Climate change and fisheries

File:Maldives - Kurumba Island.jpg in the Maldives. Coral reefs are dying around the world.[https://www.theguardian.com/environment/interactive/2009/sep/02/coral-world-interactive Coral reefs around the world] Guardian.co.uk, 2 September 2009.]]

{{Main|Effects of climate change on oceans}}

Oceans and coastal ecosystems play an important role in the global carbon cycle and in Carbon sequestration. Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are the results of higher levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Healthy ocean ecosystems are essential for the mitigation of climate change.{{cite web |title=Fisheries and Aquaculture in a Changing Climate |year=2009 |url=http://www.fao.org/climatechange/17789-1-0.pdf}} Coral reefs provide habitat for millions of fish species and with no change it can provoke these reefs to die.{{Cite web |date=2022-02-04 |title=Shallow Coral Reef Habitat |website=NOAA Fisheries |url=https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/habitat-conservation/shallow-coral-reef-habitat |access-date=2022-04-06 |language=en}}

Furthermore, the rise in sea levels also affects other ecosystems such as mangroves and marshes, making them experience a lack of both land and hinterland for the purpose to migrate.{{cite journal |last1=Mimura |first1=Nobou |title=Sea-level rise caused by climate change and its implications for society |journal=Proceedings of the Japan Academy. Series B, Physical and Biological Sciences |date=2013 |volume=89 |issue=7 |pages=281–301 |publisher=Proc Jpn Acad Ser B Phys Biol Sci. |doi=10.2183/pjab.89.281 |pmid=23883609 |pmc=3758961 |bibcode=2013PJAB...89..281M }}

{{excerpt|Effects of climate change on oceans|paragraphs=1-2|file=no}}

The fishing industry sector is a small contributor to greenhouse gas emissions overall but nevertheless there are options for reducing fuel use and greenhouse gas emissions.{{rp|v}} For example, about 0.5 percent of total global {{CO2}} emissions in 2012 were caused by fishing vessels (including inland vessels): 172.3 million tonnes of {{CO2}}. When looking at the aquaculture industry, it was estimated that 385 million tonnes of {{CO2}} equivalent ({{CO2}} e) were emitted in 2010. This equates to around 7 percent of the emissions from agriculture.{{rp|v}}

File:Fisherman Seychelles.jpg]]

The rising ocean acidity makes it more difficult for marine organisms such as shrimp, oysters, or corals to form their shells – a process known as calcification. Many important animals, such as zooplankton, that forms the base of the marine food chain have calcium shells. Thus the entire marine food web is being altered – there are "cracks in the food chain".{{Cite journal |last1=Fabry |first1=Victoria J. |last2=Seibel |first2=Brad A. |last3=Feely |first3=Richard A. |last4=Orr |first4=James C. |date=2008-04-01 |title=Impacts of ocean acidification on marine fauna and ecosystem processes |journal=ICES Journal of Marine Science |volume=65 |issue=3 |pages=414–432 |doi=10.1093/icesjms/fsn048 |issn=1054-3139|doi-access=free }} As a result, the distribution,[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2pdifo6Yznc Changing distribution of fish in USA] (Youtube) productivity, and species composition of global fish production is changing,FAO (2008) [ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/i0203e/i0203e00.pdf Report of the FAO Expert Workshop on Climate Change Implications for Fisheries and Aquacultur]{{Dead link|date=December 2023|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}} Melanesiae{{dead link|date=May 2019|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}} Rome, Italy, 7–9 April 2008. FAO Fisheries Report No. 870. generating complex and inter-related impacts{{cite journal |author=Brander KM |title=Global fish production and climate change |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=104 |issue=50 |pages=19709–14 |date=December 2007 |pmid=18077405 |pmc=2148362 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0702059104 |bibcode = 2007PNAS..10419709B |doi-access=free }} on oceans, estuaries, coral reefs, mangroves and sea grass beds that provide habitats and nursery areas for fish. Changing rainfall patterns and water scarcity is impacting on river and lake fisheries and aquaculture production.{{cite journal |author=Ficke, A.D. |author2=Myrick, C.A. |author3=Hansen, L.J. |title=Potential impacts of global climate change on freshwater fisheries |journal=Fish Biology and Fisheries |volume=17 |pages=581–613 |year=2007 |url=http://assets.panda.org/downloads/fwfishreport902nov05.pdf |doi=10.1007/s11160-007-9059-5 |issue=4|bibcode=2007RFBF...17..581F |s2cid=18832521 }}{{cite web |author=Handisyde, N. |title=The Effects of Climate change on World Aquaculture: A global perspective |year=2006 |publisher=Department for International Development UK |url=http://www.aqua.stir.ac.uk/GISAP/pdfs/Climate_full.pdf|display-authors=etal}} After the Last Glacial Maximum of about 21,000 years ago, the global average air temperature has risen approximately 3 degrees, leading to an increase in sea temperatures.Nye, J. (2010). Climate change and its effects on ecosystems, habitats and biota. (pp. 1-17). Maine: The Gulf of Maine Council on the Marine Environment.

Fish catch of the global ocean is expected to decline by 6 percent by 2100 and by 11 percent in tropical zones. Diverse models predict that by 2050, the total global fish catch potential may vary by less than 10 percent depending on the trajectory of greenhouse gas emissions, but with very significant geographical variability. Decreases in both marine and terrestrial production in almost 85 percent of coastal countries analysed are predicted, varying widely in their national capacity to adapt.{{Cite book|url=http://www.fao.org/3/ca0191en/ca0191en.pdf|title=In brief, The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture, 2018|publisher=FAO|year=2018}}

Fish populations of skipjack tuna and bigeye tuna are expected to be displaced further to the east due to the effects of climate change on ocean temperatures and currents.{{cite web|title=Fisheries and Climate Change|url=https://think-asia.org/bitstream/handle/11540/531/spso-201003-fisheries-climate-change.pdf?sequence=1|website=Think Asia|publisher=ADB|access-date=29 November 2017}} This will shift the fishing grounds toward the Pacific islands and away from its primary owner of Melanesia, disrupting western Pacific canneries, shifting tuna production elsewhere, and having an uncertain effect on food security.{{Cite web |title=FAO – News Article: Food security in the Pacific at risk due to climate change |website=www.fao.org |url=https://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/37758/icode/ |access-date=2022-04-06}}

Species that are over-fished, such as the variants of Atlantic cod, are more susceptible to the effects of climate change. Over-fished populations have less size, genetic diversity, and age than other populations of fish.{{cite journal|last1=Stenseth|first1=Nils|display-authors=etal|title=Ecological forecasting under climate change: the case of Baltic cod|journal=Proceedings: Biological Sciences |volume=277|issue=1691|pages=2121–2130|jstor=25706431|year=2010|doi=10.1098/rspb.2010.0353|pmid=20236982 |pmc=2880159}} This makes them more susceptible to environment related stress, including those resulting from climate change. In the case of Atlantic cod located in the Baltic Sea, which are stressed close to their upper limits, this could lead to consequences related to the population's average size and growth.{{Cite journal |last1=Righton |first1=David A. |last2=Andersen |first2=Ken Haste |last3=Neat |first3=Francis |last4=Thorsteinsson |first4=Vilhjalmur |last5=Steingrund |first5=Petur |last6=Svedäng |first6=Henrik |last7=Michalsen |first7=Kathrine |last8=Hinrichsen |first8=Hans-Harald |last9=Bendall |first9=Victoria |last10=Neuenfeldt |first10=Stefan |last11=Wright |first11=Peter |date=2010-12-16 |title=Thermal niche of Atlantic cod Gadus morhua: limits, tolerance and optima |url=https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v420/p1-13/ |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |language=en |volume=420 |pages=1–13 |doi=10.3354/meps08889 |bibcode=2010MEPS..420....1R |issn=0171-8630|doi-access=free |hdl=11250/108981 |hdl-access=free }}

Due to climate change, the distribution of zooplankton has changed. Cool water copepod assemblages have moved north because the waters get warmer, they have been replaced by warm water copepods assemblages however it has a lower biomass and certain small species. This movement of copepods could have large impacts on many systems, especially high trophic level fish.{{Cite journal|last1=Chivers |first1=William J.|last2=Walne|first2=Anthony W.|last3=Hays|first3=Graeme C.|author-link3=Graeme Hays |date=2017-02-10|title=Mismatch between marine plankton range movements and the velocity of climate change |journal=Nature Communications|volume=8|issue=1|page=14434 |doi=10.1038/ncomms14434|pmid=28186097 |pmc=5309926|bibcode=2017NatCo...814434C|issn=2041-1723|doi-access=free}} For example, Atlantic cod require a diet of large copepods but because they have moved pole-wards morality rates are high and as a result the recruitment of this cod has plummeted.{{Cite journal| doi=10.1093/icesjms/fsn028| title=In hot water: Zooplankton and climate change| journal=ICES Journal of Marine Science| volume=65| issue=3| pages=279–295| year=2008| last1=Richardson| first1=A. J.| doi-access=free}}

Increase in water temperature as a result of climate change will alter the productivity of aquatic ecosystems. flourish may be undesirable or even harmful. For example, the large fish predators that require cool water may be lost from smaller lakes as surface water temperature warms, and this may indirectly cause more blooms of nuisance algae, which can reduce water quality and pose potential health problems.{{cite journal |last1=Prakash |first1=Sadguru |title=Impact of Climate Change on Aquatic Ecosystem and ITS Biodiversity: An Overview |journal=International Journal of Biological Innovations |date=2 September 2022 |volume=03 |issue=2 |page=6 |doi=10.46505/IJBI.2021.3210|s2cid=237639194 |doi-access=free }} [https://ijbi.org.in/papers/10.%20IJBI%20Dec%202021%20Dr%20Sadguru.pdf The RFC-mandated website]

File:Bangladesh Fishing 2006.jpg. Coastal fishing communities in Bangladesh are vulnerable to flooding from sea-level rises.{{cite thesis |author=Sarwar G.M. |title=Impacts of Sea Level Rise on the Coastal Zone of Bangladesh |publisher=Lund University |degree=Master's |year=2005 |url=http://www.lumes.lu.se/database/alumni/04.05/theses/golam_sarwar.pdf |access-date=10 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120815093552/http://www.lumes.lu.se/database/alumni/04.05/theses/golam_sarwar.pdf |archive-date=15 August 2012 }}]]

Coastal and fishing populationsAllison, E. H. et al. (2005) [https://web.archive.org/web/20090605235511/http://www.dfid.gov.uk/Documents/publications/summary-climatechangefisheries.pdf "Effects of climate change on the sustainability of capture and enhancement fisheries important to the poor: analysis of the vulnerability and adaptability of fisherfolk living in poverty"] London, Fisheries Management Science Programme MRAG/DFID, Project no. R4778J. Final Technical Report, 164 pp. and countries dependent on fisheries{{cite journal |author=Allison, E.H. |title=Vulnerability of national economies to the impacts of climate change on fisheries |journal=Fish and Fisheries |volume=10 |pages=173–96 |year=2009 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-2979.2008.00310.x |url=http://www.imcsnet.org/imcs/docs/vulnerability_of_fisheries.pdf |issue=2 |bibcode=2009AqFF...10..173A |display-authors=etal |citeseerx=10.1.1.706.4228 |access-date=2009-12-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726173327/http://www.imcsnet.org/imcs/docs/vulnerability_of_fisheries.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-26 }} are particularly vulnerable to climate change. Low-lying countries such as the Maldives[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M4VRb6myfzU Maldives President addresses the UN Climate Change Conference] (Youtube) and Tuvalu are particularly vulnerable and entire communities may become the first climate refugees. Fishing communities in Bangladesh are subject not only to sea-level rise, but also flooding and increased typhoons. Fishing communities along the Mekong river produce over 1 million tons of basa fish annually and livelihoods and fish production will suffer from saltwater intrusion resulting from rising sea level and dams.{{cite journal |author=Halls, A.S. |title=Fisheries Research and Development in the Mekong Region |journal=Catch and Culture: Fisheries Research and Development in the Mekong Region |volume=15 |issue=1 |date=May 2009 |url=http://www.mrcmekong.org/Catch-Culture/vol15_1May09/Fisheries-Climate-Change.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605090141/http://www.mrcmekong.org/Catch-Culture/vol15_1May09/Fisheries-Climate-Change.htm |archive-date=2011-06-05 }} In rural Alaska, residents of the Noatak and Selawik villages struggle with unpredictable weather, changes in fish abundance and movement, and boat access changes due to climate change.{{Cite journal|last1=Moerlein|first1=Katie|last2=Carothers|first2=Courtney|date=2012-02-07|title=Total Environment of Change: Impacts of Climate Change and Social Transitions on Subsistence Fisheries in Northwest Alaska|url=https://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol17/iss1/art10/|journal=Ecology and Society|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|doi=10.5751/ES-04543-170110|issn=1708-3087|doi-access=free|hdl=10535/8214|hdl-access=free}} These impacts significantly impact sustainability and subsistence practices.

Fisheries and aquaculture contribute significantly to food security and livelihoods. Fish provides essential nutrition for 3 billion people and at least 50% of animal protein and minerals to 400 million people from the poorest countries.WorldFish Center, 2008. The Millennium Development Goals: Fishing for a Future: [http://www.worldfishcenter.org/v2/files/MDG%20brochure%2072dpi.pdf Reducing poverty and hunger by improving fisheries and aquaculture] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090816043020/http://www.worldfishcenter.org/v2/files/MDG%20brochure%2072dpi.pdf |date=2009-08-16 }} This food security is threatened by climate change and the increasing world population. Climate change changes several parameters of the fishing population: availability, stability, access, and utilization.{{cite journal|last1=Garcia|first1=Serge|title=Food security and marine capture fisheries: characteristics, trends, drivers and future perspectives|journal=Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences|volume=365|issue=1554|pages=2869–2880|jstor=20752984|year=2010|doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0171|pmid=20713390|pmc=2935129}} The specific effects of climate change on these parameters will vary widely depending on the characteristics of the area, with some areas benefiting from the shift in trends and some areas being harmed based on the factors of exposure, sensitivity, and ability to respond to said changes. The lack of oxygen in warmer waters will possibly lead to the extinction of aquatic animals{{cite journal | last1 = Portner | first1 = H | last2 = Knust | first2 = R | year = 2007 | title = Climate Change Affects Marine Fishes Through the Oxygen Limitation or Thermal Tolerance | journal = Science | volume = 315 | issue = 5808| pages = 95–97 | doi = 10.1126/science.1135471 | pmid = 17204649 | bibcode = 2007Sci...315...95P | s2cid = 9321336 }}

Worldwide food security may not change significantly, however rural and poor populations would be disproportionately and negatively affected based on these criteria, as they lack the resources and manpower to rapidly change their infrastructure and adapt. In Bangladesh, Cambodia, Gambia, Ghana, Sierra Leone or Sri Lanka, the dependency on fish for protein intake is over 50%.{{Cite web |last=Oloruntuyi |first=Yemi |date=2021-04-28 |title=How are developing countries tackling the issue of overfishing? |url=https://ideas4development.org/en/overfishing-developing-countries/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220123203220/https://ideas4development.org/en/overfishing-developing-countries/ |archive-date=2022-01-23 |access-date=2022-10-22 |website=ID4D |publisher=Sustainable Development News |language=en}} Over 500 million people in developing countries depend, directly or indirectly, on fisheries and aquaculture for their livelihoods – aquaculture is the world's fastest growing food production system, growing at 7% annually and fish products are among the most widely traded foods, with more than 37% (by volume) of world production traded internationally.FAO (2009) [ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/011/i0250e/i0250e01.pdf The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture]{{dead link|date=November 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Rome.

Human activities also increase the impact of climate change. Human activity has been linked to lake nutrition levels, which high levels are correlated to increasing vulnerability to climate change. Excess nutrients in water bodies, or eutrophication, can result in more algae and plant growth which can be harmful to humans, aquatic communities, and even birds.{{Cite journal |last1=Jacobson |first1=Peter C. |last2=Hansen |first2=Gretchen J. A. |last3=Bethke |first3=Bethany J. |last4=Cross |first4=Timothy K. |date=2017-08-04 |title=Disentangling the effects of a century of eutrophication and climate warming on freshwater lake fish assemblages |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=12 |issue=8 |pages=e0182667 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0182667 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=5544199 |pmid=28777816|bibcode=2017PLoSO..1282667J |doi-access=free }}

Climate change will also have an impact on recreational fisheries and commercial fisheries, as shifts in distribution could lead to changes in popular fishing locations, economic changes in fishing communities, and increased accessibility of fisheries in the North.{{Citation|last=Harrod|first=Chris|title=Climate change and freshwater fisheries|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118394380.ch50|date=2015-09-12|work=Freshwater Fisheries Ecology|pages=641–694|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd|isbn=978-1-118-39438-0|doi=10.1002/9781118394380.ch50}}

The change in temperature and decrease in oxygen is expected to occur too quickly for effective adaptation of affected species.{{cite news |last1=Vaughan |first1=Adam |date=2 July 2020 |title=Climate change will make world too hot for 60 per cent of fish species |agency=New Scientist |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2247602-climate-change-will-make-world-too-hot-for-60-per-cent-of-fish-species/ |access-date=3 July 2020}} Fishes can migrate to cooler places, but there are not always appropriate spawning sites.

Several international agencies, including the World Bank and the Food and Agriculture OrganizationFAO (2007) [ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/a1115e/a1115e00.pdf Building adaptive capacity to climate change. Policies to sustain livelihoods and fisheries]{{dead link|date=May 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} have programs to help countries and communities adapt to global warming, for example by developing policies to improve the resilience{{cite journal |author=Allison, E.H. |title=Enhancing the resilience of inland fisheries and aquaculture systems to climate change |journal=Journal of Semi-Arid Tropical Agricultural Research |volume=4 |issue=1 |year=2007 |display-authors=etal}} of natural resources, through assessments of risk and vulnerability, by increasing awareness{{cite journal |author1=Dulvy, N. |author2=Allison, E. |title=A place at the table? |journal=Nature Reports Climate Change |volume=1 |page=68 |date=28 May 2009 |doi=10.1038/climate.2009.52 |issue=906|doi-access=free |bibcode=2009NatCC...1...68D }} of climate change impacts and strengthening key institutions, such as for weather forecasting and early warning systems.[http://beta.worldbank.org/overview/climate-change-adaptation The World Bank – Climate Change Adaptation] (website) The World Development Report 2010 – Development and Climate Change, Chapter 3World Bank (2009) [http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2010/Resources/5287678-1226014527953/Chapter-3.pdf World Development Report 2010: Development and Climate Change. Chapter 3] shows that reducing overcapacity in fishing fleets and rebuilding fish stocks can both improve resilience to climate change and increase economic returns from marine capture fisheries by US$50 billion per year, while also reducing GHG emissions by fishing fleets. Consequently, removal of subsidies on fuel for fishing can have a double benefit by reducing emissions and overfishing.{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}}

Investment in sustainable aquacultureWorld Bank (2006) Aquaculture: Changing the Face of the Waters: [http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTARD/Resources/Aquaculture_ESW_vGDP.pdf Meeting the Promise and Challenge of Sustainable Aquaculture] can buffer water use in agriculture while producing food and diversifying economic activities. Algal biofuels also show potential as algae can produce 15-300 times more oil per acre than conventional crops, such as rapeseed, soybeans, or jatropha and marine algae do not require scarce freshwater. Programs such as the GEF-funded Coral Reef Targeted Research provide advice on building resilience and conserving coral reef ecosystems,Coral Reef Targeted Research (2008) [http://www.gefcoral.org/Portals/53/downloads/advisory_briefs_BWG_mexico/Advisory%20Paper%20Issue%201.Climate%20change.july08.pdf Climate change: It's now or never to save coral reefs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110221162052/http://www.gefcoral.org/Portals/53/downloads/advisory_briefs_BWG_mexico/Advisory%20Paper%20Issue%201.Climate%20change.july08.pdf |date=2011-02-21 }} CFTR Advisory Panel 2 Issue 1. while six Pacific countries recently gave a formal undertaking to protect the reefs in a biodiversity hotspot – the Coral Triangle.[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U5V--yB6SEY Coral Triangle Agreement] (YouTube)

The costs and benefits of adaptation are essentially local or national, while the costs of mitigation are essentially national whereas the benefits are global. Some activities generate both mitigation and adaptation benefits, for example, the restoration of mangrove forests can protect shorelines from erosion and provide breeding grounds for fish while also sequestering carbon{{Cite web |last=Zimmer |first=Martin |date=18 March 2022 |title=Mangrove forests – a nature-based solution for climate change mitigation and adaptation |url=https://www.rural21.com/english/news/detail/article/mangrove-forests-a-nature-based-solution-for-climate-change-mitigation-and-adaptation.html |access-date=24 March 2023 |website=Rural21}}.{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}}

File:Overfishing (5456651935).jpg

Although there is a decline of fisheries due to climate change, a related cause for this decrease is due to over-fishing.{{Cite web |date=2019-02-28 |title=Climate change and overfishing has shrunk global fisheries, study finds |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/climate-change-is-shrinking-essential-fisheries |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210323215614/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/climate-change-is-shrinking-essential-fisheries |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 23, 2021 |access-date=2022-04-06 |website=Environment |language=en}} Over-fishing exacerbates the effects of climate change by creating conditions that make a fishing population more sensitive to environmental changes. Studies show that the state of the ocean is causing fisheries to collapse, and in areas where fisheries have not yet collapsed, the amount of over-fishing that is done is having a significant impact on the industry. Fishing that is destructive and unsustainable affects biodiversity.{{Cite web |title=Sustainable Fishing {{!}} MSC |url=https://www.msc.org/ |access-date=2022-11-03 |website=MSC International – English |language=en}} Minimizing over-fishing and destructive fishing will increase Ocean resilience to climate change hence mitigating climate change

• Carbon sequestration
• Effects of climate change on agriculture
• List of harvested aquatic animals by weight
• Marine pollution
• Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (2019)
• Sustainable fisheries

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{{Reflist|2}}

• {{cite journal | author = Brander Keith | year = 2010 | title = Impacts of climate change on fisheries | url = http://www.imber.info/index.php/content/download/875/4252/file/Brander_2010.pdf | journal = Journal of Marine Systems | volume = 79 | issue = 3 | pages = 389–402 | bibcode = 2010JMS....79..389B | doi = 10.1016/j.jmarsys.2008.12.015 | access-date = 2012-03-18 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160305055816/http://imber.info/index.php/content/download/875/4252/file/brander_2010.pdf | archive-date = 2016-03-05 }}
• FAO (2009) [https://archive.today/20130414210504/http://www.fao.org/icatalog/search/dett.asp?aries_id=110710 Climate change implications for fisheries and aquaculture. Overview of current scientific knowledge] Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper 530, Rome.
• Klyashtorin LB (2001) [ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/005/y2787e/y2787e00.pdf Climate change and long-term fluctuations of commercial catches: the possibility of forecasting]{{dead link|date=May 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Technical paper 410, FAO fisheries, Rome. {{ISBN|978-92-5-104695-1}}.

• {{cite news |url=https://news.iwlearn.net/the-climate-change-impacts-on-pacific-tuna-fisheries |title=The Climate Change Impacts on Pacific Tuna Fisheries |work=IW:Learn |date=23 May 2024}}

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Category:Climate change and the environment

Category:Fishing and the environment

Category:Climate change and agriculture