Cognitive appraisal

File:Transactional_Model_of_Stress_and_Coping_-_Richard_Lazarus.svg

This model uses cognitive appraisal as a way to explain responses to stressful events.{{Cite book|title=Stress, appraisal, and coping|last=S.|first=Lazarus, Richard|date=1984|publisher=Springer Pub. Co|others=Folkman, Susan.|isbn=0826141900|location=New York|oclc=10754235}}

According to this theory, two distinct forms of cognitive appraisal must occur in order for an individual to feel stress in response to an event; Lazarus called these stages "primary appraisal" and "secondary appraisal". During primary appraisal, an event is interpreted as dangerous to the individual or threatening to their personal goals. During the secondary appraisal, the individual evaluates their ability or resources to be able to cope with a specific situation .

The component process model proposed by Klaus Scherer utilizes cognitive appraisal to explain an individual's psychological and physiological response to situations. Scherer's model makes additions to the Lazarus’ transactional model regarding how many appraisals occur. Rather than just two levels of appraisal in response to an event (primary and secondary), Scherer's model suggests four distinct appraisals occur: (a) the direct effects or relevance that an individual perceives an event being to them (b) the consequences an event has both immediately and long-term to an individual and their goals (c) the ability an individual perceives they can cope with the consequences of an event (d) the ways in which the events are perceived to result from an individual's values and self-concept.{{Cite journal|last=Scherer|first=Klaus R.|date=November 2009|title=The dynamic architecture of emotion: Evidence for the component process model|journal=Cognition & Emotion|volume=23|issue=7|pages=1307–1351|doi=10.1080/02699930902928969|s2cid=145750370 |issn=0269-9931}} This model and additional work by Scherer notably highlights not only psychological responses, but many physiological responses according to how events are appraised by an individual.

Ira Roseman utilized the concept of cognitive appraisal to build an explanatory theory that encompasses a wider range of emotions (when compared with Lazarus' transactional model). According to Roseman (1996), positive emotions result from events that an individual appraises as consistent with their motives, while negative emotions result from events that individuals appraise as inconsistent with their motives. More specific emotions are based on if the event is perceived to be as caused by others, the individual, or due to an uncontrollable circumstance.{{Cite journal|last=Roseman|first=Ira J.|date=May 1996|title=Appraisal Determinants of Emotions: Constructing a More Accurate and Comprehensive Theory|journal=Cognition & Emotion|volume=10|issue=3|pages=241–278|doi=10.1080/026999396380240|issn=0269-9931}}

There is varied experimental evidence that illustrates the properties of appraisal theories. A meta analysis found that 75% of studies showed statistically significant relationships between appraisal and emotions.{{Cite journal |last1=Yeo |first1=Gerard C. |last2=Ong |first2=Desmond C. |date=December 2024 |title=Associations between cognitive appraisals and emotions: A meta-analytic review. |url=https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/bul0000452 |journal=Psychological Bulletin |language=en |volume=150 |issue=12 |pages=1440–1471 |doi=10.1037/bul0000452 |pmid=39404856 |issn=1939-1455}}  This encapsulates the core of appraisal theories that interpretations of experiences is what gives rise to emotions.

The strength of the relationship between appraisal of circumstance and emotional state is exhibited by a discriminant analysis that showed patterns of cognitive appraisal were able to predict 40% of corresponding emotions.{{Cite journal |last1=Watson |first1=Lisa |last2=Spence |first2=Mark T. |date=2007-01-01 |title=Causes and consequences of emotions on consumer behaviour: A review and integrative cognitive appraisal theory |url=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/03090560710737570/full/html |journal=European Journal of Marketing |volume=41 |issue=5/6 |pages=487–511 |doi=10.1108/03090560710737570 |issn=0309-0566}} The study specifically used Roseman (1984) and Scherer's (1984) theories of emotions as basis of the analysis. Appraisal theories suggest mechanisms that detect personal relevance provoke emotion and primary appraisal was identified as the main process connecting values and emotions.{{Cite journal |last1=Conte |first1=Beatrice |last2=Hahnel |first2=Ulf J. J. |last3=Brosch |first3=Tobias |date=June 2023 |title=From values to emotions: Cognitive appraisal mediates the impact of core values on emotional experience. |url=https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/emo0001083 |journal=Emotion |language=en |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=1115–1129 |doi=10.1037/emo0001083 |pmid=35389734 |issn=1931-1516}}

There are few tools available that accurately measure cognitive appraisal based on its theoretical definition.{{Cite journal |last=Carpenter |first=Roger |date=2016-04-01 |title=A Review of Instruments on Cognitive Appraisal of Stress |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0883941715001429 |journal=Archives of Psychiatric Nursing |language=English |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=271–279 |doi=10.1016/j.apnu.2015.07.002 |issn=0883-9417 |pmid=26992882}} Reliable and valid instruments are needed to better understand how cognitive appraisal affects mental and physical health in people under stress. Research shows that cognitive appraisal can influence mental health and can be changed.{{Cite journal |last=Jasim |first=Sina |date=February 2021 |title=The Influence of Psychological Intervention on Cognitive Appraisal and Level of Anxiety in Dialysis Patients: A Pilot Study |url=https://benthamopenarchives.com/abstract.php?ArticleCode=TONUTRAJ-4-61 |journal=AACE Clinical Case Reports |language=en |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=61–64 |doi=10.2174/1876396001104010061 |pmid=33718602}} However, existing measures of how individuals assess stressful events often lack clear theoretical grounding and have weak psychometric support.

Other methodological issues come from uses of self-report questionnaires to measure effectiveness of appraisal. Self-report measures are criticized for their lack of validity due to their subjectivity to biases such as social desirability, lack of introspective ability and measurement error.

Neural measures of emotion provide more objectivity but are also difficult to interpret. Lab studies that measure amygdala activation or changes in neural networks to determine reappraisal effectiveness, lack ecological validity as the experimental settings are artificial and not reflective of real life.{{Cite journal |last1=Willner |first1=Cynthia J. |last2=Hoffmann |first2=Jessica D. |last3=Bailey |first3=Craig S. |last4=Harrison |first4=Alexandra P. |last5=Garcia |first5=Beatris |last6=Ng |first6=Zi Jia |last7=Cipriano |first7=Christina |last8=Brackett |first8=Marc A. |date=2022-06-22 |title=The Development of Cognitive Reappraisal From Early Childhood Through Adolescence: A Systematic Review and Methodological Recommendations |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |language=English |volume=13 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2022.875964 |doi-access=free |issn=1664-1078 |pmc=9258621 |pmid=35814075}}

Theoretical assumptions of Lazarus transactional model of stress have been empirically violated such as the assumption that individual emotions are specifically only related to one other core-relational theme, however emotions were found to be significantly correlated to more than one appraisal component.{{Cite journal |last1=Hulbert-Williams |first1=N. J. |last2=Morrison |first2=V. |last3=Wilkinson |first3=C. |last4=Neal |first4=R. D. |date=2013 |title=Investigating the cognitive precursors of emotional response to cancer stress: Re-testing Lazarus's transactional model |url=https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2044-8287.2012.02082.x |journal=British Journal of Health Psychology |language=en |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=97–121 |doi=10.1111/j.2044-8287.2012.02082.x |pmid=23006059 |issn=2044-8287}}

Cognitive reappraisal is one of the most studied mechanisms of the emotion regulation form referred to as cognitive change.{{cite journal |last1=Buhle |first1=J. T. |last2=Silvers |first2=J. A. |last3=Wager |first3=T. D. |last4=Lopez |first4=R. |last5=Onyemekwu |first5=C. |last6=Kober |first6=H. |last7=Weber |first7=J. |last8=Ochsner |first8=K. N. |title=Cognitive Reappraisal of Emotion: A Meta-Analysis of Human Neuroimaging Studies |journal=Cerebral Cortex |date=1 November 2014 |volume=24 |issue=11 |pages=2981–2990 |doi=10.1093/cercor/bht154 |pmid=23765157 | pmc=4193464}} It encompasses a variety of different strategies, such as positive reappraisal (creating and focusing on a positive aspect of the stimulus),{{cite journal | last1 = Moster| first1 =J. S. | last2 = Hartwig| first2 = R. | last3 = Moran| first3 = T. P. | last4 = Jendrusina | first4 = A. A. | last5 = Kross | first5 = E. | year = 2014 | title = Neural markers of positive reappraisal and their associations with trait reappraisal and worry | journal = Journal of Abnormal Psychology | volume = 123 | issue = 1| pages = 91–105 | doi=10.1037/a0035817| pmid =24661162 }} decentering (reinterpreting an event by broadening one's perspective to see "the bigger picture"),{{cite journal | last1 = Schartau | first1 = P. E. | last2 = Dalgleish | first2 = T. | last3 = Dunn | first3 = B. D. | year = 2009 | title = Seeing the bigger picture: training in perspective broadening reduces self-reported affect and psychophysiological response to distressing films and autobiographical memories | journal = Journal of Abnormal Psychology | volume = 118 | issue = 1| pages = 15–27 | doi=10.1037/a0012906 | pmid=19222310| s2cid = 33850126 }} or fictional reappraisal (adopting or emphasizing the belief that event is not real, that it is for instance "just a movie" or "just my imagination").{{cite journal |last1=Makowski |first1=D. |last2=Sperduti |first2=M. |last3=Pelletier |first3=J. |last4=Blondé |first4=P. |last5=La Corte |first5=V. |last6=Arcangeli |first6=M. |last7=Zalla |first7=T. |last8=Lemaire |first8=S. |last9=Dokic |first9=J. |last10=Nicolas |first10=S. |last11=Piolino |first11=P. |date=January 2019 |title=Phenomenal, bodily and brain correlates of fictional reappraisal as an implicit emotion regulation strategy |journal=Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience |volume=19|issue=4 |pages=877–897|doi=10.3758/s13415-018-00681-0|pmid=30610654 |s2cid=58591122 |doi-access=free }}

There are two main theoretical models for emotion regulation therapies, each based on different views of how the brain supports cognitive reappraisal. These are the top-down Cognitive Emotion Regulation (CER) model and the bottom-up Experiential-Dynamic Emotion Regulation (EDER) model.

The CER model, developed by Gross (1998),{{Cite journal |last=Gross |first=James J. |date=1998-09-01 |title=The Emerging Field of Emotion Regulation: An Integrative Review |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271 |journal=Review of General Psychology |language=EN |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=271–299 |doi=10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271 |issn=1089-2680}} sees conscious thinking and appraisal as central to how emotions are produced and managed. It emphasizes the use of deliberate strategies, such as changing situations or thoughts, to reduce emotional intensity. This is known as a top-down approach, where higher brain functions guide emotional responses. These strategies work by activating the prefrontal cortex to inhibit emotional responses from areas like the amygdala. Effective regulation under this model requires a sense of safety and a stable environment. However, if emotions are intense or linked to real threats, the ability to use these strategies may be limited, and the brain must adapt quickly at a more automatic, local level.{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Ya-Xin |last2=Yin |first2=Bin |date=2023-04-17 |title=A new understanding of the cognitive reappraisal technique: an extension based on the schema theory |journal=Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience |language=English |volume=17 |doi=10.3389/fnbeh.2023.1174585 |doi-access=free |issn=1662-5153 |pmc=10149752 |pmid=37138662}}

The EDER model focuses on processing emotions directly, rather than controlling them.{{Cite journal |last1=Frederickson |first1=Jon Julius |last2=Messina |first2=Irene |last3=Grecucci |first3=Alessandro |date=2018-11-05 |title=Dysregulated Anxiety and Dysregulating Defenses: Toward an Emotion Regulation Informed Dynamic Psychotherapy |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=9 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02054 |doi-access=free |issn=1664-1078 |pmc=6230578 |pmid=30455650}} This approach encourages individuals to experience and understand their emotions by paying attention to bodily sensations and internal states.{{Cite journal |last1=Grecucci |first1=Alessandro |last2=Messina |first2=Irene |last3=Amodeo |first3=Letizia |last4=Lapomarda |first4=Gaia |last5=Crescentini |first5=Cristiano |last6=Dadomo |first6=Harold |last7=Panzeri |first7=Marta |last8=Theuninck |first8=Anthony |last9=Frederickson |first9=Jon |date=2020-06-04 |title=A Dual Route Model for Regulating Emotions: Comparing Models, Techniques and Biological Mechanisms |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=11 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00930 |doi-access=free |issn=1664-1078 |pmc=7287186 |pmid=32581903}} It operates from the bottom-up, starting with emotional experiences and allows natural regulation to occur. Emotions are seen as arising automatically from brain systems, and regulation happens through self-correcting biological processes. Emotional problems arise when this natural regulation is disrupted. Therapies using the EDER model aim to restore this natural process by helping individuals become aware of and process their emotions. This approach is less reliant on conscious thought and language and is rooted in brain regions associated with automatic and emotional functions, particularly on the right and subcortical areas.

Cognitive reappraisal can be used in many ways. Using an understanding of arousal congruency, individuals can reappraise anxious arousal into excitement by using reappraisal strategies like self-talk (e.g. repeating “i will be excited” verbally).{{Cite journal |last=Brooks |first=Alison Wood |date=2014 |title=Get excited: Reappraising pre-performance anxiety as excitement. |url=https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0035325 |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General |language=en |volume=143 |issue=3 |pages=1144–1158 |doi=10.1037/a0035325 |issn=1939-2222}}

Cognitive reappraisal can help boost creativity and cognitive flexibility, especially for individuals with low openness to experience as eliciting emotional events require considering new perspectives.{{Cite journal |last1=Zhu |first1=Lily Yuxuan |last2=Bauman |first2=Christopher W. |last3=Young |first3=Maia J |date=2023-01-01 |title=Unlocking creative potential: Reappraising emotional events facilitates creativity for conventional thinkers |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S074959782200098X |journal=Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes |volume=174 |pages=104209 |doi=10.1016/j.obhdp.2022.104209 |issn=0749-5978}} Cognitive reappraisal mediates relationships of creative self-efficacy with positive affect and career satisfaction.{{Cite journal |last1=Oh |first1=Sunyoung |last2=Pyo |first2=Jungmin |date=2023-10-27 |title=Creative Self-Efficacy, Cognitive Reappraisal, Positive Affect, and Career Satisfaction: A Serial Mediation Model |journal=Behavioral Sciences |language=en |volume=13 |issue=11 |pages=890 |doi=10.3390/bs13110890 |doi-access=free |issn=2076-328X |pmc=10669601 |pmid=37998637}}

Reappraisal is effective in improving wellbeing rather than reducing mental health symptoms, and is most beneficial to individuals with vulnerabilities such as neuroticism and high stress levels.{{Cite journal |last1=Dawel |first1=Amy |last2=Mewton |first2=Paige |last3=Gulliver |first3=Amelia |last4=Farrer |first4=Louise M. |last5=Calear |first5=Alison L. |last6=Newman |first6=Eryn |last7=Cherbuin |first7=Nicolas |date=2024-08-01 |title=For Whom and What Does Cognitive Reappraisal Help? A Prospective Study |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10608-023-10407-3 |journal=Cognitive Therapy and Research |language=en |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=687–703 |doi=10.1007/s10608-023-10407-3 |issn=1573-2819|doi-access=free }}

The way in which stress is cognitively appraised has been found to influence mental health.{{Cite journal|last1=Gomes|first1=A. Rui|last2=Faria|first2=Susana|last3=Lopes|first3=Heitor|date=2016-07-09|title=Stress and Psychological Health|journal=Western Journal of Nursing Research|volume=38|issue=11|pages=1448–1468|doi=10.1177/0193945916654666|pmid=27330045|issn=0193-9459|hdl=1822/42886|s2cid=21304315 |hdl-access=free}} Cognitive styles of perceiving the world and interpreting events have been suggested as factors that may make certain individuals more prone to depression, such as Aaron Beck's cognitive theory (1967). A variety of studies have linked panic disorder with attentional biases and catastrophization.{{Cite book|title=Psychopathology : history, diagnosis, and empirical foundations|date=2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|others=Craighead, W. Edward., Miklowitz, David Jay, 1957-, Craighead, Linda W.|isbn=9780471768616|location=Hoboken, N.J.|oclc=181903762}}

Cognitive appraisal is often used to help with coping in stressful situations. The technique is often used in cognitive behavioral therapy as it encourages individuals to identify their irrational beliefs and reconstruct their belief system to decrease negative thoughts and behavior's. It has helped clients recognize and correct maladaptive thoughts.{{Cite book |title=Handbook of emotion regulation |date=2015 |publisher=The Guilford Press |isbn=978-1-4625-0350-6 |editor-last=Gross |editor-first=James J. |edition=Second edition, paperback |location=New York London}}  Active forms of emotional coping like positive reframing and humor have benefits in reducing stress.{{Cite journal |last1=Ali |first1=Anam |last2=Khan |first2=Ali Asad |last3=Abbas |first3=Sadia |last4=Khan |first4=Ali Salman |last5=Ullah |first5=Ehsan |date=2022-12-01 |title=Cognitive appraisal, Coping, Stress and Fear Contracting Covid-19 in Working People in Pakistan |journal=Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy |language=en |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=663–682 |doi=10.1007/s10942-021-00433-z |issn=1573-6563 |pmc=8602993 |pmid=34815621}}

Category:Psychological stress