Classic autism#Low-Functioning Autism

Autism is a highly variable neurodevelopmental disorder{{cite journal | vauthors = Geschwind DH | title = Autism: many genes, common pathways? | journal = Cell | volume = 135 | issue = 3 | pages = 391–395 | date = October 2008 | pmid = 18984147 | pmc = 2756410 | doi = 10.1016/j.cell.2008.10.016 }}{{Cite journal |last1=Wozniak |first1=Robert H. |last2=Leezenbaum |first2=Nina B. |last3=Northrup |first3=Jessie B. |last4=West |first4=Kelsey L. |last5=Iverson |first5=Jana M. |date=Jan 2017 |title=The Development of Autism Spectrum Disorders: Variability and Causal Complexity |journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews. Cognitive Science |volume=8 |issue=1–2 |pages=10.1002/wcs.1426 |doi=10.1002/wcs.1426 |issn=1939-5078 |pmc=5182138 |pmid=27906524}} whose symptoms first appear during infancy or childhood, and generally follows a steady course without remission. Autistic people may be severely impaired in some respects but average, or even superior, in others.{{cite book |vauthors=Pinel JP |title=Biopsychology |year=2011 |publisher=Pearson |location=Boston, Massachusetts |edition=8th |isbn=978-0-205-03099-6 |oclc=1085798897 |page=235}} Overt symptoms gradually begin after the age of six months and become established by age two or three years.{{cite journal | vauthors = Rogers SJ | title = What are infant siblings teaching us about autism in infancy? | journal = Autism Research | volume = 2 | issue = 3 | pages = 125–137 | date = June 2009 | pmid = 19582867 | pmc = 2791538 | doi = 10.1002/aur.81 }} Some autistic children experience regression in their communication and social skills after reaching developmental milestones at a normal pace.{{cite journal | vauthors = Stefanatos GA | title = Regression in autistic spectrum disorders | journal = Neuropsychology Review | volume = 18 | issue = 4 | pages = 305–319 | date = December 2008 | pmid = 18956241 | doi = 10.1007/s11065-008-9073-y | s2cid = 34658024 }}{{Citation |last1=Barger |first1=Brian D. |title=Developmental Regression in Autism Spectrum Disorders: Implications for Clinical Outcomes |date=2014 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-4788-7_84 |work=Comprehensive Guide to Autism |pages=1473–1493 |editor-last=Patel |editor-first=Vinood B. |access-date=2023-12-28 |place=New York, NY |publisher=Springer |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-4788-7_84 |isbn=978-1-4614-4788-7 |last2=Campbell |first2=Jonathan M. |editor2-last=Preedy |editor2-first=Victor R. |editor3-last=Martin |editor3-first=Colin R.|url-access=subscription }} It was said to be distinguished by a characteristic triad of symptoms: impairments in social interaction, impairments in communication, and repetitive behavior. Other aspects, such as atypical eating, are also common but are not essential for diagnosis. Individual symptoms of autism occur in the general population and appear not to associate highly, without a sharp line separating pathologically severe from common traits.

Autistic people have social impairments and often lack the intuition about others that many people take for granted. Unusual social development becomes apparent early in childhood. Autistic infants show less attention to social stimuli, smile and look at others less often, and respond less to their own name. Autistic toddlers differ more strikingly from social norms; for example, they have less eye contact and turn-taking, and do not have the ability to use simple movements to express themselves, such as pointing at things. Three- to five-year-old autistic children are less likely to exhibit social understanding, approach others spontaneously, imitate and respond to emotions, communicate nonverbally, and take turns with others. However, they do form attachments to their primary caregivers.{{cite journal | vauthors = Sigman M, Dijamco A, Gratier M, Rozga A | title = Early detection of core deficits in autism | journal = Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews | volume = 10 | issue = 4 | pages = 221–233 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15666338 | doi = 10.1002/mrdd.20046 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.492.9930 }} Most autistic children displayed moderately less attachment security than neurotypical children, although this difference disappears in children with higher mental development or less pronounced autistic traits.{{cite journal | vauthors = Rutgers AH, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, van Ijzendoorn MH, van Berckelaer-Onnes IA | title = Autism and attachment: a meta-analytic review | journal = Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines | volume = 45 | issue = 6 | pages = 1123–1134 | date = September 2004 | pmid = 15257669 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.t01-1-00305.x }} Children with high-functioning autism have more intense and frequent loneliness compared to non-autistic peers, despite the common belief that autistic children prefer to be alone. Making and maintaining friendships often proves to be difficult for autistic people. For them, the quality of friendships, not the number of friends, predicts how lonely they feel. Functional friendships, such as those resulting in invitations to parties, may affect the quality of life more deeply.

Differences in communication may be present from the first year of life, and may include delayed onset of babbling, unusual gestures, diminished responsiveness, and vocal patterns that are not synchronized with the caregiver. In the second and third years, autistic children have less frequent and less diverse babbling, consonants, words, and word combinations; their gestures are less often integrated with words. Autistic children are less likely to make requests or share experiences, and are more likely to simply repeat others' words (echolalia) or reverse pronouns. Deficits in joint attention may be present — for example, they may look at a pointing hand instead of the object to which the hand is pointing. Autistic children may have difficulty with imaginative play and with developing symbols into language. It is also thought that autistic and non-autistic adults produce different facial expressions, and that these differences could contribute to bidirectional communication difficulties.{{Cite journal |last1=Keating |first1=Connor Tom |last2=Cook |first2=Jennifer Louise |date=2020-07-01 |title=Facial Expression Production and Recognition in Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Shifting Landscape |journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America |series=Autism Spectrum Disorder Across the Lifespan: Part II |language=en |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=557–571 |doi=10.1016/j.chc.2020.02.006 |pmid=32471602 |s2cid=216347274 |issn=1056-4993|doi-access=free }}

File:Autistic-sweetiepie-boy-with-ducksinarow.jpg

Autistic individuals can display many forms of repetitive or restricted behavior, which the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS-R) categorizes as follows.{{cite journal | vauthors = Lam KS, Aman MG | title = The Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised: independent validation in individuals with autism spectrum disorders | journal = Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders | volume = 37 | issue = 5 | pages = 855–866 | date = May 2007 | pmid = 17048092 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-006-0213-z | s2cid = 41034513 }}{{Cite journal |last1=Tian |first1=Junbin |last2=Gao |first2=Xuping |last3=Yang |first3=Li |date=2022 |title=Repetitive Restricted Behaviors in Autism Spectrum Disorder: From Mechanism to Development of Therapeutics |journal=Frontiers in Neuroscience |volume=16 |doi=10.3389/fnins.2022.780407 |doi-access=free |pmid=35310097 |pmc=8924045 |issn=1662-453X}}

• Stereotyped behaviors: Repetitive movements, such as hand flapping, head rolling, or body rocking.
• Compulsive behaviors: Time-consuming behaviors intended to reduce the anxiety that an individual feels compelled to perform repeatedly or according to rigid rules, such as placing objects in a specific order, checking things, or handwashing.
• Sameness: Resistance to change; for example, insisting that the furniture not be moved or refusing to be interrupted.
• Ritualistic behavior: Unvarying pattern of daily activities, such as an unchanging menu or a dressing ritual.
• Restricted interests: Interests or fixations that are abnormal in theme or intensity of focus, such as preoccupation with a single television program, toy, or game.

No single repetitive or self-injurious behavior seems to be specific to autism, but autism appears to have an elevated pattern of occurrence and severity of these behaviors.{{cite journal | vauthors = Bodfish JW, Symons FJ, Parker DE, Lewis MH | title = Varieties of repetitive behavior in autism: comparisons to mental retardation | journal = Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders | volume = 30 | issue = 3 | pages = 237–243 | date = June 2000 | pmid = 11055459 | doi = 10.1023/A:1005596502855 | s2cid = 16706630 }}

Autistic individuals may have symptoms that are independent of the diagnosis. An estimated 0.5% to 10% of individuals with classic autism show unusual abilities, ranging from splinter skills such as the memorization of trivia to the extraordinarily rare talents of prodigious autistic savants.{{cite journal | vauthors = Treffert DA | title = The savant syndrome: an extraordinary condition. A synopsis: past, present, future | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences | volume = 364 | issue = 1522 | pages = 1351–1357 | date = May 2009 | pmid = 19528017 | pmc = 2677584 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2008.0326 }} Sensory abnormalities are found in over 90% of autistic people, and are considered core features by some, although there is no good evidence that sensory symptoms differentiate autism from other developmental disorders.{{cite journal | vauthors = Rogers SJ, Ozonoff S | title = Annotation: what do we know about sensory dysfunction in autism? A critical review of the empirical evidence | journal = Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines | volume = 46 | issue = 12 | pages = 1255–1268 | date = December 2005 | pmid = 16313426 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01431.x }} An estimated 60–80% of autistic people have motor signs that include poor muscle tone, poor motor planning, and toe walking.

{{Main|Causes of autism}}

It was presumed initially that there was a common cause at the genetic, cognitive, and neural levels for classic autism's characteristic triad of symptoms. However, over time, there was increasing evidence that autism was instead a complex and highly heritable disorder whose core aspects have distinct causes which often co-occur.{{cite journal | vauthors = Happé F, Ronald A | title = The 'fractionable autism triad': a review of evidence from behavioural, genetic, cognitive and neural research | journal = Neuropsychology Review | volume = 18 | issue = 4 | pages = 287–304 | date = December 2008 | pmid = 18956240 | doi = 10.1007/s11065-008-9076-8 | s2cid = 13928876 }}

File:Single Chromosome Mutations.svg that have been implicated in autism.{{cite journal | vauthors = Beaudet AL | title = Autism: highly heritable but not inherited | journal = Nature Medicine | volume = 13 | issue = 5 | pages = 534–536 | date = May 2007 | pmid = 17479094 | doi = 10.1038/nm0507-534 | s2cid = 11673879 }}]]

The exact causes of autism are unknown, but it is believed that both genetic and environmental factors play a role in its development.{{cite web|title=Autism Spectrum Disorder: Fact Sheet|url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/autism/detail_autism.htm|website=National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke|accessdate=16 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151206175729/http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/autism/detail_autism.htm|archive-date=2015-12-06|url-status=dead}} Multiple studies have shown structural and functional atypicalities in the brains of autistic people.{{cite journal |last1=Brambilla |first1=P |date=2003 |title=Brain anatomy and development in autism: Review of structural MRI studies |journal=Brain Research Bulletin |volume=61 |issue=6 |pages=557–569 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresbull.2003.06.001 |pmid=14519452 |s2cid=23560500}} Experiments have been conducted to determine if the degree of brain atypicality yields any correlation to the severity of autism. One study done by Elia et al. (2000) used magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) on the midsagittal area of the cerebrum, midbrain, cerebellar vermis, corpus callosum, and vermal lobules VI and VII to measure brain atypicalities in children with low-functioning autism. The results suggested that the midbrain structures correlate with certain developmental behavioral aspects such as motivation, mnemonic, and learning processes, though there is more research needed to confirm this.{{cite journal|last1=Elia|first1=M|last2=Ferri|first2=R|last3=Musumeci|first3=S|last4=Panerai|first4=S|last5=Bottitta|first5=M|last6=Scuderi|first6=C|title=Clinical Correlates of Brain Morphometric Features of Subjects With Low-Functioning Autistic Disorder|journal=Journal of Child Neurology|volume=15|issue=8|pages=504–508|doi=10.1177/088307380001500802|pmid=10961787|year=2000|s2cid=24004979}} Furthermore, many developmental processes may contribute to several types of brain atypicalities in autism; therefore, determining the link between such atypicalities and severity of autism proves difficult.

Although theories regarding vaccines lack convincing scientific evidence, are biologically implausible,{{cite journal |vauthors=Gerber JS, Offit PA |date=February 2009 |title=Vaccines and autism: a tale of shifting hypotheses |journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=456–461 |doi=10.1086/596476 |pmc=2908388 |pmid=19128068}} and originated from a fraudulent study,{{cite journal |vauthors=Godlee F, Smith J, Marcovitch H |date=January 2011 |title=Wakefield's article linking MMR vaccine and autism was fraudulent |url=http://www.bmj.com/content/342/bmj.c7452.full |journal=BMJ |volume=342 |pages=c7452 |doi=10.1136/bmj.c7452 |pmid=21209060 |s2cid=43640126 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111093448/http://www.bmj.com/content/342/bmj.c7452.full |archive-date=11 November 2013|url-access=subscription }} parental concern about a potential vaccine link with autism (and subsequent concern about ASD) has led to lower rates of childhood immunizations, outbreaks of previously controlled childhood diseases in some countries, and the preventable deaths of several children.Vaccines and autism:

• {{cite journal |vauthors=Doja A, Roberts W |date=November 2006 |title=Immunizations and autism: a review of the literature |journal=The Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences. Le Journal Canadien des Sciences Neurologiques |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=341–346 |doi=10.1017/s031716710000528x |pmid=17168158 |doi-access=free}}
• {{cite journal |vauthors=Gerber JS, Offit PA |date=February 2009 |title=Vaccines and autism: a tale of shifting hypotheses |journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=456–461 |doi=10.1086/596476 |pmc=2908388 |pmid=19128068}}
• {{cite journal |vauthors=Gross L |date=May 2009 |title=A broken trust: lessons from the vaccine--autism wars |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=7 |issue=5 |pages=e1000114 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1000114 |pmc=2682483 |pmid=19478850 |doi-access=free }}
• {{cite journal |vauthors=Paul R |date=June 2009 |title=Parents ask: Am I risking autism if I vaccinate my children? |journal=Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=962–963 |doi=10.1007/s10803-009-0739-y |pmid=19363650 |s2cid=34467853}}
• {{cite journal |vauthors=Poland GA, Jacobson RM |date=January 2011 |title=The age-old struggle against the antivaccinationists |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |volume=364 |issue=2 |pages=97–99 |doi=10.1056/NEJMp1010594 |pmid=21226573 |doi-access=free}}{{cite journal |vauthors=McBrien J, Murphy J, Gill D, Cronin M, O'Donovan C, Cafferkey MT |date=July 2003 |title=Measles outbreak in Dublin, 2000 |journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal |volume=22 |issue=7 |pages=580–584 |doi=10.1097/00006454-200307000-00002 |pmid=12867830}}

Diagnosis of classic autism was based on behavioral symptoms, not cause or mechanism.{{cite journal | vauthors = London E | title = The role of the neurobiologist in redefining the diagnosis of autism | journal = Brain Pathology | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = 408–411 | date = October 2007 | pmid = 17919126 | pmc = 8095627 | doi = 10.1111/j.1750-3639.2007.00103.x | s2cid = 24860348 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Baird G, Cass H, Slonims V | title = Diagnosis of autism | journal = BMJ | volume = 327 | issue = 7413 | pages = 488–493 | date = August 2003 | pmid = 12946972 | pmc = 188387 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.327.7413.488 }}

The ICD-10 criteria for childhood autism postulate that abnormal or impaired development is evident before the age of 3 in receptive or expressive language used in social communication, development of selective social attachments or reciprocal social interactions, or functional and symbolic play. The children would also be required to exhibit six other symptoms from three macro-categories pertaining to qualitative impairment in social interactions, quantitative abnormalities in communication, and restricted/repetitive/stereotyped patterns of behavior, interests, and activities. ICD-10 differentiates high functioning and low-functioning autistic people by diagnosing the additional code of intellectual disability.{{cite book|last1=Strunecká|first1=A|title=Cellular and molecular biology of autism spectrum disorders|date=2011|publisher=Bentham e Books|pages=4–5}}

Classic autism was listed as autistic disorder in the fourth edition of the American Psychiatric Association's diagnostic manual, as one of the five pervasive developmental disorders (PDDs).{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosen NE, Lord C, Volkmar FR |date=December 2021 |title=The Diagnosis of Autism: From Kanner to DSM-III to DSM-5 and Beyond |journal=Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders |volume=51 |issue=12 |pages=4253–4270 |doi=10.1007/s10803-021-04904-1 |pmc=8531066 |pmid=33624215}} However, the PDDs were collapsed into the single diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder in 2013, and the WHO's diagnostic manual ICD-11 (which had listed it as childhood autism in its previous edition{{Cite web |title=ICD-10 Version:2016 |url=https://icd.who.int/browse10/2016/en#/F84.0 |access-date=2022-04-28 |website=icd.who.int}}) followed suit a few years later.{{Cite web |title=World Health Organisation updates classification of autism in the ICD-11 – Autism Europe |url=https://www.autismeurope.org/blog/2018/06/21/world-health-organisation-updates-classification-of-autism-in-the-icd-11/ |access-date=2022-04-28 |language=en-US}} Classic autism was said to be characterized by widespread abnormalities of social interactions and communication, severely restricted interests, and highly repetitive behavior.

Of the PDDs, Asperger syndrome was closest to classic autism in signs and likely causes; Rett syndrome and childhood disintegrative disorder share several signs with it, but were understood to potentially have unrelated causes; PDD not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS; also called atypical autism) was diagnosed when the criteria were not met for one of the other four PDDs.{{cite journal | vauthors = Volkmar FR, State M, Klin A | title = Autism and autism spectrum disorders: diagnostic issues for the coming decade | journal = Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines | volume = 50 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 108–115 | date = January 2009 | pmid = 19220594 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.02010.x }} People would usually attract a diagnosis of Asperger syndrome rather than classic autism if they showed no substantial delay in language development,{{cite book |title=Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV |chapter=Diagnostic criteria for 299.00 Autistic Disorder |publisher=American Psychiatric Association |year=2000 |edition=4th |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0-89042-025-6 |oclc=768475353 |lccn=00024852 |chapter-url=http://cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/hcp-dsm.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131029080544/http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/hcp-dsm.html |archive-date=29 October 2013 |via=Centers for Disease Control}} but early language ability was found to be a poor predictor of outcomes in adulthood.{{Cite journal | vauthors = Howlin P |date=2003-02-01 |title=Outcome in High-Functioning Adults with Autism with and Without Early Language Delays: Implications for the Differentiation Between Autism and Asperger Syndrome |journal=Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders |language=en |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=3–13 |doi=10.1023/A:1022270118899 |pmid=12708575 |s2cid=35817450 |issn=1573-3432}}

{{Anchor|Low-Functioning Autism}}

Low-functioning autism (LFA) is a degree of autism marked by difficulties with social communication and interaction, unsafe or uncooperative behavior, and differences in social or emotional reciprocity. Sleep problems, stereotypical, and self-injurious behavior are also common symptoms. LFA is not a recognized diagnosis in either the DSM or the ICD.

The term overlaps with severe autism and profound autism, as opposed to mild or moderate, which do not necessarily correlate with severe and profound levels of intellectual disability, where profound is the most severe level.{{cite book |last1=Coleman |first1=Mary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9id-BwAAQBAJ&pg=PT192 |title=The Autisms |last2=Gillberg |first2=Christopher |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-999629-2 |page=192 |quote=For extremely low-functioning children with clinically estimated IQs of about 30 or under, [a test is suitable for those with] autism with severe and profound levels of mental retardation/intellectual disability. |authorlink2=Christopher Gillberg}}{{cite journal |last1=Thurm |first1=Audrey |display-authors=etal |date=30 July 2019 |title=State of the Field: Differentiating Intellectual Disability From Autism Spectrum Disorder |journal=Frontiers in Psychiatry |volume=10 |page=526 |doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00526 |issn=1664-0640 |pmc=6683759 |pmid=31417436 |doi-access=free}}

Those who display symptoms for LFA usually have "impairments in all the three areas of psychopathology: reciprocal social interaction, communication, and restricted, stereotyped, repetitive behaviour".{{cite web |title=What is Autism, Asperger Syndrome, and Pervasive Developmental Disorders? |url=https://www.usautism.org/definitions.html |accessdate=2 September 2019 |website=US Autism and Asperger Association}}

Severe impairment of social skills can be seen in people with LFA.{{cite web |date=29 April 2020 |title=Autism (Autism Spectrum Disorder - ASD): Symptoms of Autism Spectrum Disorder |url=https://otsimo.com/en/autism-spectrum-disorder-definitive-guide/#symptoms-of-autism-spectrum-disorder |access-date=20 February 2021 |website=Otsimo |language=en}} This could include a lack of eye contact,{{cite web |title=Why do those with autism avoid eye contact? Imaging studies reveal overactivation of subcortical brain structures in response to direct gaze |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/06/170615213252.htm |access-date=20 February 2021 |website=ScienceDaily |language=en}} inadequate body language and a lack of emotional or physical response to others' behaviors and emotions. These social impairments can cause difficulty in relationships.

Communication impairments shown in people with LFA include lack of communication (both oral communication — i.e., nonverbal autism — and body language), repetitive use of words or phrases, and lack of imaginative play skills. They also may respond only to very direct external social interaction from others. Specific behavioral impairments that may be exhibited by a person with LFA include adherence to nonfunctional rituals or routines, repetitive motor functions such as hand flapping or complex whole body movements, and restrictive or obsessive patterns of interest that are abnormal. Other symptoms may include preoccupation with sensory elements of play materials such as their odor, feel, or noise they generate.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

{{Incomplete|section|sources from autistic scholars, social activists, researchers, among others, would strengthen the bottom of this section|date=June 2023}}{{Main|Autism therapies}}

File:Opening a window to the autistic brain.jpg

There is no known cure for autism, and very little research has addressed long-term prognosis for classic autism.{{cite journal | vauthors = Seltzer MM, Shattuck P, Abbeduto L, Greenberg JS | title = Trajectory of development in adolescents and adults with autism | journal = Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews | volume = 10 | issue = 4 | pages = 234–247 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15666341 | doi = 10.1002/mrdd.20038 | s2cid = 682311 }} Many autistic children lack social support, future employment opportunities or self-determination.

No known medication relieves autism's core symptoms of social and communication impairments.{{Cite web |last=CDC |date=2022-03-09 |title=Treatment and Intervention Services for Autism Spectrum Disorder |url=https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/treatment.html |access-date=2023-12-28 |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |language=en-us}} The main goals when treating autistic children are to lessen associated deficits and family distress, and to increase quality of life and functional independence. In general, higher IQs are correlated with greater responsiveness to treatment and improved treatment outcomes.{{cite journal | vauthors = Eldevik S, Hastings RP, Hughes JC, Jahr E, Eikeseth S, Cross S | title = Meta-analysis of Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention for children with autism | journal = Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology | volume = 38 | issue = 3 | pages = 439–450 | date = May 2009 | pmid = 19437303 | doi = 10.1080/15374410902851739 | s2cid = 205873629 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.607.9620 }} Treatments may include behavior analysis, speech and language therapy, occupational therapy, and psychosocial interventions.{{cite journal |vauthors=Myers SM, Johnson CP |title=Management of children with autism spectrum disorders |journal=Pediatrics |volume=120 |issue=5 |pages=1162–82 |date=November 2007 |pmid=17967921 |doi=10.1542/peds.2007-2362 |s2cid=1656920 |doi-access=free}} Intensive, sustained special education programs and behavior therapy early in life often improve functioning and decrease symptom severity and maladaptive behaviors; claims that intervention by around age three years is crucial are not substantiated.{{cite journal |vauthors = Howlin P, Magiati I, Charman T |title=Systematic review of early intensive behavioral interventions for children with autism |journal=American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=23–41 |date=January 2009 |pmid=19143460 |doi=10.1352/2009.114:23-41 }}

Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) is used for autistic people who cannot communicate orally. People who have problems speaking may be taught to use other forms of communication, such as body language, computers, interactive devices, and pictures.{{cite web|title=Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC)|url=http://www.asha.org/public/speech/disorders/AAC/|website=American Speech-Language-Hearing Association}} The Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) is a commonly used form of augmentative and alternative communication with children and adults who cannot communicate well orally. People are taught how to link pictures and symbols to their feelings, desires and observation, and may be able to link sentences together with the vocabulary that they form.{{cite web|title=What Treatments are Available for Speech, Language and Motor Issues?|url=https://www.autismspeaks.org/what-autism/treatment/what-treatments-are-available-speech-language-and-motor-impairments|website=Autism Speaks|access-date=2015-12-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222074105/https://www.autismspeaks.org/what-autism/treatment/what-treatments-are-available-speech-language-and-motor-impairments|archive-date=2015-12-22|url-status=live}}

Speech-language therapy can help those with autism who need to develop or improve communication skills. According to the organization Autism Speaks, "speech-language therapy is designed to coordinate the mechanics of speech with the meaning and social use of speech". People with low-functioning autism may not be able to communicate with spoken words. Speech-language pathologists (SLP) may teach someone how to communicate more effectively with others or work on starting to develop speech patterns.{{cite web|title=Speech and Language Therapy|url=http://www.autismeducationtrust.org.uk/good-practice/written-for-you/parents-and-cares/pc-speech-and-language-therapy.aspx|website=Autism Education Trust}}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} The SLP will create a plan that focuses on what the child needs.

Occupational therapy helps autistic children and adults learn everyday skills that help them with daily tasks, such as personal hygiene and movement. These skills are then integrated into their home, school, and work environments. Therapists will oftentimes help people learn to adapt their environment to their skill level.{{cite web|title=Occupational Therapy's Role with Autism|url=https://www.aota.org/-/media/Corporate/Files/AboutOT/Professionals/WhatIsOT/CY/Fact-Sheets/Autism%20fact%20sheet.ashx|website=American Occupational Therapy Association}} An occupational therapist will create a plan based on a person's needs and desires and work with them to achieve their set goals.

Sensory integration therapy helps people with autism adapt to different kinds of sensory stimuli. Many with autism can be oversensitive to certain stimuli, such as lights or sounds, causing them to overreact. Others may not react to certain stimuli, such as someone speaking to them. Therapists will help create a plan that focuses on the type of stimulation the person needs integration with.{{Citation|last1=Smith|first1=M|last2=Segal|first2=J|last3=Hutman|first3=T|title=Autism Spectrum Disorders}}

Applied behavioral analysis (ABA) focuses on teaching adaptive behaviors like social skills, play skills, or communication skills{{cite web|title=Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA): What is ABA?|url=http://www.autismpartnership.com/applied-behavior-analysis|website=Autism partnership|date=16 June 2011 }}{{cite journal |last1=Matson |first1=Johnny |last2=Hattier |first2=Megan |last3=Belva |first3=Brian |title=Treating adaptive living skills of persons with autism using applied behavior analysis: A review |journal=Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders |date=January–March 2012 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=271–276 |doi=10.1016/j.rasd.2011.05.008 }} and diminishing problematic behaviors like eloping or self-injury{{cite journal |last1=Summers |first1=Jane |last2=Sharami |first2=Ali |last3=Cali |first3=Stefanie |last4=D'Mello |first4=Chantelle |last5=Kako |first5=Milena |last6=Palikucin-Reljin |first6=Andjelka |last7=Savage |first7=Melissa |last8=Shaw |first8=Olivia |last9=Lunsky |first9=Yona |title=Self-Injury in Autism Spectrum Disorder and Intellectual Disability: Exploring the Role of Reactivity to Pain and Sensory Input |journal=Brain Sci |date=November 2017 |volume=7 |issue=11 |page=140 |doi=10.3390/brainsci7110140 |pmid=29072583 |pmc=5704147 |doi-access=free }} by creating a specialized plan that uses behavioral therapy techniques such as positive or negative reinforcement to encourage or discourage certain behaviors over-time.{{cite web|title=Applied Behavioral Strategies - Getting to Know ABA|url=http://www.appliedbehavioralstrategies.com/what-is-aba.html|access-date=2015-12-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151007100326/http://www.appliedbehavioralstrategies.com/what-is-aba.html|archive-date=2015-10-07|url-status=live}} ABA has been criticized by the neurodiversity movement.{{Cite journal |last=Leaf |first=Justin B. |last2=Cihon |first2=Joseph H. |last3=Leaf |first3=Ronald |last4=McEachin |first4=John |last5=Liu |first5=Nicholas |last6=Russell |first6=Noah |last7=Unumb |first7=Lorri |last8=Shapiro |first8=Sydney |last9=Khosrowshahi |first9=Dara |date=2022-06-01 |title=Concerns About ABA-Based Intervention: An Evaluation and Recommendations |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-021-05137-y |journal=Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders |language=en |volume=52 |issue=6 |pages=2838–2853 |doi=10.1007/s10803-021-05137-y |issn=1573-3432 |pmc=9114057 |pmid=34132968}}{{Cite journal |last=Ne’eman |first=Ari |date=2021-07-01 |title=When Disability Is Defined by Behavior, Outcome Measures Should Not Promote “Passing” |url=https://journalofethics.ama-assn.org/article/when-disability-defined-behavior-outcome-measures-should-not-promote-passing/2021-07 |journal=AMA Journal of Ethics |language=en |volume=23 |issue=7 |pages=569–575 |doi=10.1001/amajethics.2021.569 |issn=2376-6980}}{{Cite journal |last=Schuck |first=Rachel K. |last2=Tagavi |first2=Daina M. |last3=Baiden |first3=Kaitlynn M. P. |last4=Dwyer |first4=Patrick |last5=Williams |first5=Zachary J. |last6=Osuna |first6=Anthony |last7=Ferguson |first7=Emily F. |last8=Jimenez Muñoz |first8=Maria |last9=Poyser |first9=Samantha K. |last10=Johnson |first10=Joy F. |last11=Vernon |first11=Ty W. |date=2022-10-01 |title=Neurodiversity and Autism Intervention: Reconciling Perspectives Through a Naturalistic Developmental Behavioral Intervention Framework |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-021-05316-x |journal=Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders |language=en |volume=52 |issue=10 |pages=4625–4645 |doi=10.1007/s10803-021-05316-x |issn=1573-3432 |pmc=9508016 |pmid=34643863}} It is recommended by the US Centers for Disease Control and the American Academy of Pediatrics,{{Cite web |last=CDC |date=2024-07-18 |title=Treatment and Intervention for Autism Spectrum Disorder |url=https://www.cdc.gov/autism/treatment/index.html |access-date=2025-06-04 |website=Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) |language=en-us}}{{Cite journal |last=Hyman |first=Susan L. |last2=Levy |first2=Susan E. |last3=Myers |first3=Scott M. |last4=COUNCIL ON CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES |first4=SECTION ON DEVELOPMENTAL AND BEHAVIORAL PEDIATRICS |last5=Kuo |first5=Dennis Z. |last6=Apkon |first6=Susan |last7=Davidson |first7=Lynn F. |last8=Ellerbeck |first8=Kathryn A. |last9=Foster |first9=Jessica E.A. |last10=Noritz |first10=Garey H. |last11=Leppert |first11=Mary O’Connor |last12=Saunders |first12=Barbara S. |last13=Stille |first13=Christopher |last14=Yin |first14=Larry |last15=Weitzman |first15=Carol C. |date=2020-01-01 |title=Identification, Evaluation, and Management of Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder |url=https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2019-3447 |journal=Pediatrics |volume=145 |issue=1 |pages=e20193447 |doi=10.1542/peds.2019-3447 |issn=0031-4005}} while the UK's National Institute for Health and Care Excellence does not currently recommend its use for children and young people due to insufficient evidence of benefit.{{Cite web |date=2021-06-14 |title=Autism spectrum disorder in adults: diagnosis and management – Appendix A: Summary of evidence from surveillance (all 3 guidelines) |url=https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg142/evidence/appendix-a-summary-of-evidence-from-surveillance-all-3-guidelines-pdf-9140525966 |access-date=2025-06-04 |website=NICE |pp=85–86 |quote=The guideline on managing autism in children and young [people] does not include recommendations on applied behavioural analysis and the new evidence suggested that an update in this area is not necessary.}}{{Cite web |date=2011-09-28 |title=How we made the decision {{!}} Evidence {{!}} Autism spectrum disorder in under 19s: recognition, referral and diagnosis {{!}} Guidance {{!}} NICE |url=https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg128/resources/surveillance-report-2016-autism-spectrum-disorder-in-under-19s-recognition-referral-and-diagnosis-2011-nice-guideline-cg128-and-autism-spectrum-disorder-in-under-19s-support-and-management-2013-nice--2660567437/chapter/How-we-made-the-decision?tab=evidence |access-date=2025-06-04 |website=www.nice.org.uk |quote=Consultees felt that applied behavioural analysis (ABA) should be recommended by NICE as an intervention to manage autism in children and young people. However, it was noted that high quality evidence was not found for ABA during guideline development or surveillance review. Most of the evidence for ABA comes from single-case experimental designs which have limitations like the restriction of generalisation to wider population and the high risk of publication bias. This area will be considered again at the next surveillance review of the guideline.}}

There are no medications specifically designed to treat autism. Medication is usually used for problems as a cause of autism, such as depression, anxiety, or behavioral problems.{{cite web|last1=National Institute of Mental Health|title=Medications for Autism|url=http://psychcentral.com/lib/medications-for-autism/|website=Psych Central|access-date=2015-12-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151213211732/http://psychcentral.com/lib/medications-for-autism|archive-date=2015-12-13|url-status=live}} Medicines are usually used after other alternative forms of treatment have failed.{{cite journal|last1=Pope|first1=J|last2=Volkmar|first2=Fred R.|authorlink=Fred R. Volkmar|title=Medicines for Autism|date=November 14, 2014}}

File:Code of practice on provision of autism services.webm's code of practice on provision of autism services]]

Early, intensive ABA therapy has demonstrated effectiveness in enhancing communication and adaptive functioning in preschool children;{{cite journal | vauthors = Eikeseth S | title = Outcome of comprehensive psycho-educational interventions for young children with autism | journal = Research in Developmental Disabilities | volume = 30 | issue = 1 | pages = 158–178 | year = 2009 | pmid = 18385012 | doi = 10.1016/j.ridd.2008.02.003 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.615.3336 }} it is also well-established for improving the intellectual performance of that age group. It is not known whether treatment programs for children lead to significant improvements after the children grow up, and the limited research on the effectiveness of adult residential programs shows mixed results.{{cite journal | vauthors = Van Bourgondien ME, Reichle NC, Schopler E | title = Effects of a model treatment approach on adults with autism | journal = Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders | volume = 33 | issue = 2 | pages = 131–140 | date = April 2003 | pmid = 12757352 | doi = 10.1023/A:1022931224934 | s2cid = 30125359 }}

Although many alternative therapies and interventions were used, few are supported by scientific studies. Treatment approaches have little empirical support in quality-of-life contexts, and many programs focus on success measures that lack predictive validity and real-world relevance. Some alternative treatments placed autistic individuals at risk.{{cite journal | vauthors = Tye C, Runicles AK, Whitehouse AJ, Alvares GA | title = Characterizing the Interplay Between Autism Spectrum Disorder and Comorbid Medical Conditions: An Integrative Review | journal = Frontiers in Psychiatry | volume = 9 | pages = 751 | year = 2019 | pmid = 30733689 | pmc = 6354568 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00751 | doi-access = free | type = Review }} For example, in 2005, a five-year-old child with autism was killed by botched chelation therapy (which is not recommended for autism as risks outweigh any potential benefits).{{cite journal | vauthors = Levy SE, Hyman SL | title = Complementary and alternative medicine treatments for children with autism spectrum disorders | journal = Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = 803–20, ix | date = October 2008 | pmid = 18775371 | pmc = 2597185 | doi = 10.1016/j.chc.2008.06.004 | type = Review }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Brown MJ, Willis T, Omalu B, Leiker R | title = Deaths resulting from hypocalcemia after administration of edetate disodium: 2003-2005 | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 118 | issue = 2 | pages = e534–e536 | date = August 2006 | pmid = 16882789 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2006-0858 | url = http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/118/2/e534 | s2cid = 28656831 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090727080307/http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/118/2/e534 | archive-date = 27 July 2009 | url-access = subscription }}{{cite journal | vauthors = James S, Stevenson SW, Silove N, Williams K | title = Chelation for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue = 5 | pages = CD010766 | date = May 2015 | pmid = 26106752 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD010766 | veditors = James S | type = Review | doi-access = free }}

{{Main|Epidemiology of autism}}

File:US-autism-6-17-1996-2007.png

Globally, classic autism was understood to affect an estimated 24.8 million people {{as of|2015|lc=y}}. After it was recognised as a distinct disorder, reports of autism cases substantially increased, which was largely attributable to changes in diagnostic practices, referral patterns, availability of services, age at diagnosis, and public awareness{{cite journal | vauthors = Fombonne E | title = Epidemiology of pervasive developmental disorders | journal = Pediatric Research | volume = 65 | issue = 6 | pages = 591–598 | date = June 2009 | pmid = 19218885 | doi = 10.1203/PDR.0b013e31819e7203 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Gernsbacher MA, Dawson M, Goldsmith HH | title = Three Reasons Not to Believe in an Autism Epidemic | journal = Current Directions in Psychological Science | volume = 14 | issue = 2 | pages = 55–58 | date = April 2005 | pmid = 25404790 | pmc = 4232964 | doi = 10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00334.x }} (particularly among women).{{cite journal | vauthors = Russell G, Stapley S, Newlove-Delgado T, Salmon A, White R, Warren F, Pearson A, Ford T | display-authors = 6 | title = Time trends in autism diagnosis over 20 years: a UK population-based cohort study | journal = Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines | date = August 2021 | volume = 63 | issue = 6 | pages = 674–682 | pmid = 34414570 | doi = 10.1111/jcpp.13505 | quote = The figure starkly illustrates an overall 787% increase in recorded incidence of autism diagnosis over 20 years. | s2cid = 237242123 | doi-access = free | hdl = 10871/126929 | hdl-access = free }}

Several other conditions were commonly seen in autistic children. They include:

• Intellectual disability. The percentage of autistic individuals who also met criteria for intellectual disability has been reported as anywhere from 25% to 70%, a wide variation illustrating the difficulty of assessing intelligence of individuals on the autism spectrum.{{cite book |chapter=Learning in autism |vauthors=Dawson M, Mottron L, Gernsbacher MA |title=Learning and Memory: A Comprehensive Reference |volume=2 |pages=759–772 |veditors=Byrne JH, Roediger HL |publisher=Elsevier |year=2008 |doi=10.1016/B978-012370509-9.00152-2 |isbn=978-0-12-370504-4 |oclc=775005136 |chapter-url=http://psych.wisc.edu/lang/pdf/Dawson_AutisticLearning.pdf |access-date=26 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303191513/http://psych.wisc.edu/lang/pdf/Dawson_AutisticLearning.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2012}} In comparison, for PDD-NOS the association with intellectual disability was much weaker,{{cite journal | vauthors = Chakrabarti S, Fombonne E | title = Pervasive developmental disorders in preschool children | journal = JAMA | volume = 285 | issue = 24 | pages = 3093–3099 | date = June 2001 | pmid = 11427137 | doi = 10.1001/jama.285.24.3093 | doi-access = free }} and by definition, the diagnosis of Asperger's excluded intellectual disability.{{cite book | title=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR) | publisher=American Psychiatric Association |place=Washington, D.C. | year=2000 | page=80}}
• Minor physical anomalies are significantly increased in the autistic population.{{cite journal | vauthors = Ozgen HM, Hop JW, Hox JJ, Beemer FA, van Engeland H | title = Minor physical anomalies in autism: a meta-analysis | journal = Molecular Psychiatry | volume = 15 | issue = 3 | pages = 300–307 | date = March 2010 | pmid = 18626481 | doi = 10.1038/mp.2008.75 | doi-access = free }}
• Preempted diagnoses. Although the DSM-IV ruled out the concurrent diagnosis of many other conditions along with autism, the full criteria for Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), Dyspraxia, Tourette syndrome, and other of these conditions were often present. As a result, modern ASD allows for these diagnoses.{{cite book |author=American Psychiatric Association |title=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) |publisher=American Psychiatric Publishing |year=2013 |pages=50–59 |chapter=Autism Spectrum Disorder, 299.00 (F84.0)}}

{{Further|History of Asperger syndrome}}

File:Victor of Aveyron, 1800.jpg, a feral child caught in 1798 who displayed possible symptoms of autism{{cite journal | vauthors = Wolff S | title = The history of autism | journal = European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry | volume = 13 | issue = 4 | pages = 201–208 | date = August 2004 | pmid = 15365889 | doi = 10.1007/s00787-004-0363-5 | s2cid = 6106042 }}]]

The Neo-Latin word autismus (English translation autism) was coined by the Swiss psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler in 1910 as he was defining symptoms of schizophrenia. He derived it from the Greek word autós (αὐτός, meaning "self"), and used it to mean morbid self-admiration, referring to "autistic withdrawal of the patient to his fantasies, against which any influence from outside becomes an intolerable disturbance".{{cite journal | vauthors = Kuhn R | title = Eugen Bleuler's concepts of psychopathology | journal = History of Psychiatry | volume = 15 | issue = 59 Pt 3 | pages = 361–366 | date = September 2004 | pmid = 15386868 | doi = 10.1177/0957154X04044603 | s2cid = 5317716 }} The quote is a translation of Bleuler's 1910 original. The word autism first took its modern sense in 1938 when Hans Asperger of the Vienna University Hospital adopted Bleuler's terminology autistic psychopathy in a lecture in German about child psychology.{{cite journal | journal=Wien Klin Wochenschr |year=1938 |volume=51 |pages=1314–1317 | title = Das psychisch abnormale Kind |trans-title=The psychically abnormal child | vauthors = Asperger H | author-link1 = Hans Asperger | language=de}} Asperger was investigating Asperger syndrome which, for various reasons, was not widely considered a separate diagnosis until 1981, although both are now considered part of ASD. Leo Kanner of the Johns Hopkins Hospital first used autism in English to refer to classic autism when he introduced the label early infantile autism in a 1943 report. Almost all the characteristics described in Kanner's first paper on the subject, notably "autistic aloneness" and "insistence on sameness", are still regarded as typical of the autistic spectrum of disorders.{{cite journal | vauthors = Happé F, Ronald A, Plomin R | title = Time to give up on a single explanation for autism | journal = Nature Neuroscience | volume = 9 | issue = 10 | pages = 1218–1220 | date = October 2006 | pmid = 17001340 | doi = 10.1038/nn1770 | doi-access = free }} Starting in the late 1960s, classic autism was established as a separate syndrome.{{cite journal | vauthors = Fombonne E | title = Modern views of autism | journal = Canadian Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 48 | issue = 8 | pages = 503–505 | date = September 2003 | pmid = 14574825 | doi = 10.1177/070674370304800801 | s2cid = 8868418 | doi-access = free }}

It took until 1980 for the DSM-III to differentiate autism from childhood schizophrenia. In 1987, the DSM-III-R provided a checklist for diagnosing autism. In May 2013, the DSM-5 was released, updating the classification for pervasive developmental disorders. The grouping of disorders, including PDD-NOS, autism, Asperger syndrome, Rett syndrome, and CDD, has been removed and replaced with the general term of Autism Spectrum Disorder.{{cite journal | vauthors = Baker JP | title = Autism at 70--redrawing the boundaries | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 369 | issue = 12 | pages = 1089–1091 | date = September 2013 | pmid = 24047057 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMp1306380 | url = http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/daf7/ff077eb74aa9a1afdc70c101581e1b128ca3.pdf | url-status = dead | s2cid = 44613078 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190307045533/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/daf7/ff077eb74aa9a1afdc70c101581e1b128ca3.pdf | archive-date = 7 March 2019 }}

{{-}}

{{Reflist|refs=

{{cite journal | vauthors = Kanner L | title = Autistic disturbances of affective contact | journal = Acta Paedopsychiatrica | volume = 35 | issue = 4 | pages = 100–136 | year = 1943 | pmid = 4880460 | author-link1 = Leo Kanner }} Reprinted in {{cite journal | vauthors = Kanner L | title = Autistic disturbances of affective contact | journal = Acta Paedopsychiatrica | volume = 35 | issue = 4 | pages = 100–136 | year = 1968 | pmid = 4880460 }}

{{cite journal | vauthors = Rogers SJ, Vismara LA | title = Evidence-based comprehensive treatments for early autism | journal = Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology | volume = 37 | issue = 1 | pages = 8–38 | date = January 2008 | pmid = 18444052 | pmc = 2943764 | doi = 10.1080/15374410701817808 }}

{{cite journal | vauthors = Myers SM, Johnson CP | title = Management of children with autism spectrum disorders | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 120 | issue = 5 | pages = 1162–1182 | date = November 2007 | pmid = 17967921 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2007-2362 | doi-access = free }}

{{cite journal | vauthors = Burgess AF, Gutstein SE | title = Quality of Life for People with Autism: Raising the Standard for Evaluating Successful Outcomes | journal = Child and Adolescent Mental Health | volume = 12 | issue = 2 | pages = 80–86 | date = May 2007 | pmid = 32811109 | doi = 10.1111/j.1475-3588.2006.00432.x | url = http://kingwoodpsychology.com/recent_publications/camh_432.pdf | url-status = dead | access-date = 24 November 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131203011037/http://kingwoodpsychology.com/recent_publications/camh_432.pdf | archive-date = 3 December 2013 }}

{{cite journal | vauthors = Geschwind DH | title = Advances in autism | journal = Annual Review of Medicine | volume = 60 | pages = 367–380 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19630577 | pmc = 3645857 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.med.60.053107.121225 | author-link = Daniel Geschwind }}

{{cite journal | vauthors = Landa R | title = Early communication development and intervention for children with autism | journal = Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 16–25 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17326115 | doi = 10.1002/mrdd.20134 | doi-access = free }}

{{cite book |veditors=Volkmar FR, Paul R, Pelphrey KA, Rogers SJ |title=Handbook of Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders: Volume Two: Assessment, Interventions, and Policy |volume=2 |edition=4th |year=2014 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=Hoboken, New Jersey |url={{Google books|4yzqAgAAQBAJ|page=301|plainurl=yes}} |isbn=978-1-118-28220-5 |oclc=946133861 |lccn=2013034363 |page=301 |access-date=1 March 2019 }}

{{cite web|url=http://apps.who.int/classifications/apps/icd/icd10online/?gf80.htm+f84 |year=2007 |access-date=10 October 2009 |website=ICD-10: International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems: Tenth Revision |publisher=World Health Organization |title=F84. Pervasive developmental disorders |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130421042448/http://apps.who.int/classifications/apps/icd/icd10online/?gf80.htm%20f84 |archive-date=21 April 2013 |url-status=dead }}

{{cite journal | vauthors = Sigman M, Spence SJ, Wang AT | title = Autism from developmental and neuropsychological perspectives | journal = Annual Review of Clinical Psychology | volume = 2 | pages = 327–355 | year = 2006 | pmid = 17716073 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.2.022305.095210 }}

}}

{{Commonscatinline}}

{{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=no |others=yes lcheading=Autism}}

{{Medical resources

| DiseasesDB = 1142

| ICD10 = {{ICD10|F|84|0|f|80}}

| ICD9 = {{ICD9|299.00}}

| OMIM = 209850

| MedlinePlus = 001526

| eMedicineSubj = med

| eMedicineTopic = 3202

| eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|ped|180}}

| MeshID = D001321

| GeneReviewsNBK = NBK1442

| GeneReviewsName = Autism overview

}}

{{Subject bar|c=y|b=y|q=y|d=Q38404|n=Category:Autism|wikt=autism}}

{{Pervasive developmental disorders}}

{{Mental and behavioral disorders|selected = childhood}}

{{Autism resources}}

{{Nonverbal communication}}

{{Authority control}}

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