Climate policy of China

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In 2018, China established the Ministry of Ecology and Environment (MEE).{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Joanna I. |title=Cooperating for the Climate: Learning from International Partnerships in China's Clean Energy Sector |date=2023 |publisher=The MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-54482-5 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}{{Rp|page=95}} A number of environmental policy functions were merged from other ministries into the MEE, including MEP functions, climate policy previously under the NDRC, and a number of environmental policy functions previously under the Ministry of Water Resources and the State Oceanic Administration.{{Rp|page=95}} Pollutant and carbon emissions trading programs were also placed within the MEE's jurisdiction.{{Cite book |last=Ding |first=Iza |title=Greening East Asia: The Rise of the Eco-Developmental State |date=2020 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=978-0-295-74791-0 |editor-last=Esarey |editor-first=Ashley |location=Seattle |chapter=Pollution Emissions Trading in China |jstor=j.ctv19rs1b2 |editor-last2=Haddad |editor-first2=Mary Alice |editor-last3=Lewis |editor-first3=Joanna I. |editor-last4=Harrell |editor-first4=Stevan}}{{Rp|page=78}} In 2021, Ministry of Ecology and Environment published a White Paper on "Responding to Climate Change: China's Policies and Actions".{{cite web |date=2021-10-27 |title=Full Text: Responding to Climate Change: China's Policies and Actions |url=http://www.news.cn/english/2021-10/27/c_1310272455.htm |access-date=2024-01-18 |website=Xinhua News |language=la}}

Beginning with a joint statement on the Kyoto Protocol in Bali in December 2007, Chinese non-governmental organizations (NGOs), in cooperation with international NGOs, assumed a more prominent role in efforts to mitigate climate change within China. NGO activity in China is restricted by government controls.{{cite journal |last=Schröder |first=Miriam |author2=Melanie Müller |year=2009 |title=Chinese paths to climate protection |url=http://www.inwent.org/ez/articles/084418/index.en.shtml |url-status=dead |journal=Development and Cooperation |location=Frankfurt am Main |publisher=Societäts-Verlag |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=28–30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101218153155/http://www.inwent.org/ez/articles/084418/index.en.shtml |archive-date=2010-12-18}}

The Institute of Public and Environmental Affairs is attempting to persuade large GHG emitters, such as steelmakers in Hubei, to publish their emission figures.{{Cite web |last=Lushan |first=Huang |date=2023-01-04 |title=From smog to carbon: Chinese NGOs in transition |url=https://chinadialogue.net/en/climate/from-smog-to-carbon-chinese-ngos-in-transition/ |access-date=2024-01-17 |website=China Dialogue |language=en}}

{{Excerpt|Greenhouse gas emissions by China}}Its commitment to reducing its greenhouse gas emissions has been a major force in decreasing the global cost of wind and solar power, in turn helping the use of renewable energy to rise globally.{{Cite book |title=Greening East Asia: The Rise of the Eco-Developmental State |date=2020 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=978-0-295-74791-0 |editor-last=Esarey |editor-first=Ashley |location=Seattle |jstor=j.ctv19rs1b2 |editor-last2=Haddad |editor-first2=Mary Alice |editor-last3=Lewis |editor-first3=Joanna I. |editor-last4=Harrell |editor-first4=Stevan}}{{Rp|page=8}}

China's opening and reform has brought in significant economic growth since the 1970s. In turn with these developments and shifts to consumer markets, the country has grown its emissions to some of the highest in the world. Consequently, a relationship has emerged between China's goals of perpetuating economic growth and addressing their damage to the environment. In some regards, changes have been made to develop goals that can both develop markets such as renewable energy. On the other hand, some proponents for large scale climate action view these changes as not going far enough, and criticize China's balance between the economy and the climate.

Considering that energy consumption in most developed countries has usually grown faster than GDP during the early stages of industrialization, it is to China's credit that while its GDP has grown by 9.5% per year over the last 27 years, its {{CO2}} emissions have increased by only about 5.4% per year,{{Cite web |title=China's Climate Change Challenge Is Also the World's |url=http://news.aol.com/story/_a/chinas-climate-change-challenge-is-also/n20080208133709990095 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200314161446/https://www.aol.com/news/ |archive-date=2020-03-14 |access-date=2008-03-18}}{{cite journal |last1=Zeng |first1=N. |last2=Ding |first2=Y. |last3=Pan |first3=J. |last4=Wang |first4=H. |last5=Gregg |first5=J. |year=2008 |title=SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: Climate Change-the Chinese Challenge |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/319/5864/730 |url-status=live |journal=Science |volume=319 |issue=5864 |pages=730–731 |doi=10.1126/science.1153368 |pmid=18258882 |s2cid=206510567 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090310031310/http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/319/5864/730 |archive-date=2009-03-10 |access-date=2010-12-11}} meaning that its carbon intensity (its carbon emissions per unit of GDP) has decreased during that time.

Between 2000 and 2020, China’s CO₂ emissions increased from approximately 3,385 million tonnes (Mt) to around 10,065 Mt, reflecting an average annual growth rate of about 5.4%.Financial Times. “China’s Carbon Emissions Growth Slows as Economy Expands.” Financial Times, February 15, 2024. https://www.ft.com/content/352c9205-c8d7-46b0-a162-582cb36f241b.  This means that while the economy expanded rapidly, the corresponding rise in CO₂ emissions was comparatively moderate, resulting in a decrease in carbon intensity.Financial Times. “China’s Carbon Emissions Growth Slows as Economy Expands.” Financial Times, February 15, 2024. https://www.ft.com/content/352c9205-c8d7-46b0-a162-582cb36f241b. Despite this progress, China’s carbon intensity remains relatively high compared to other nations.Reuters. “China Cuts Carbon Intensity in 2024, Still Lags Key Targets.” Reuters, February 28, 2025. https://www.reuters.com/sustainability/climate-energy/china-cuts-carbon-intensity-2024-still-lags-key-targets-2025-02-28. In 2024, China reduced its carbon intensity by 3.4% due to a significant increase in renewable energy capacity; however, this fell short of the annual target of a 3.9% reduction.Reuters. “China Cuts Carbon Intensity in 2024, Still Lags Key Targets.” Reuters, February 28, 2025. https://www.reuters.com/sustainability/climate-energy/china-cuts-carbon-intensity-2024-still-lags-key-targets-2025-02-28.  The country aims to cut carbon intensity by 18% between 2021 and 2025, striving to peak CO₂ emissions before 2030.Le Monde. “The World’s Biggest Polluter and a Leader in the Environmental Transition: The China Paradox.” Le Monde, October 11, 2024. https://www.lemonde.fr/en/china/article/2024/10/11/the-world-s-biggest-polluter-and-a-leader-in-the-environmental-transition-the-china-paradox_6729110_162.html. However, China has only achieved an 8% reduction from 2020 to 2024, making the 2025 goal challenging to attain.Le Monde. “The World’s Biggest Polluter and a Leader in the Environmental Transition: The China Paradox.” Le Monde, October 11, 2024. https://www.lemonde.fr/en/china/article/2024/10/11/the-world-s-biggest-polluter-and-a-leader-in-the-environmental-transition-the-china-paradox_6729110_162.html.

China has implemented various policies to further reduce carbon intensity and promote sustainable development.Le Monde. “The World’s Biggest Polluter and a Leader in the Environmental Transition: The China Paradox.” Le Monde, October 11, 2024. https://www.lemonde.fr/en/china/article/2024/10/11/the-world-s-biggest-polluter-and-a-leader-in-the-environmental-transition-the-china-paradox_6729110_162.html. These include setting targets to peak CO₂ emissions before 2030 and achieve carbon neutrality before 2060.Le Monde. “The World’s Biggest Polluter and a Leader in the Environmental Transition: The China Paradox.” Le Monde, October 11, 2024. https://www.lemonde.fr/en/china/article/2024/10/11/the-world-s-biggest-polluter-and-a-leader-in-the-environmental-transition-the-china-paradox_6729110_162.html.  The country has also invested heavily in renewable energy sources, becoming a global leader in solar and wind energy production. Additionally, China has established a national carbon trading scheme to incentivize emissions reductions across various industries.The Australian. “Xi Jinping’s Energy Plan for China: Everything, Everywhere, All at Once.” The Australian, September 30, 2024. https://www.theaustralian.com.au/world/xi-jinpings-energy-plan-for-china-everything-everywhere-all-at-once/news-story/6db03d6dd28d71ae45c5281ae667100a.

In summary, while China’s CO₂ emissions have grown alongside its rapid economic development, the growth rate of these emissions has been lower than that of GDP, leading to a decrease in carbon intensity.Reuters. “China Cuts Carbon Intensity in 2024, Still Lags Key Targets.” Reuters, February 28, 2025. https://www.reuters.com/sustainability/climate-energy/china-cuts-carbon-intensity-2024-still-lags-key-targets-2025-02-28. Continued efforts to implement and strengthen policies aimed at reducing emissions are crucial for China to achieve its long-term climate goals.Le Monde. “The World’s Biggest Polluter and a Leader in the Environmental Transition: The China Paradox.” Le Monde, October 11, 2024. https://www.lemonde.fr/en/china/article/2024/10/11/the-world-s-biggest-polluter-and-a-leader-in-the-environmental-transition-the-china-paradox_6729110_162.html.

A federal financial auditing project—the 'Green GDP' -- has focused on the economic losses incurred by pollution. The project began in 2004 to incorporate the externalities of previously unaccounted-for environmental costs, but soon produced results that were much worse than anticipated. The program stopped in 2007.{{cite news |last1=Kahn |first1=Joseph |last2=Yardley |first2=Jim |date=26 August 2007 |title=As China Roars, Pollution Reaches Deadly Extremes |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/26/world/asia/26china.html |access-date=4 January 2024 |work=The New York Times}} The findings, published in 2006, revealed that environmental pollution in 2004 led to economic losses amounting to 511.8 billion yuan, equivalent to 3.05% of the nation’s GDP.United Nations Statistics Division. System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA). “China’s Green GDP Accounting Research Project.” Last modified [Year]. https://seea.un.org/file/14936/download?token=9Ls6z4Kg. However, these figures only partially captured the full extent of environmental costs, as they primarily accounted for pollution-related damages and omitted aspects like resource depletion and ecological degradation. Consequently, independent estimates suggested that the actual economic toll could range between 8% and 12% of GDP, highlighting the significant impact of environmental factors on China’s economic growth.Convention on Biological Diversity. The Value of Biodiversity: The Green GDP Initiative in China. Last modified [Year]. https://www.cbd.int/financial/values/china-greengdp.pdf.

Despite the project’s initial insights, it faced challenges, including methodological disputes and resistance from local governments concerned about the implications for economic performance metrics.The Jamestown Foundation. “China’s Policy Impasse: The Case of the Green GDP Initiative.” China Brief 7, no. 14 (July 2007). https://jamestown.org/program/chinas-policy-impasse-the-case-of-the-green-gdp-initiative. These obstacles led to the discontinuation of the Green GDP initiative in 2007.The Jamestown Foundation. “China’s Policy Impasse: The Case of the Green GDP Initiative.” China Brief 7, no. 14 (July 2007). https://jamestown.org/program/chinas-policy-impasse-the-case-of-the-green-gdp-initiative. The prevailing result from such Green GDP efforts has been that efforts to reduce environmental damage have come at too high a cost to economic growth.{{Cite journal |last=Chi |first=Ying F. |last2=Rauch |first2=Jason N. |date=2010 |title=The Plight of Green GDP in China |url=https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/D8FX794J |language=en |issue=3 |pages=102–116 |doi=10.7916/D8FX794J}} Some see this result as indication that China's values lie more in sustaining economic growth than in reducing resource depletion and negative environmental ramifications.{{Cite journal |last=Li |first=Vic |last2=Lang |first2=Graeme |date=2010-02-01 |title=China's “Green GDP” Experiment and the Struggle for Ecological Modernisation |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00472330903270346 |journal=Journal of Contemporary Asia |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=44–62 |doi=10.1080/00472330903270346 |issn=0047-2336}}

{{excerpt|Chinese national carbon trading scheme}}China also has a policy of forestry carbon credits.{{Cite book |last1=Bachulska |first1=Alicja |url=https://ecfr.eu/publication/idea-of-china/ |title=The Idea of China: Chinese Thinkers on Power, Progress, and People |last2=Leonard |first2=Mark |last3=Oertel |first3=Janka |date=2 July 2024 |publisher=European Council on Foreign Relations |isbn=978-1-916682-42-9 |location=Berlin, Germany |pages=124 |format=EPUB |access-date=22 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240717120845/https://ecfr.eu/publication/idea-of-china/ |archive-date=17 July 2024 |url-status=live}} Forestry carbon credits are based on the measurement of forest growth, which is converted into carbon emission reduction measurements by government ecological and forestry offices. Owners of forests (who are typically rural families or rural villages) receive carbon tickets (碳票; tan piao) which are tradeable securities.

Emission trading schemes have drawn concern regarding the effectiveness of the market strategy itself as an effective counter-measure to climate changes, as well as the parameters set within the policy that affects its potency as a solution to climate change.

Annie Leonard cites unstable economic origins and unfair, unregulated systems around emissions shares that invite corruption as reasons to be critical of ETSs.{{Cite web |title=The Story of Cap & Trade |url=https://www.storyofstuff.org/movies/story-of-cap-and-trade/ |access-date=2025-03-07 |website=Story of Stuff |language=en-US}} More specific to China's implementation, others that are more open to the market as a solution have still found similar issues in China's decentralized approach to climate policy which has enabled hasty free allowances to large polluters and prioritizing economic growth, which have led to an over-supply of allowances.{{Cite journal |last=Xiong |first=Ling |last2=Shen |first2=Bo |last3=Qi |first3=Shaozhou |last4=Price |first4=Lynn |date=2015-08-01 |title=Assessment of Allowance Mechanismin China's Carbon Trading Pilots |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1876610215010176 |journal=Energy Procedia |series=Clean, Efficient and Affordable Energy for a Sustainable Future: The 7th International Conference on Applied Energy (ICAE2015) |volume=75 |pages=2510–2515 |doi=10.1016/j.egypro.2015.07.249 |issn=1876-6102}} Such issues could undermine their effectiveness as solutions to climate change. In 2016, some researchers went as far as to describe the ETSs in China as "substantially far from well-functioning systems." {{Cite journal |last=Jiang |first=Jingjing |last2=Xie |first2=Dejun |last3=Ye |first3=Bin |last4=Shen |first4=Bo |last5=Chen |first5=Zhanming |date=2016-09-15 |title=Research on China’s cap-and-trade carbon emission trading scheme: Overview and outlook |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0306261916308753 |journal=Applied Energy |volume=178 |pages=902–917 |doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.06.100 |issn=0306-2619}}

In addition various studies have demonstrated transparency and regulatory consistency as major weaknesses in China's ETS implementations. Scholars point out that unclear measurement, reporting, and verification (MRV) protocols across different provinces have resulted in inconsistencies and unreliable data reporting, further exacerbating problems of oversupply and undermining the scheme's intended environmental impacts. Furthermore, regional governments' competing economic incentives often lead to lenient emissions caps, creating a biased policy landscape that weakens overall emissions reduction goals. For instance, In their analysis, Zhang et al. (2019) identified considerable variability in allowance allocation strategies across provinces, noting how lack of harmonization has caused disparities in market effectiveness and fairness.Zhang, Da, Valerie J. Karplus, Cyril Cassisa, and Xiliang Zhang. "Emissions Trading in China: Progress and Prospects." Energy Policy 125 (2019): 279-287. They emphasized that without a standardized national framework addressing these discrepancies, the long-term viability of China's ETS remains questionable. The authors argued for enhanced governance, stronger institutional oversight, and clearer accountability measures to mitigate these systemic flaws. Similarly, Lo and Cong (2017) critiqued the decentralized enforcement mechanisms inherent in China's policy framework, indicating that regional autonomy in ETS management contributes significantly to regulatory loopholes and enforcement challenges.Lo, Alex Y., and Rong-Gang Cong. "After Paris: China's Decentralized Governance of Emissions Trading." Journal of Cleaner Production 163 (2017): 79-91. They recommend increased centralization or at least stronger national coordination mechanisms to ensure consistency and adherence to environmental objectives, thus boosting market credibility and functional efficiency.

File:Tieshan-solar-water-heaters-0101.jpg are commonly equipped with solar water heaters]]

As of 2008, China's per capita emissions of {{CO2}} were still one-quarter of that of the US.{{cite journal|url= http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/319/5864/730|title= SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: Climate Change-the Chinese Challenge|journal= Science|access-date= 2010-12-11|doi= 10.1126/science.1153368|pmid= 18258882|volume= 319|issue= 5864|pages= 730–731|year= 2008|last1= Zeng|first1= N.|last2= Ding|first2= Y.|last3= Pan|first3= J.|last4= Wang|first4= H.|last5= Gregg|first5= J.|s2cid= 206510567|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090310031310/http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/319/5864/730|archive-date= 2009-03-10|url-status= live}} Though China continues to build emissions-intensive coal-fired power plants, its "rate of development of renewable energy is even faster".{{Cite web |url=http://news.aol.com/story/_a/chinas-climate-change-challenge-is-also/n20080208133709990095 |title=China's Climate Change Challenge Is Also the World's |access-date=2008-03-18 |archive-date=2020-03-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200314161446/https://www.aol.com/news/ |url-status=dead }}

There is great interest in solar power in China. The world's market share of China's photovoltaic units manufacturers grew from approximately 1% in 2003 to 18% in 2007,{{cite web

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}} with one of the largest Chinese manufacturers of these devices being the Chinese solar company Suntech.{{cite web |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=mg19626291.500 |title=China special: The solar power king |publisher=New Scientist.com |date=2007-11-07 |access-date=2010-12-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005083659/http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=mg19626291.500 |archive-date=2008-10-05 |url-status=live }} Although the overwhelming majority of the photovoltaic units are exported, plans are under to increase the installed capacity to at least 1,800 MW by 2020.{{cite news

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}} Some officials expect the plans to be significantly over-fulfilled, with the installed capacity reaching possibly as much as 10,000 megawatts by 2020.

Due to the growing demand for photovoltaic electricity, more companies (Aleo Solar, Global Solar, Anwell,{{cite web |url=http://www.solarbuzz.com/News/NewsASMA255.htm |title= Anwell Produces its First Thin Film Solar Panel |publisher=Solarbuzz |date=2009-09-07 }} CMC Magnetics, etc.) have entered into the photovoltaic market, which is expected to lower the cost of PV cells.

Solar water heating is already used extensively throughout the country.{{cite web |last=Biello |first=David |url=http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=chinas-big-push-for-renewable-energy |title=China's Big Push for Renewable Energy |publisher=SciAm |date=2008-08-04 |access-date=2010-12-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200427192532/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/chinas-big-push-for-renewable-energy/ |archive-date=2020-04-27 |url-status=live }}

China also has embarked upon a 9 million acre (36,000 km²) reforestation project—the Green Wall of China—that may become the largest ecological project in history; it is projected to be finished by 2050 at a cost of up to US$8 billion.{{cite magazine |last1=Ratliff |first1=Evan |title=The Green Wall Of China |url=https://www.wired.com/2003/04/greenwall/ |access-date=4 January 2024 |magazine=Wired}}

Chinese officials claim that they are doing a great deal that is often not visible, especially for a country as large, populous, and (rurally) undeveloped as it is. But working against that, and equally non-visible, is the role of multinational ventures in China in contributing to its emissions. It has been estimated that as of 2004, almost a quarter (23%) of China's {{CO2}} emissions were coming from Chinese-made products destined for the West, providing an interesting perspective on China's large trade surplus. Another study shown that around 1/3 emissions from China in 2005 are due to exports.{{cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=5467388 |title=33% of China's Carbon Footprint Blamed on Exports |publisher=ABC News Abcnews.go.com |date=2008-07-29 |access-date=2010-12-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522035713/https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=5467388 |archive-date=2011-05-22 |url-status=live }} Over half of those emissions driven by demand from the West are from transnationals taking advantage of China's developmental policies favouring heavy manufacturing over regions with more developed environmental laws and enforcement. This includes many of the Walmart-suppliers and other foreign-owned factories that stock department store shelves, particularly in the US.{{cite web |author=Jim WatsonWang Tao |url=http://www.chinadialogue.net/homepage/show/single/en/1592-Is-the-west-to-blame-for-China-s-emissions- |title=Is the west to blame for China's emissions? |publisher=Chinadialogue.net |date=2007-12-20 |access-date=2010-12-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012110343/http://www.chinadialogue.net/homepage/show/single/en/1592-Is-the-west-to-blame-for-China-s-emissions- |archive-date=2008-10-12 }}

China has buttressed its call for joint international responsibility for at least part of China's emissions, by making public, in Jan 2008, Multinationals committed 130 violations of Chinese environmental law.{{cite web|url=https://www.zhb.gov.cn/xcjy/zwhb/200801/t20080109_116064.htm |title=Environmental Protection Agency announced the 130 multinational corporations environmental |publisher=www.zhb.gov.cn |access-date=2010-12-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080821223848/http://www.zhb.gov.cn/xcjy/zwhb/200801/t20080109_116064.htm |archive-date=2008-08-21 }}File:Yangzhou-WenchangGe-traffic-3417.jpg and electric scooters, rather than vehicles with internal combustion engines]]

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China has been in talks with several countries in regards to its continued greenhouse gas output, along with its efforts to abide by greenhouse gas emission targets. The relationship between U.S. Climate envoy John Kerry and Chinese climate envoy Xie Zhenhua allowed for improved collaboration between the two nations.{{Cite news |author-link=Fiona Harvey |date=2024-01-21 |title=Goodbye Mr Kerry, farewell Mr Xie: end of an era in global climate politics |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2024/jan/21/goodbye-mr-kerry-farewell-mr-xie-end-of-an-era-in-global-climate-politics |access-date=2024-01-22 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}} In 2023 the U.S. and China made an agreement to work toward several achievements meant to lessen the impact of the climate crisis, including improved renewable energy output, protecting forests, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.{{Cite news |last=Milman |first=Oliver |date=2023-11-15 |title=US and China's joint climate plan leaves key questions unanswered |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/nov/15/us-china-climate-plan-analysis |access-date=2024-01-18 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}

China has been a frequent participant in climate agreements meant to promote reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, including the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement, although it is not obligated to follow through with achieving the goals put forth by a given agreement.{{Cite web |title=Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change |url=https://unfccc.int/process/parties-non-party-stakeholders/parties-convention-and-observer-states?field_national_communications_target_id%5B514%5D=514&field_partys_partyto_target_id%5B512%5D=512&field_partys_partyto_target_id%5B511%5D=511&field_parties_date_of_ratifi_value=1&field_parties_date_of_signature_value=1&field_parties_date_of_ratifi_value_1=1&field_parties_date_of_signature_value_1=1&combine= |access-date=2024-12-20 |website=unfccc.int}} However, following the Copenhagen Accord in 2009, China has been subject to international criticism from climate activists due to attempts to leverage these deals toward more favorable conditions for their coal industry, which plays a large role in China's rising economic influence.{{Cite news |last=Lynas |first=Mark |date=2009-12-22 |title=How do I know China wrecked the Copenhagen deal? I was in the room |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2009/dec/22/copenhagen-climate-change-mark-lynas |access-date=2024-12-20 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}

Due to the influence of climate change denialism in U.S. politics, which resulted in President Donald Trump pulling out of the Paris Agreement, there has been some speculation that China would take the United States' place as chief enforcer of climate agreement guidelines.{{Cite journal |last1=Shen |first1=Wei |last2=Xie |first2=Lei |date=2018-11-02 |title=Can China lead in multilateral environmental negotiations? Internal politics, self-depiction, and China's contribution in climate change regime and Mekong governance |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15387216.2019.1586557 |journal=Eurasian Geography and Economics |volume=59 |issue=5–6 |pages=708–32 |doi=10.1080/15387216.2019.1586557 |issn=1538-7216 |via=Taylor & Francis Online}} China has committed US$3.1 billion of aid toward developing nations, in order to strengthen their efforts toward implementing carbon emission goals, signaling a desire to procure more influence among both developing nations and the climate movement.{{Cite web |title=The South Centre {{!}} China's boost to South-South cooperation |url=https://www.southcentre.int/question/chinas-boost-to-south-south-cooperation/#:~:text=Developing%20countries%20can%20choose%20to,has%20pledged%20at%20the%20GCF. |access-date=2024-12-21 |website=www.southcentre.int}}

Under the Biden administration views climate change as a national security priority, leading the U.S. to rejoin the Paris Agreement in January 2021 and appoint John Kerry as Special Presidential Envoy for Climate.Hyeonjung, Choi. “U.S. Climate Policy and Issues in the Biden Era.” Asan Institute for Policy Studies, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep32463. However, the administration has expressed skepticism regarding China’s commitment to climate cooperation, particularly criticizing its Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). While China is the world’s largest investor in renewable energy domestically, between 2014 and 2017, about 91% of Chinese banks’ energy-sector loans to BRI countries were for fossil fuel projects.Hyeonjung, Choi. “U.S. Climate Policy and Issues in the Biden Era.” Asan Institute for Policy Studies, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep32463. In 2018 alone, coal projects accounted for 40% of these energy-sector loans. By 2016, China was involved in constructing approximately 240 coal plants in BRI partner nations, a number which has likely grown since then. Consequently, the Biden administration has characterized these investments as environmentally detrimental and economically motivated “greenwashing.”Hyeonjung, Choi. “U.S. Climate Policy and Issues in the Biden Era.” Asan Institute for Policy Studies, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep32463.

Officials in Beijing cite violations by Chinese companies—in this case, to illustrate the enormity of the task in front of them in getting compliance for environmental regulations which they see as very progressive. Regional and local officials have been tasked with pushing companies toward accepting these regulatory measures.

Although local or regional governments have been tasked with carrying out environmental regulations, enforcement is typically fairly light.{{Cite journal |last1=Cai |first1=Zhongyao |last2=Ding |first2=Xuhui |last3=Zhou |first3=Ziqian |last4=Han |first4=Aixi |last5=Yu |first5=Siqi |last6=Yang |first6=Xinyu |last7=Jiang |first7=Ping |date=2025-01-01 |title=Fiscal decentralization's impact on carbon emissions and its interactions with environmental regulations, economic development, and industrialization: Evidence from 288 cities in China |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195925524002683 |journal=Environmental Impact Assessment Review |volume=110 |pages=107681 |doi=10.1016/j.eiar.2024.107681 |issn=0195-9255}} For example, in 2006, Premier Wen Jiabao issued a warning to local officials to shut down some of the plants in the most energy-intensive industries, designating at least six industries for slow-down. The following year, those same industries posted a 20.6% increase in output.{{Cite web |title=Toxic cost of China' success |url=http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/world_news/article75083.ece |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150108010100/http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/world_news/article75083.ece |archive-date=2015-01-08 |access-date=2015-01-07 |website=The Sunday Times}} Also in 2006, the national government began banning logging in some locations in order to expand its efforts to protect forests, and at the same time restricted the size of cities and golf courses in order to increase land use efficiency. Yet many of the local officials responsible for carrying out the new regulations essentially ignored them.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}

Lack of compliance is partially because local governments now have a chunk of funding for which they are not beholden to the central government, and are motivated to protect those funding sources which pollute, but pollute profitably.

As a result, China's State Environmental Protection Administration attempted to use local banks as a means of discouraging companies from carbon-intensive practices, which has resulted in some unexpected failures. Many local governments that have officially implemented the 'Green Credit' policy of loaning only to companies with green practices continue also to protect polluting firms that are profitable, and the banks in some provinces have yet to apply the policy at all.{{cite web |date=2008-02-13 |title=China green credit 'meets resistance' |url=http://www.chinadialogue.net/blog/show/single/en/1706-China-green-credit-meets-resistance- |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718135353/http://www.chinadialogue.net/blog/show/single/en/1706-China-green-credit-meets-resistance- |archive-date=2011-07-18 |access-date=2010-12-11 |publisher=Chinadialogue.net}}

China's leadership worries that China would end up suffering a slowdown in economic growth that would result in "massive unemployment and social unrest".[http://news.bbc.co.uk/chinese/simp/hi/newsid_7140000/newsid_7145600/7145698v.stm China "does not accept" caps on greenhouse gas emissions] {{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}{{cite news |last=Griffiths |first=Daniel |date=2007-05-07 |title=China's mixed messages on climate |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6632399.stm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114014146/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6632399.stm |archive-date=2012-11-14 |access-date=2010-12-11 |work=BBC News}} Some economists have estimated that a 2030 deadline for carbon emission reduction could result in a 2% decrease in GDP.{{Cite journal |last1=Hübler |first1=Michael |last2=Voigt |first2=Sebastian |last3=Löschel |first3=Andreas |date=2014-12-01 |title=Designing an emissions trading scheme for China—An up-to-date climate policy assessment |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0301421514001086 |journal=Energy Policy |volume=75 |pages=57–72 |doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2014.02.019 |issn=0301-4215}} Additionally, stronger carbon emission caps have been expected to hurt Chinese- and foreign-owned companies in the short term, though adapting to these policies could still result in future growth.{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Xiaohui |last2=Chen |first2=Wen |last3=Hu |first3=Tao |last4=Yang |first4=Bo |last5=Zeng |first5=Jianguang |date=2023-08-17 |title=Regional carbon efficiency and corporate cash holdings: evidence from China |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-023-01992-5 |journal=Humanities and Social Sciences Communications |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1057/s41599-023-01992-5 |issn=2662-9992|doi-access=free }}

Chinese officials argue that China has been contributing to global warming for only 30 years, while the developed countries have been doing so for 200 years. Additionally, pollution-flagrant early stages of industrialization may have contributed to what China sees as a lack of balance of power, particularly between the US and China,{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1350745.stm |title=Chinese concern over US dominance |work=BBC News |date=2001-05-25 |access-date=2010-12-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114014018/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1350745.stm |archive-date=2012-11-14 |url-status=live }} therefore many Chinese officials see global warming mitigation as creating an economic burden that slows its economy and further exacerbates the unequal balance of power.{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/6964892.stm |title=Merkel presses China on climate |work=BBC News |date=2007-08-27 |access-date=2010-12-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090507075202/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/6964892.stm |archive-date=2009-05-07 |url-status=live }}

Chinese officials point out that the highest per capita emissions have long been and still are in developed countries, not in China.{{cite news |last=Blanchard |first=Ben |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/environmentNews/idUSPEK35318820070801?pageNumber=1&sp=true |title=China blames climate change for extreme weather |publisher=Reuters |date=2007-08-01 |access-date=2010-12-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090428044707/http://www.reuters.com/article/environmentNews/idUSPEK35318820070801?pageNumber=1&sp=true |archive-date=2009-04-28 |url-status=live }} As such, Chinese officials insist that developed nations should shoulder a comparable portion of the global cost for reversing the world's emissions, consistent with the polluter pays principle.García-Portela, Laura. “[https://philpapers.org/archive/GARMRF-2.pdf Moral Responsibility for Climate Change Loss and Damage: A Response to the Excusable Ignorance Objection]”, International Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 1 (39), pp. 7-24 (2020).

China's climate envoy Xie Zhenhua has emphasized China's stance that rich countries have a greater responsibility regarding climate change than China, though China has been the world's largest carbon emitter since 2006.Li, Jane. [https://finance.yahoo.com/news/china-xie-zhenhua-most-important-090039807.html “China’s Xie Zhenhua is the most important person attending COP26”], Quartz (27 Oct 2021) via Yahoo Finance. His speech at the 2010 climate conference in South Africa conveyed this Chinese position:{{Cite web|last=Waarlo|first=Niels|date=2021-11-04|title=Westerse landen moeten in de spiegel kijken, vindt de man achter China's klimaatambities|url=https://www.volkskrant.nl/gs-b4f2dec8|access-date=2021-11-05|website=de Volkskrant|language=nl-NL}}{{Cite web|last=Li|first=Jane|title=China's Xie Zhenhua is the most important person attending COP26|url=https://qz.com/2077072/meet-xie-zhenhua-chinas-top-climate-diplomat-at-cop26/|access-date=2021-11-05|website=Quartz|date=27 October 2021 |language=en}}

{{Blockquote|text=We are developing countries. We need to develop and eradicate poverty while protecting the environment. We’ve done what we should do, but you [developed countries] haven’t. What right do you have to lecture us?}}

As a member of the UNFCCC, China has participated in several conferences meant to implement resolutions toward reducing greenhouse gas emissions. However, China is a Non-Annex I signatory, meaning the nation is not obligated to meet reduction goals.{{Cite journal |last1=Pauw |first1=Pieter |last2=Mbeva |first2=Kennedy |last3=van Asselt |first3=Harro |date=2019-07-30 |title=Subtle differentiation of countries' responsibilities under the Paris Agreement |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-019-0298-6 |journal=Palgrave Communications |language=en |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=1–7 |doi=10.1057/s41599-019-0298-6 |issn=2055-1045|doi-access=free }} The provision by which China signed the Kyoto Protocol without committing to a cap was the same provision given to all developing nation signers.{{cite journal |last1=Zeng |first1=N. |last2=Ding |first2=Y. |last3=Pan |first3=J. |last4=Wang |first4=H. |last5=Gregg |first5=J. |year=2008 |title=SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: Climate Change-the Chinese Challenge |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/319/5864/730 |url-status=live |journal=Science |volume=319 |issue=5864 |pages=730–731 |doi=10.1126/science.1153368 |pmid=18258882 |s2cid=206510567 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090310031310/http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/319/5864/730 |archive-date=2009-03-10 |access-date=2010-12-11}}

China's Fourteenth Five-Year Plan was the first Five-Year Plan to lay out Chinese climate policy.{{Cite web |last1=Liu |first1=Hongqiao |last2=Evans |first2=Simon |last3=Zizhu |first3=Zhang |last4=Song |first4=Wanyuan |last5=You |first5=Xiaoying |date=2023-11-30 |title=The Carbon Brief Profile: China |url=https://interactive.carbonbrief.org/the-carbon-brief-profile-china/index.html#paris-pledge |access-date=2024-12-21 |website=Carbon Brief |language=en}} The Climate Change Special Plan, which is included in the Fourteenth Five-Year Plan, emphasizes ecologically oriented urban planning, including through means like urban green rings, public transportation, and bicycle lanes and walking paths.{{Cite book |last1=Curtis |first1=Simon |title=The Belt and Road City: Geopolitics, Urbanization, and China's Search for a New International Order |last2=Klaus |first2=Ian |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=9780300266900 |location=New Haven and London |publication-date=2024 |doi=10.2307/jj.11589102 |jstor=jj.11589102}}{{Rp|page=114}}

In October 2021, China announced the 1+N plan, which details the nation's approach toward climate policy for the years between 2021 and 2029, including intentions to substitute coal or fossil fuel power for cleaner energy sources, such as renewables or nuclear energy.{{Cite web |last=马娟 |title=国务院关于印发2030年前碳达峰行动方案的通知_环境监测、保护与治理_中国政府网 |url=https://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2021-10/26/content_5644984.htm |access-date=2024-12-20 |website=www.gov.cn}} The plan also includes provisions to promote low-carbon methods for energy production and industry, in order to peak the nation's carbon output before 2030. This plan places emphasis on clean energy sources and low-carbon production, meant to push the country toward achieving carbon neutrality by 2060.

{{Portal|Renewable Energy|Global warming|Politics}}

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• Attribution of recent climate change
• Belt and Road Initiative International Green Development Coalition
• Climate change in China
• Dongtan, a Chinese eco-city
• Energy policy of China
• Green growth in China
• List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions

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