Classical Chinese lexicon
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Almost all lexemes in Classical Chinese are individual characters one spoken syllable in length. This contrasts with modern Chinese dialects where two-syllable words are extremely common. Chinese has acquired many polysyllabic words in order to disambiguate monosyllabic words that sounded different in earlier forms of Chinese but identical in one region or another during later periods. Because Classical Chinese is based on the literary examples of ancient Chinese literature, it has almost none of the two-syllable words present in modern varieties of Chinese.
Classical Chinese has more pronouns compared to the modern vernacular. In particular, whereas Mandarin has one general character to refer to the first-person pronoun, Literary Chinese has several, many of which are used as part of honorific language, and several of which have different grammatical uses (first-person collective, first-person possessive, etc.).{{Citation needed|date=October 2010|reason=What are some examples of these pronouns? Do all linguists agree in so classifying them?}}
In syntax, Classical Chinese words are not restrictively categorized into parts of speech: nouns used as verbs, adjectives used as nouns, and so on. There is no copula in Classical Chinese; {{zhi|c=是}} ({{tlit|zh|shì}}) is a copula in modern Chinese but in old Chinese it was originally a near demonstrative ('this'), the modern Chinese equivalent of which is {{zhi|c=這}} ({{tlit|zh|zhè}}).{{Citation needed|date=December 2022}}
Beyond grammar and vocabulary differences, Classical Chinese can be distinguished by literary and cultural differences: an effort to maintain parallelism and rhythm, even in prose works, and extensive use of literary and cultural allusions, thereby also contributing to brevity.
Many final particles ({{zhi|t=歇語字|p=xiēyǔzì}}) and{{Cite book |last=Brandt |first=J. J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kGFkAAAAMAAJ&q=wen+li+styl+particularly+so+called+abounds |title=Introduction to literary Chinese |publisher=H. Vetch |year=1936 |edition=2 |page=169 |quote=PART III GRAMMATICAL SECTION THE FINAL PARTICLES (歇語字 hsieh1-yü3-tzu4) The Wenli-style abounds with so called final particles. These particles |access-date=10 February 2012}} interrogative particles are found in Literary Chinese.{{Cite book |last=J. J. Brandt |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kGFkAAAAMAAJ&q=the+wen-li+style+particularly+abounds+with+the+interrogative+particles. |title=Introduction to literary Chinese |publisher=H. Vetch |year=1936 |edition=2nd |page=184 |quote=PART III GRAMMATICAL SECTION THE INTERROGATIVE PARTICLES The Wen-li style particularly abounds with the interrogative particles. |access-date=10 February 2012}}
Function words
| class="wikitable center" | ||
| {{abbr|Char.|Character}} | Function | Example |
|---|---|---|
| rowspan="3" | {{lang|lzh|而}}
| Conjunction{{blist| {{zhi|又}} 'also'| {{zhi|而且}} 'and'| {{zhi|卻}} 'but'| {{zhi|如果}} 'if'| {{zhi|接著}} 'followed by'}} | Learn and practice often, is it not a pleasure? — Analects | ||
| Pronoun{{blist| {{lang|zh|你的}} 'your'}}
| | ||
| Alternative for 'can' {{lang|lzh|能}}
| | ||
| rowspan="3" | {{lang|lzh|何}}
| Pronoun, often before the modal particles {{lang|lzh|哉}} and {{lang|lzh|也}} | | ||
| {{blist|'why' {{lang|lzh|為什麼}}|'where' {{lang|lzh|哪裡}}|'what' {{lang|lzh|什麼}}}}
| | ||
| Adverb, or used in the first sentence before the verb, that question can be translated as 'how' {{lang|lzh|怎麼}}
| | ||
| rowspan="3" | {{lang|lzh|乎}}
| Preposition{{blist|{{zhi|於}}}} | | ||
| Modal particle expressing doubt, praise, surprise, or to highlight the word in front
| | ||
| Expresses a question when placed at the end of a phrase
| Others fail to understand you, {{du|but you are not angered}}, is this not the mark of a gentleman? | ||
| rowspan="3" | {{lang|lzh|乃}}
| Preposition{{blist|{{lang|lzh|於}}}} | | ||
| Modal particle expressing doubt, praise, surprise, or to highlight the word in front
| | ||
| Expresses a question when placed at the end of a phrase
| | ||
| rowspan="2" | {{lang|lzh|爾}}
|{{blist|'then'|'indeed'|'after all'|'namely'}} | {{du|Then}} he got scared, and found someone who was good at pulse-reading to diagnose it. — Chapter 23 of Volume 2 of Pu Songling's 聊齋志異 | ||
| Pronoun{{blist|'you'|'your}}
| | ||
| rowspan="6" | {{lang|lzh|爲}}
| Preposition, that the object, which is equivalent to 'substitute for', 'give', 'once upon a time', 'opposed', 'with', 'with regards to' | | ||
| Preposition pointed out that the reason for the equivalent of 'because'
| | ||
| Preposition, that the passive, which is equivalent to 'be'
| | ||
| Verb{{blist|'make'|'for'|'become'}}
| | ||
| Preposition{{blist|'at'|'when'}}
| | ||
| Modal particle, often with the pronouns {{zhi|何}} or {{zhi|焉}}
| | ||
| rowspan="4" | {{lang|lzh|焉}}
| Tone for the end of the sentence, equivalent to {{zhi|啊}} or {{zhi|呢}} | Humans were born with hatred; because people followed it, cruelty and brutality grew within them, and faithfulness died out {{du|(end of sentence)}}. | ||
| Tone of the words express a standstill for the sentence
| | ||
| Pronoun{{blist|'he'|'them'|'it'|'here'|'where'}}
| | ||
| Pronoun equivalent to {{blist|{{zhi|豈}} 'how', 'what'|{{zhi|如何}} 'what'}}
| | ||
| rowspan="4" | {{lang|lzh|以}}
| Preposition indicating reason equivalent to 'in order to'. Originally derived from a noun meaning 'reason'. | Therefore, (people) often keep themselves void of desire, {{du|in order to}} see the secret of life. {{lang|lzh|何其久也？必有以也！}} Why does he take this long? There must be a reason! — "Mao Qiu", Classic of Poetry | ||
| Preposition indicating means{{blist|'with'|'using'}}
| To kill using a club or blade, is there anything to distinguish them? — Mencius | ||
| Preposition introducing action, where activity takes place within a certain period and location, equivalent to 'at', 'from'
| Wen was born on the fifth day of the fifth month. | ||
| Conjunction to indicate juxtaposition, a linked relationship, objective, or causality; similar to {{lang|lzh|而}}.
| They talked with laughter before they died (were executed). — Zhang Pu | ||
| rowspan="3" | {{lang|lzh|其}}
| Third-person possessive pronoun | There has never been a humane person who abandoned {{du|his}} parents. — Mencius | ||
| Modal particle expressing doubt or possibility
| Surely he must not have any descendants? — Mencius | ||
| Modal particle expressing a softened imperative: an exhortation or wish (rather than a command)
| Please do not destroy the previous sovereign's achievements! | ||
| {{lang|lzh|且}}
| {{blist|'and'|'furthermore'}} | | ||
| {{lang|lzh|若}}
| {{blist|'if'|'assuming that'}} | — Being careful every day {{du|as if}} there were dangers. | ||
| {{lang|lzh|所}}
| 'that which' | | ||
| {{lang|lzh|也}}
| Used at the end of the sentence to provide a positive, emphasizing or doubtful tone. If used within the sentence, indicates a pause to delay the mood. | In the west of it there is a large mountain, {{du|(which is)}} the tallest under heaven. | ||
| {{lang|lzh|因}}
| {{blist|'rely on'|'build on'|'inherit'}} | To build high, one necessarily relies on hills and mounts. — Mencius {{lang|lzh|周因於殷禮。}} Zhou inherits the rituals of Yin. — Analects | ||
| {{lang|lzh|于}}
| Preposition for place, reason; expression of action behaviour and the introduction of premises, time, motion, target, location, relationship between people, introduction to the object of comparison or analogy. | | ||
| {{lang|lzh|與}}
| {{blist|'and'|'with'|'to'|'for'|'give'}} | | ||
| {{lang|lzh|則}}
| Conjunction{{blist|'just'|'still, but...'|'however'|'in that case'}} | | ||
| {{lang|lzh|者}}
| Particle referring to people, objects, times, locations, etc. When placed after the subject, indicates a slight pause, or expresses determination. | | ||
| rowspan="5" | {{lang|lzh|之}}
| Third-person object pronoun | The people do not fear death; how can one frighten {{du|them}} with it? | ||
| Near demonstrative pronoun, 'this'
| — "Tao Yao", Classic of Poetry | ||
| Possessive marker for personal pronouns similar to modern {{lang|lzh|的}}.
| Sun Tzu says: Of war, life-and-death's field, survival and extinction's way, should not be unexamined. | ||
| Nominalization marker inserted between subject and predicate to convert a clause into a noun phrase. Can be thought of as an extension of (2) above.
| The welling of happiness, anger, grief, or pleasure in one's heart is always outwardly expressed. | ||
| Transitive verb 'to go'
| I wish to go to the southern seas; what do you think? | ||
| {{lang|lzh|曰}}
| Speech indicator similar to 'says' or 'said' | | ||
| {{lang|lzh|亦}}
| 'also', 'too' | | ||
| {{lang|lzh|故}}
| {{blist|'therefore'|'cause'|'reason'|'happening'|'instance'}} | Why is this? (lit. '{{du|what}} caused this?') | ||
| {{lang|lzh|將}}
| Adverb{{blist|indicating future action ('will')|indicating uncertainty ('if')}} | When they were about to enter the gate. | ||
| {{lang|lzh|矣}}
| Particle indicating completion | Otherwise, I will ultimately disappear, and you will also not rise again. | ||
| {{lang|lzh|蓋}}
| Sentence-initial particle indicating uncertainty | It seems that one who does not do anything, but does it is heavenly. — Truyền kỳ mạn lục | ||
| {{lang|lzh|猶}}
| {{blist|'to be like'|'still'}} | Missing her, I remember you, also just like when I missed you, I remember her. — Truyền kỳ mạn lục |
Content words
As with function words, there are many differences between the content words of Classical Chinese and those of Baihua. Below are synonyms used in the two registers. Some Classical Chinese words can have more than one meaning.
However, Classical Chinese words still exist among many chengyu, or Chinese idioms.
The Classical Chinese words and examples will be written in traditional characters, and the modern vernacular will be written in both simplified and traditional characters.
| class="wikitable"
!Classical Chinese word !Part of speech !Baihua word (simplified) !Baihua word (traditional) !Meaning !Classical Chinese example !Baihua translation (simplified) !Baihua translation (traditional) !English meaning |
| 日
|noun |太陽 |sun |拔開雲霧，{{zhi|c=見到}}{{zhi|c=太陽}}。 |
| 目
|noun |眼睛 |eye |因此每射杀一个人，{{zhi|c=都会闭上}}{{zhi|c=眼睛}}{{zhi|c=不忍直视}}。 |因此每射殺一個人，{{zhi|c=都會閉上}}{{zhi|c=眼睛}}{{zhi|c=不忍直視}}。 |
| 虎
|noun |老虎 |老虎 |tiger |不入{{zhi|c=虎}}{{zhi|c=穴焉得}}{{zhi|c=虎}}{{zhi|c=子}}{{Cite web |title=Mandarin Chinese-English Dictionary & Thesaurus - YellowBridge |url=https://www.yellowbridge.com/chinese/dictionary.php?searchMode%3D=C&word=%E8%99%8E&noref=1 |access-date=2021-01-30 |website=www.yellowbridge.com}} |不敢进入{{zhi|c=虎}}{{zhi|c=穴}}，{{zhi|c=就不能捉到}}{{zhi|c=老虎}}{{zhi|c=的崽子}}。{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} |不敢進入{{zhi|c=虎}}{{zhi|c=穴}}，{{zhi|c=就不能捉到}}{{zhi|c=老虎}}{{zhi|c=的崽子}}。 |One may only catch the tiger cub by entering the tiger's den. |
| 犬
|noun |狗 |狗 |dog |一只{{zhi|c=狗}}{{zhi|c=看到影子叫起来}}，{{zhi|c=很多}}{{zhi|c=狗}}{{zhi|c=也跟着乱叫}}。{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} |一隻{{zhi|c=狗}}{{zhi|c=看到影子叫起來}}，{{zhi|c=很多}}{{zhi|c=狗}}{{zhi|c=也跟著亂叫}}。 |
See also
Sources
= Citations =
{{Reflist}}
= Works cited =
{{Refbegin}}
- 《新高中文言手册》 （1998年 北京华书）
- 《新华字典》 （第10版
{{Refend}}
Further reading
{{Refbegin}}
- {{Cite book |last=Baller, Frederick William |url=https://archive.org/details/pts_lessoninelement_3720_0708 |title=Lessons in elementary Wen-li |publisher=China Inland Mission |year=1912 |isbn=9780524097083}}
- {{Cite book |last=Brandt, J. |title=Wenli particles |publisher=The North China Union Language School |year=1929}}
- {{Cite book |last=Brandt, J. |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoli00branuoft |title=Introduction to Literary Chinese |publisher=Frederick Ungar |year=1936 |location=New York |access-date=2015-08-23}}
- {{Cite book |title=Literary Chinese by the Inductive Method, Volume 1 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1938 |editor-last=Creel, Herrlee Glessner}}
- {{Cite book |title=Literary Chinese by the Inductive Method, Volume 2 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1939 |editor-last=Creel, Herrlee Glessner}}
- {{Cite book |title=Literary Chinese by the Inductive Method, Volume 3 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1952 |editor-last=Creel, Herrlee Glessner}}
- {{Cite book |last=Dawson, Raymond Stanley |title=A New Introduction to Classical Chinese |publisher=Clarendon |year=1984 |isbn=0-19-815460-7 |edition=2nd}}
- {{Cite book |last=Gabelentz, Georg von der |author-link=Georg von der Gabelentz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kXguAAAAYAAJ |title=Chinesische Grammatik: Mit Ausschluss des niederen Stiles und der heutigen Umgangssprache |publisher=T.O. Weigel |year=1881 |location=Leipzig |language=de |access-date=10 February 2012}}
- {{Cite book |last=Julien, Stanislas |author-link=Stanislas Julien |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2wUJAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR3 |title=Syntaxe nouvelle de la langue chinoise fondée sur la position des mots: suivie de deux traités sur les particules et les principaux termes de grammaire, d'une table des idiotismes, de fables, de légendes et d'apologues traduits mot à mot, premier volume |publisher=Librairie de Maisonneuve |year=1869 |location=Paris |language=fr |access-date=2015-08-23}}
- {{Cite book |last=Julien, Stanislas |author-link=Stanislas Julien |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QrAxAAAAIAAJ |title=Syntaxe nouvelle de la langue chinoise fondée sur la position des mots: suivie de deux traités sur les particules et les principaux termes de grammaire, d'une table des idiotismes, de fables, de légendes et d'apologues traduits mot à mot, second volume |publisher=Librairie de Maisonneuve |year=1870 |location=Paris |language=fr |access-date=2015-08-23}}
- {{Cite book |last=Rémusat, Abel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rJAUAAAAYAAJ |title=Éléments de la grammaire chinoise, ou, principes généraux du kou-wen ou style antique: et du kouan-hoa, c'est-à-dire, de la langue commune généralement usitée dans l'Empire chinois |publisher=Imprimerie Royale |year=1822 |location=Paris |language=fr |access-date=2011-05-15}}
{{Refend}}
External links
{{wikibooks|zh:文言}}
{{wikibooks|Classical Chinese}}