anders B. |last2=Klug |first2=Jared |last3=Mesko |first3=Marissa |last4=Gao |first4=Iris H. |last5=Lipkin |first5=Steven M. |last6=Shen |first6=Xiling |last7=Iliev |first7=Iliyan D. |title=A pan-cancer mycobiome analysis reveals fungal involvement in gastrointestinal and lung tumors |journal=Cell |date=29 September 2022 |volume=185 |issue=20 |pages=3807–22 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2022.09.015 |pmid=36179671 |pmc=9564002 }}{{cite journal |last1=Narunsky-Haziza |first1=Lian |last2=Sepich-Poore |first2=Gregory D. |last3=Livyatan |first3=Ilana |last4=Asraf |first4=Omer |last5=Martino |first5=Cameron |last6=Nejman |first6=Deborah |last7=Gavert |first7=Nancy |last8=Stajich |first8=Jason E. |last9=Amit |first9=Guy |last10=González |first10=Antonio |last11=Wandro |first11=Stephen |last12=Perry |first12=Gili |last13=Ariel |first13=Ruthie |last14=Meltser |first14=Arnon |last15=Shaffer |first15=Justin P. |last16=Zhu |first16=Qiyun |last17=Balint-Lahat |first17=Nora |last18=Barshack |first18=Iris |last19=Dadiani |first19=Maya |last20=Gal-Yam |first20=Einav N. |last21=Patel |first21=Sandip Pravin |last22=Bashan |first22=Amir |last23=Swafford |first23=Austin D. |last24=Pilpel |first24=Yitzhak |last25=Knight |first25=Rob |last26=Straussman |first26=Ravid |title=Pan-cancer analyses reveal cancer-type-specific fungal ecologies and bacteriome interactions |journal=Cell |date=29 September 2022 |volume=185 |issue=20 |pages=3789–3806.e17 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2022.09.005 |pmid=36179670 |pmc=9567272 |doi-access=free}}{{explain|date=February 2023}}{{additional citation needed|date=February 2023}}
• Researchers investigate whether ants could be used as biosensors to detect cancer via urine{{cite journal |last1=Piqueret |first1=Baptiste |last2=Montaudon |first2=Élodie |last3=Devienne |first3=Paul |last4=Leroy |first4=Chloé |last5=Marangoni |first5=Elisabetta |last6=Sandoz |first6=Jean-Christophe |last7=d'Ettorre |first7=Patrizia |title=Ants act as olfactory bio-detectors of tumours in patient-derived xenograft mice |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |date=25 January 2023 |volume=290 |issue=1991 |pages=20221962 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2022.1962 |pmid=36695032 |pmc=9874262 }}{{additional citation needed|date=February 2023}}

{{main|Treatment of cancer}}

Emerging topics of cancer treatment research include:

• Anti-cancer vaccines
• Oncophage{{cite journal | vauthors = di Pietro A, Tosti G, Ferrucci PF, Testori A | title = Oncophage: step to the future for vaccine therapy in melanoma | journal = Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy | volume = 8 | issue = 12 | pages = 1973–84 | date = December 2008 | pmid = 18990084 | doi = 10.1517/14712590802517970 | s2cid = 83589014 }}
• Sipuleucel-T (Provenge) is a prostate cancer vaccine
• Inactivated tumor cells are investigated as potential bifunctional cancer vaccines{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Kok-Siong |last2=Reinshagen |first2=Clemens |last3=Van Schaik |first3=Thijs A. |last4=Rossignoli |first4=Filippo |last5=Borges |first5=Paulo |last6=Mendonca |first6=Natalia Claire |last7=Abdi |first7=Reza |last8=Simon |first8=Brennan |last9=Reardon |first9=David A. |last10=Wakimoto |first10=Hiroaki |last11=Shah |first11=Khalid |title=Bifunctional cancer cell–based vaccine concomitantly drives direct tumor killing and antitumor immunity |journal=Science Translational Medicine |date=4 January 2023 |volume=15 |issue=677 |pages=eabo4778 |doi=10.1126/scitranslmed.abo4778 |pmid=36599004 |pmc=10068810 |s2cid=255416438 }}
• Newer forms of chemotherapy
• Gene therapy{{cite web | title=Gene Therapy, Cancer-Killing Viruses And New Drugs Highlight Novel Approaches To Cancer Treatment | work=Medical News Today | url=http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/medicalnews.php?newsid=68204 | access-date=24 April 2007 }}{{cite web | title=World first gene therapy trial for leukaemia | work=LLR | url=http://leukaemialymphomaresearch.org.uk/research/achievements/new-treatments-blood-cancers | access-date=23 July 2013 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130802091406/http://leukaemialymphomaresearch.org.uk/research/achievements/new-treatments-blood-cancers | archive-date=2 August 2013 }}[https://www.nature.com/news/chinese-scientists-to-pioneer-first-human-crispr-trial-1.20302 Chinese scientists to pioneer first human CRISPR trial]
• Photodynamic therapy
• Radiation therapy
• Reoviridae (Reolysin drug therapy)
• Targeted therapy
• Medical microbots (including bacterial),{{cite journal |last1=Schmidt |first1=Christine K. |last2=Medina-Sánchez |first2=Mariana |last3=Edmondson |first3=Richard J. |last4=Schmidt |first4=Oliver G. |title=Engineering microrobots for targeted cancer therapies from a medical perspective |journal=Nature Communications |date=5 November 2020 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=5618 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19322-7 |pmid=33154372 |pmc=7645678 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5618S |language=en |issn=2041-1723|doi-access=free}}{{cite journal |last1=Gwisai |first1=T. |last2=Mirkhani |first2=N. |last3=Christiansen |first3=M. G. |last4=Nguyen |first4=T. T. |last5=Ling |first5=V. |last6=Schuerle |first6=S. |title=Magnetic torque–driven living microrobots for increased tumor infiltration |journal=Science Robotics |date=26 October 2022 |volume=7 |issue=71 |pages=eabo0665 |doi=10.1126/scirobotics.abo0665 |pmid=36288270 |language=en |issn=2470-9476|biorxiv=10.1101/2022.01.03.473989|s2cid=253160428 }} nanobots{{cite journal |last1=Kishore |first1=Chandra |last2=Bhadra |first2=Priyanka |title=Targeting Brain Cancer Cells by Nanorobot, a Promising Nanovehicle: New Challenges and Future Perspectives |journal=CNS & Neurological Disorders Drug Targets |date=July 2021 |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=531–9 |doi=10.2174/1871527320666210526154801|pmid=34042038 |s2cid=235217854 }} and bacterial 'cyborg cells'{{cite journal |last1=Contreras-Llano |first1=Luis E. |last2=Liu |first2=Yu-Han |last3=Henson |first3=Tanner |last4=Meyer |first4=Conary C. |last5=Baghdasaryan |first5=Ofelya |last6=Khan |first6=Shahid |last7=Lin |first7=Chi-Long |last8=Wang |first8=Aijun |last9=Hu |first9=Che-Ming J. |last10=Tan |first10=Cheemeng |title=Engineering Cyborg Bacteria Through Intracellular Hydrogelation |journal=Advanced Science |date=11 January 2023 |volume=10 |issue=9 |pages=2204175 |doi=10.1002/advs.202204175 |pmid=36628538 |pmc=10037956 |language=en |issn=2198-3844|doi-access=free}}
• News report about the study: {{cite news |last1=Firtina |first1=Nergis |title=Semi-living 'cyborg cells' could treat cancer, suggests new study |url=https://interestingengineering.com/health/semi-living-cyborg-cells-treat-cancer |access-date=15 February 2023 |work=Interesting Engineering |date=1 February 2023 |archive-date=15 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230215185036/https://interestingengineering.com/health/semi-living-cyborg-cells-treat-cancer |url-status=live }}{{additional citation needed|date=February 2023}}
• Virotherapy{{cite journal |last1=Lawler |first1=Sean E. |last2=Speranza |first2=Maria-Carmela |last3=Cho |first3=Choi-Fong |last4=Chiocca |first4=E. Antonio |title=Oncolytic Viruses in Cancer Treatment: A Review |journal=JAMA Oncology |date=1 June 2017 |volume=3 |issue=6 |pages=841–9 |doi=10.1001/jamaoncol.2016.2064|pmid=27441411 |s2cid=39321536 |doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |last1=Harrington |first1=Kevin |last2=Freeman |first2=Daniel J. |last3=Kelly |first3=Beth |last4=Harper |first4=James |last5=Soria |first5=Jean-Charles |title=Optimizing oncolytic virotherapy in cancer treatment |journal=Nature Reviews Drug Discovery |date=September 2019 |volume=18 |issue=9 |pages=689–706 |doi=10.1038/s41573-019-0029-0 |pmid=31292532 |s2cid=256745869 |language=en |issn=1474-1784}}
• Antibodies{{cite news |last1=Osborne |first1=Margaret |title=Small Cancer Trial Resulted in Complete Remission for All Participants |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/small-cancer-trial-resulted-in-complete-remission-for-all-participants-180980221/ |access-date=21 July 2022 |work=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}}{{cite journal |last1=Cercek |first1=Andrea |last2=Lumish |first2=Melissa |last3=Sinopoli |first3=Jenna |last4=Weiss |first4=Jill |last5=Shia |first5=Jinru |last6=Lamendola-Essel |first6=Michelle |last7=El Dika |first7=Imane H. |last8=Segal |first8=Neil |last9=Shcherba |first9=Marina |last10=Sugarman |first10=Ryan |last11=Stadler |first11=Zsofia |last12=Yaeger |first12=Rona |last13=Smith |first13=J. Joshua |last14=Rousseau |first14=Benoit |last15=Argiles |first15=Guillem |last16=Patel |first16=Miteshkumar |last17=Desai |first17=Avni |last18=Saltz |first18=Leonard B. |last19=Widmar |first19=Maria |last20=Iyer |first20=Krishna |last21=Zhang |first21=Janie |last22=Gianino |first22=Nicole |last23=Crane |first23=Christopher |last24=Romesser |first24=Paul B. |last25=Pappou |first25=Emmanouil P. |last26=Paty |first26=Philip |last27=Garcia-Aguilar |first27=Julio |last28=Gonen |first28=Mithat |last29=Gollub |first29=Marc |last30=Weiser |first30=Martin R. |last31=Schalper |first31=Kurt A. |last32=Diaz |first32=Luis A. |title=PD-1 Blockade in Mismatch Repair–Deficient, Locally Advanced Rectal Cancer |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |date=23 June 2022 |volume=386 |issue=25 |pages=2363–76 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa2201445 |pmid=35660797 |pmc=9492301 |s2cid=249395846 |issn=0028-4793}}{{cite news |title=Trastuzumab Deruxtecan Leads to Longer PFS and OS Compared with Chemotherapy in Previously Treated HER2-Low Unresectable or Metastatic Breast Cancer |url=https://www.esmo.org/oncology-news/trastuzumab-deruxtecan-leads-to-longer-pfs-and-os-compared-with-chemotherapy-in-previously-treated-her2-low-unresectable-or-metastatic-breast-cancer |access-date=21 July 2022 |work=www.esmo.org}}{{cite journal |last1=Modi |first1=Shanu |last2=Jacot |first2=William |last3=Yamashita |first3=Toshinari |last4=Sohn |first4=Joohyuk |last5=Vidal |first5=Maria |last6=Tokunaga |first6=Eriko |last7=Tsurutani |first7=Junji |last8=Ueno |first8=Naoto T. |last9=Prat |first9=Aleix |last10=Chae |first10=Yee Soo |last11=Lee |first11=Keun Seok |last12=Niikura |first12=Naoki |last13=Park |first13=Yeon Hee |last14=Xu |first14=Binghe |last15=Wang |first15=Xiaojia |last16=Gil-Gil |first16=Miguel |last17=Li |first17=Wei |last18=Pierga |first18=Jean-Yves |last19=Im |first19=Seock-Ah |last20=Moore |first20=Halle C. F. |last21=Rugo |first21=Hope S. |last22=Yerushalmi |first22=Rinat |last23=Zagouri |first23=Flora |last24=Gombos |first24=Andrea |last25=Kim |first25=Sung-Bae |last26=Liu |first26=Qiang |last27=Luo |first27=Ting |last28=Saura |first28=Cristina |last29=Schmid |first29=Peter |last30=Sun |first30=Tao |last31=Gambhire |first31=Dhiraj |last32=Yung |first32=Lotus |last33=Wang |first33=Yibin |last34=Singh |first34=Jasmeet |last35=Vitazka |first35=Patrik |last36=Meinhardt |first36=Gerold |last37=Harbeck |first37=Nadia |last38=Cameron |first38=David A. |title=Trastuzumab Deruxtecan in Previously Treated HER2-Low Advanced Breast Cancer |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |date=5 June 2022 |volume=387 |issue=1 |pages=9–20 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa2203690 |pmid=35665782 |pmc=10561652 |hdl=2445/197309 |s2cid=249418284 |url=https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/en/publications/4095995e-3067-46c9-875a-a70cdb641427 |language=en|hdl-access=free }}{{additional citation needed|date=December 2022}}
• Photoimmunotherapy (for brain cancer){{cite web | url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2022/jun/17/scientists-harness-light-therapy-to-target-and-kill-cancer-cells-in-world-first |title=Scientists harness light therapy to target and kill cancer cells in world first |work=The Guardian| date=17 June 2022| access-date=21 June 2022}}{{cite journal |last1=Mączyńska |first1=Justyna |last2=Raes |first2=Florian |last3=Da Pieve |first3=Chiara |last4=Turnock |first4=Stephen |last5=Boult |first5=Jessica K. R. |last6=Hoebart |first6=Julia |last7=Niedbala |first7=Marcin |last8=Robinson |first8=Simon P. |last9=Harrington |first9=Kevin J. |last10=Kaspera |first10=Wojciech |last11=Kramer-Marek |first11=Gabriela |title=Triggering anti-GBM immune response with EGFR-mediated photoimmunotherapy |journal=BMC Medicine |date=21 January 2022 |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=16 |doi=10.1186/s12916-021-02213-z |pmid=35057796 |pmc=8780306 |issn=1741-7015 |doi-access=free }}
• News release: {{cite web | url=https://www.icr.ac.uk/news-archive/light-activated-photoimmunotherapy-could-enhance-brain-cancer-treatment |title=Light-activated 'photoimmunotherapy' could enhance brain cancer treatment |work=Institute of Cancer Research| date=16 June 2022| access-date=21 June 2022}}{{additional citation needed|date=December 2022}}
• Natural killer cells can induce immunological memory. Research is being developed to modify their action against cancer.{{cite journal | vauthors = Cerwenka A, Lanier LL | title = Natural killer cell memory in infection, inflammation and cancer | journal = Nature Reviews. Immunology | volume = 16 | issue = 2 | pages = 112–123 | date = February 2016 | pmid = 26806484 | doi = 10.1038/nri.2015.9 | s2cid = 361806 | url = http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/2qj442xk }}
• How treatments can best be combined (in combination therapies){{cite journal |last1=Zhu |first1=Shaoming |last2=Zhang |first2=Tian |last3=Zheng |first3=Lei |last4=Liu |first4=Hongtao |last5=Song |first5=Wenru |last6=Liu |first6=Delong |last7=Li |first7=Zihai |last8=Pan |first8=Chong-xian |title=Combination strategies to maximize the benefits of cancer immunotherapy |journal=Journal of Hematology & Oncology |date=December 2021 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=156 |doi=10.1186/s13045-021-01164-5|pmid=34579759 |pmc=8475356 |doi-access=free }}

File:Signal transduction v1.png pathways are disrupted in the development of cancer.]]

Research into the cause of cancer involves many different disciplines including genetics, diet, environmental factors (i.e. chemical carcinogens). In regard to investigation of causes and potential targets for therapy, the route used starts with data obtained from clinical observations, enters basic research, and, once convincing and independently confirmed results are obtained, proceeds with clinical research, involving appropriately designed trials on consenting human subjects, with the aim to test safety and efficiency of the therapeutic intervention method.

An important part of basic research is characterization of the potential mechanisms of carcinogenesis, in regard to the types of genetic and epigenetic changes that are associated with cancer development. The mouse is often used as a mammalian model for manipulation of the function of genes that play a role in tumor formation, while basic aspects of tumor initiation, such as mutagenesis, are assayed on cultures of bacteria and mammalian cells.

{{main|Oncogenomics}}

{{See also|Databases for oncogenomic research}}

The goal of oncogenomics is to identify new oncogenes or tumor suppressor genes that may provide new insights into cancer diagnosis, predicting clinical outcome of cancers, and new targets for cancer therapies. As the Cancer Genome Project stated in a 2004 review article, "a central aim of cancer research has been to identify the mutated genes that are causally implicated in oncogenesis (cancer genes)."{{cite journal | vauthors = Futreal PA, Coin L, Marshall M, Down T, Hubbard T, Wooster R, Rahman N, Stratton MR | title = A census of human cancer genes | journal = Nature Reviews. Cancer | volume = 4 | issue = 3 | pages = 177–183 | date = March 2004 | pmid = 14993899 | pmc = 2665285 | doi = 10.1038/nrc1299 }} The Cancer Genome Atlas project is a related effort investigating the genomic changes associated with cancer, while the COSMIC cancer database documents acquired genetic mutations from hundreds of thousands of human cancer samples.{{cite journal | vauthors = Forbes S, Clements J, Dawson E, Bamford S, Webb T, Dogan A, Flanagan A, Teague J, Wooster R, Futreal PA, Stratton MR | title = COSMIC 2005 | journal = British Journal of Cancer | volume = 94 | issue = 2 | pages = 318–322 | date = January 2006 | pmid = 16421597 | pmc = 2361125 | doi = 10.1038/sj.bjc.6602928 }}

These large scale projects, involving about 350 different types of cancer, have identified ~130,000 mutations in ~3000 genes that have been mutated in the tumors. The majority occurred in 319 genes, of which 286 were tumor suppressor genes and 33 oncogenes.

Several hereditary factors can increase the chance of cancer-causing mutations, including the activation of oncogenes or the inhibition of tumor suppressor genes. The functions of various onco- and tumor suppressor genes can be disrupted at different stages of tumor progression. Mutations in such genes can be used to classify the malignancy of a tumor.

In later stages, tumors can develop a resistance to cancer treatment. The identification of oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes is important to understand tumor progression and treatment success. The role of a given gene in cancer progression may vary tremendously, depending on the stage and type of cancer involved.Vlahopoulos SA, Logotheti S, Mikas D, Giarika A, Gorgoulis V, Zoumpourlis V.The role of ATF-2 in oncogenesis" Bioessays 2008 Apr;30(4) 314-27.

{{Excerpt|Cancer epigenetics|only=paragraphs}}

{{Excerpt|Diet and cancer}}

Periods of intermittent fasting (time-restricted feeding which may not include caloric restriction) is investigated for potential usefulness in cancer prevention and treatment and as of 2021 additional trials are needed to elucidate the risks and benefits.{{cite journal |last1=Clifton |first1=Katherine K. |last2=Ma |first2=Cynthia X. |last3=Fontana |first3=Luigi |last4=Peterson |first4=Lindsay L. |title=Intermittent fasting in the prevention and treatment of cancer |journal=CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians |date=November 2021 |volume=71 |issue=6 |pages=527–546 |doi=10.3322/caac.21694 |pmid=34383300 |s2cid=236989849 |language=en |issn=0007-9235|doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |last1=Manoogian |first1=Emily N. C. |last2=Panda |first2=Satchidananda |title=Circadian rhythms, time-restricted feeding, and healthy aging |journal=Ageing Research Reviews |date=1 October 2017 |volume=39 |pages=59–67 |doi=10.1016/j.arr.2016.12.006 |pmid=28017879 |pmc=5814245 |language=en |issn=1568-1637}}{{cite book |last1=Brandhorst |first1=Sebastian |last2=Longo |first2=Valter D. |title=Metabolism in Cancer |chapter=Fasting and Caloric Restriction in Cancer Prevention and Treatment |series=Recent Results in Cancer Research |date=2016 |volume=207 |pages=241–266 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-42118-6_12 |publisher=Springer |pmid=27557543 |pmc=7476366 |isbn=978-3-319-42116-2 |s2cid=42198775 |language=en}}{{cite journal |last1=Alidadi |first1=Mona |last2=Banach |first2=Maciej |last3=Guest |first3=Paul C. |last4=Bo |first4=Simona |last5=Jamialahmadi |first5=Tannaz |last6=Sahebkar |first6=Amirhossein |title=The effect of caloric restriction and fasting on cancer |journal=Seminars in Cancer Biology |date=1 August 2021 |volume=73 |pages=30–44 |doi=10.1016/j.semcancer.2020.09.010 |pmid=32977005 |s2cid=221938415 |language=en |issn=1044-579X}} In some cases, "caloric restrictions could hinder both cancer growth and progression, besides enhancing the efficacy of chemotherapy and radiation therapy".{{cite journal |last1=Ibrahim |first1=Ezzeldin M. |last2=Al-Foheidi |first2=Meteb H. |last3=Al-Mansour |first3=Mubarak M. |title=Energy and caloric restriction, and fasting and cancer: a narrative review |journal=Supportive Care in Cancer |date=1 May 2021 |volume=29 |issue=5 |pages=2299–2304 |doi=10.1007/s00520-020-05879-y |pmid=33190181 |pmc=7981322 |s2cid=226945778 }} Caloric restriction mimetics, including some present in foods like spermidine, are also investigated for these or similar reasons.{{cite journal |last1=Hofer |first1=Sebastian J. |last2=Davinelli |first2=Sergio |last3=Bergmann |first3=Martina |last4=Scapagnini |first4=Giovanni |last5=Madeo |first5=Frank |title=Caloric Restriction Mimetics in Nutrition and Clinical Trials |journal=Frontiers in Nutrition |date=2021 |volume=8 |page=717343 |doi=10.3389/fnut.2021.717343 |pmid=34552954 |pmc=8450594 |doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |last1=Madeo |first1=Frank |last2=Eisenberg |first2=Tobias |last3=Pietrocola |first3=Federico |last4=Kroemer |first4=Guido |title=Spermidine in health and disease |journal=Science |date=26 January 2018 |volume=359 |issue=6374 |pages=eaan2788 |doi=10.1126/science.aan2788 |pmid=29371440 |s2cid=206659415 |language=en |issn=0036-8075|doi-access=free }} Such and similar dietary supplements may contribute to prevention or treatment, with candidate substances including apigenin,{{cite journal |last1=Imran |first1=Muhammad |last2=Aslam Gondal |first2=Tanweer |last3=Atif |first3=Muhammad |last4=Shahbaz |first4=Muhammad |last5=Batool Qaisarani |first5=Tahira |last6=Hanif Mughal |first6=Muhammad |last7=Salehi |first7=Bahare |last8=Martorell |first8=Miquel |last9=Sharifi-Rad |first9=Javad |title=Apigenin as an anticancer agent |journal=Phytotherapy Research |date=August 2020 |volume=34 |issue=8 |pages=1812–28 |doi=10.1002/ptr.6647 |pmid=32059077 |s2cid=211122428 |language=en |issn=0951-418X}}{{cite journal |last1=Shukla |first1=Sanjeev |last2=Gupta |first2=Sanjay |title=Apigenin: A Promising Molecule for Cancer Prevention |journal=Pharmaceutical Research |date=1 June 2010 |volume=27 |issue=6 |pages=962–978 |doi=10.1007/s11095-010-0089-7 |pmid=20306120 |pmc=2874462 }}{{cite journal |last1=Shankar |first1=Eswar |last2=Goel |first2=Aditi |last3=Gupta |first3=Karishma |last4=Gupta |first4=Sanjay |title=Plant Flavone Apigenin: an Emerging Anticancer Agent |journal=Current Pharmacology Reports |date=1 December 2017 |volume=3 |issue=6 |pages=423–446 |doi=10.1007/s40495-017-0113-2 |pmid=29399439 |pmc=5791748 }} berberine,{{cite journal |last1=Samadi |first1=Parisa |last2=Sarvarian |first2=Parisa |last3=Gholipour |first3=Elham |last4=Asenjan |first4=Karim Shams |last5=Aghebati-Maleki |first5=Leili |last6=Motavalli 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{{See also|Global health|Funding of science}}

Cancer research is funded by government grants, charitable foundations and pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies.{{cite web|url=https://www.asco.org/advocacy-policy/policies-positions-guidance/federally-funded-cancer-research|title=Federally Funded Cancer Research|date=8 February 2016|website=asco.org|access-date=9 May 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180423174847/https://www.asco.org/advocacy-policy/policies-positions-guidance/federally-funded-cancer-research|archive-date=23 April 2018}}

In the early 2000s, most funding for cancer research came from taxpayers and charities, rather than from corporations. In the US, less than 30% of all cancer research was funded by commercial researchers such as pharmaceutical companies.{{cite journal | vauthors = Eckhouse S, Sullivan R | title = A survey of public funding of cancer research in the European union | journal = PLOS Medicine | volume = 3 | issue = 7 | pages = e267 | date = July 2006 | pmid = 16842021 | pmc = 1513045 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pmed.0030267 | doi-access = free }} Per capita, public spending on cancer research by taxpayers and charities in the US was five times as much in 2002–03 as public spending by taxpayers and charities in the 15 countries that were full members of the European Union. As a percentage of GDP, the non-commercial funding of cancer research in the US was four times the amount dedicated to cancer research in Europe. Half of Europe's non-commercial cancer research is funded by charitable organizations.

The National Cancer Institute is the major funding institution in the United States. In the 2023 fiscal year, the NCI funded $7.1 billion in cancer research.{{cite web |title=NCI Budget Fact Book |url=https://www.cancer.gov/about-nci/budget/fact-book |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date= |website=National Cancer Institute |date=10 May 2022 |language=en}}

Difficulties inherent to cancer research are shared with many types of biomedical research.

Cancer research processes have been criticised. These include, especially in the US, for the financial resources and positions required to conduct research. Other consequences of competition for research resources appear to be a substantial number of research publications whose results cannot be replicated.{{cite journal | vauthors = Alberts B, Kirschner MW, Tilghman S, Varmus H | title = Rescuing US biomedical research from its systemic flaws | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 111 | issue = 16 | pages = 5773–7 | date = April 2014 | pmid = 24733905 | pmc = 4000813 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1404402111 | bibcode = 2014PNAS..111.5773A | url = | doi-access = free }}{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/24/health/policy/24cancer.html|title=Advances Elusive in the Drive to Cure Cancer| vauthors = Kolata G |date=23 April 2009|work=The New York Times|access-date=2009-12-29|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114120509/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/24/health/policy/24cancer.html|archive-date=14 January 2012}}{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/28/health/research/28cancer.html|title=Grant System Leads Cancer Researchers to Play It Safe| vauthors = Kolata G |date=27 June 2009|work=The New York Times|access-date=2009-12-29|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608133344/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/28/health/research/28cancer.html|archive-date=8 June 2011}}{{cite news |url=https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2004/03/22/365076/index.htm |title=Why We're Losing The War on Cancer | vauthors = Leaf C |date=22 March 2004 |publisher=Fortune Magazine (CNN Money) |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502084608/https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2004/03/22/365076/index.htm |archive-date=2014-05-02 }}

{{Excerpt|Replication crisis|In medicine|paragraphs=2}}

One can share computer time for distributed cancer research projects like Help Conquer Cancer.{{cite web | url=http://www.worldcommunitygrid.org/projects_showcase/hcc1/viewHcc1Main.do | title=Help Conquer Cancer | date=19 November 2007 | access-date=2007-11-19 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071116095744/http://www.worldcommunitygrid.org/projects_showcase/hcc1/viewHcc1Main.do | archive-date=2007-11-16 }} World Community Grid also had a project called Help Defeat Cancer. Other related projects include the Folding@home and Rosetta@home projects, which focus on groundbreaking protein folding and protein structure prediction research. Vodafone has also partnered with the Garvan Institute to create the DreamLab Project, which uses distributed computing via an app on cellphones to perform cancer research.

File:MatchMiner overview of data flow and modes of use.webp

Members of the public can also join clinical trials as healthy control subjects or for methods of cancer detection.

There could be software and data-related procedures that increase participation in trials and make them faster and less expensive. One open source platform matches genomically profiled cancer patients to precision medicine drug trials.{{cite news |title=Researchers report genomic profiling from more than 110,000 tumors |url=https://www.news-medical.net/news/20220719/Researchers-report-genomic-profiling-from-more-than-110000-tumors.aspx |access-date=20 November 2022 |work=News-Medical.net |date=19 July 2022 |language=en}}{{cite journal |last1=Klein |first1=Harry |last2=Mazor |first2=Tali |last3=Siegel |first3=Ethan |last4=Trukhanov |first4=Pavel |last5=Ovalle |first5=Andrea |last6=Vecchio Fitz |first6=Catherine Del |last7=Zwiesler |first7=Zachary |last8=Kumari |first8=Priti |last9=Van Der Veen |first9=Bernd |last10=Marriott |first10=Eric |last11=Hansel |first11=Jason |last12=Yu |first12=Joyce |last13=Albayrak |first13=Adem |last14=Barry |first14=Susan |last15=Keller |first15=Rachel B. |last16=MacConaill |first16=Laura E. |last17=Lindeman |first17=Neal |last18=Johnson |first18=Bruce E. |last19=Rollins |first19=Barrett J. |last20=Do |first20=Khanh T. |last21=Beardslee |first21=Brian |last22=Shapiro |first22=Geoffrey |last23=Hector-Barry |first23=Suzanne |last24=Methot |first24=John |last25=Sholl |first25=Lynette |last26=Lindsay |first26=James |last27=Hassett |first27=Michael J. |last28=Cerami |first28=Ethan |title=MatchMiner: an open-source platform for cancer precision medicine |journal=npj Precision Oncology |date=6 October 2022 |volume=6 |issue=1 |page=69 |doi=10.1038/s41698-022-00312-5 |pmid=36202909 |pmc=9537311 |doi-access=free}}

Image:MDACC.jpg is ranked as one of the top cancer research institutions.]]

File:Breast Cancer Awareness (263497131).jpg

Organizations exist as associations for scientists participating in cancer research, such as the American Association for Cancer Research and American Society of Clinical Oncology, and as foundations for public awareness or raising funds for cancer research, such as Relay For Life and the American Cancer Society.

Supporters of different types of cancer have adopted different colored awareness ribbons and promote months of the year as being dedicated to the support of specific types of cancer.{{cite web|url=https://www.cancer.net/research-and-advocacy/cancer-awareness-dates|title=Cancer Awareness Dates|date=19 December 2013|website=cancer.net|access-date=9 May 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171209100057/https://www.cancer.net/research-and-advocacy/cancer-awareness-dates|archive-date=9 December 2017}} The American Cancer Society began promoting October as Breast Cancer Awareness Month in the United States in the 1980s. Pink products are sold to both generate awareness and raise money to be donated for research purposes. This has led to pinkwashing, or the selling of ordinary products turned pink as a promotion for the company.

• .cancerresearch
• Exposome

{{Reflist}}

• [http://cgap.nci.nih.gov/ Cancer Genome Anatomy Project @ The NIH]
• [http://icbp.nci.nih.gov/ The Integrative Cancer Biology Program @ National Cancer Institute]

{{Tumors}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cancer Research}}

Category:Cancer