Colonial mentality

Frantz Fanon's Marxist writings on imperialism, racism, and decolonizing struggles have influenced post-colonial discussions about the internalization of colonial prejudice. Fanon first tackled the problem of, what he called, the "colonial alienation of the person"{{Cite book|title=Black Skin, White Masks|last=Fanon|first=Frantz|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-7453-2849-2|location=London, United Kingdom|pages=xxiii}} as a mental health issue through psychiatric analysis.{{Cite journal|last1=Robertson|first1=Michael|last2=Walter|first2=Garry|year=2009|title=Frantz Fanon and the confluence of psychiatry, politics, ethics and culture|journal=Acta Neuropsychiatrica|volume=21|issue=6|pages=308–309|doi=10.1111/j.1601-5215.2009.00428.x|s2cid=143798499 |issn=0924-2708}}

In The Wretched of the Earth (French: Les Damnés de la Terre), published in 1961, Fanon used psychiatry to analyze how French colonization and the carnage of the Algerian War had mentally affected Algerians' self-identity and mental health.{{Cite journal|last=Bell|first=Vikki|date=2011-01-04|title=Introduction: Fanon's The Wretched of the Earth 50 Years On|journal=Theory, Culture & Society|language=en|volume=27|issue=7–8|pages=7–14|doi=10.1177/0263276410383721|s2cid=143492378}} The book argues that during the period of colonization there was a subtle and constant mental pathology that developed within the colonial psyche.{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth08fano/page/250|title=The Wretched of the Earth|last=Fanon|first=Frantz|publisher=Grove Press, Inc|others=Sartre, Jean-Paul, 1905-1980, Farrington, Constance|year=1961|isbn=978-0802150837|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth08fano/page/250 250]|oclc=1316464}} Fanon argued that the colonial psyche is fractured by the lack of mental and material homogeneity as a result of the colonial power's Western culture being pressured onto the colonized population despite the existing material differences between them.{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth08fano/page/194|title=The Wretched of the Earth|last=Fanon|first=Frantz|publisher=Grove Press, Inc|others=Sartre, Jean-Paul, 1905-1980, Farrington, Constance|year=1961|isbn=978-0802150837|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth08fano/page/194 194]|oclc=1316464}}

Here Fanon expands traditional Marxist understandings of historical materialism to explore how the dissonance between material existence and culture functions to transform the colonized people through the mold of the Western bourgeoisie.{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth08fano/page/162|title=The Wretched of the Earth|last=Fanon|first=Frantz|publisher=Grove Press, Inc|others=Sartre, Jean-Paul, 1905-1980, Farrington, Constance|year=1961|isbn=978-0802150837|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth08fano/page/162 162]|oclc=1316464}} This meant that the native Algerian came to view their own traditional culture and identity through the lens of colonial prejudice. Fanon observed that average Algerians internalized and then openly repeated remarks that were in line with the institutionalized racist culture of the French colonizers; dismissing their own culture as backward due to the internalization of Western colonial ideologies.{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth08fano/page/161|title=The Wretched of the Earth|last=Fanon|first=Frantz|publisher=Grove Press, Inc|others=Sartre, Jean-Paul, 1905-1980, Farrington, Constance|year=1961|isbn=978-0802150837|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth08fano/page/161 161]|oclc=1316464}}

According to Fanon this results in a destabilizing existential conflict within the colonized culture:

"In the West, the family circle, the effects of education, and the relatively high standard of living of the working class provide a more or less efficient protection against the harmful action of these pastimes. But in an African country, where mental development is uneven, where the violent collision of two worlds has considerably shaken old traditions and thrown the universe of the perceptions out of focus, the impressionability and sensibility of the Young African are at the mercy of the various assaults made upon them by the very Nature of Western Culture."{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth08fano/page/194|title=The Wretched of the Earth|last=Fanon|first=Frantz|publisher=Grove Press, Inc|others=Sartre, Jean-Paul, 1905-1980, Farrington, Constance|year=1961|isbn=978-0802150837|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth08fano/page/194 194–195]|oclc=1316464}}

File:British India (orthographic projection).svg]]

During the period of European colonial rule in India, Europeans in India typically regarded many aspects of Indian culture with disdain and supported colonial rule as a beneficial "civilizing mission".{{Cite book|last=Falser|first=Michael|title=Cultural Heritage as Civilizing Mission |publisher=Cham: Springer|year=2015|isbn=978-3-319-13637-0|pages=8–9|language=en-gb|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-13638-7|series = Transcultural Research – Heidelberg Studies on Asia and Europe in a Global Context}} Colonial rule in India was framed as an act which was beneficial to the people of India, rather than a process of political and economic dominance by a small minority of foreigners.{{Cite journal|last=Fischer–Tiné|first=Harald|date=2016-07-26|title=Britain's other civilising mission|journal=The Indian Economic & Social History Review|language=en|volume=42|issue=3|pages=295–338|doi=10.1177/001946460504200302|s2cid=148689880}}

Under colonial rule, many practices were outlawed, such as the practice of forcing widows to immolate themselves (known as sati){{Cite journal|last=Mukta|first=Parita|title=The 'Civilizing Mission': The Regulation and Control of Mourning in Colonial India|journal=Feminist Review|volume=63|issue=1|pages=25–47|doi=10.1080/014177899339045|year=1999|s2cid=162234935}} with acts being deemed idolatrous being discouraged by Evangelical missionaries,{{Cite journal|last=Ganguly|first=Swagato|date=2017-01-02|title=Idolatry: concept and metaphor in colonial representations of India|journal=South Asian History and Culture|volume=8|issue=1|pages=19–91|doi=10.1080/19472498.2016.1260353|s2cid=152124939|issn=1947-2498}} the latter of which has been claimed by some scholars to have played a large role in the developments of the modern definition of Hinduism.{{Cite book|title=Was Hinduism Invented?: Britons, Indians, and the Colonial Construction of Religion – Oxford Scholarship|last=Pennington|first=Brian K.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0195166552|language=en|doi=10.1093/0195166558.001.0001}}{{Cite book|title=Bourgeois Hinduism, or the faith of the modern Vedantists: rare discourses from early Colonial Bengal|last=Hatch|first=Brian A.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2008|isbn=9780195326086|location=New York|oclc=191044640}} These claims base their assumptions on the lack of a unified Hindu identity prior to the period of colonial rule,{{Cite journal|last=Sarma|first=Deepak|date=2006-04-01|title=Hindu Leaders in North America?|journal=Teaching Theology & Religion|language=en|volume=9|issue=2|pages=115–120|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9647.2006.00272.x|issn=1467-9647}} and modern Hinduism's unprecedented outward focus on a monotheistic Vedanta worldview.{{Cite journal|last=Bayly|first=C. A.|year=2010|journal=Modern Intellectual History|volume=7|issue=2|pages=275–295|doi=10.1017/s1479244310000077|issn=1479-2451|title=India, the Bhagavad Gita and the World|s2cid=143690300 }} These developments have been read as the result of colonial views which discouraged aspects of Indian religions which differed significantly from Christianity.{{Cite journal|last=Yelle|first=Robert A.|date=2005-04-01|title=Christians and Missionaries in India: Cross-Cultural Communication since 1500. Edited by Eric Frykenberg (Grand Rapids, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2003) 419 pp. $39.00|journal=The Journal of Interdisciplinary History|volume=35|issue=4|pages=681–682|doi=10.1162/002219505323383059|s2cid=142257044|issn=0022-1953}} It has been noted that the prominence of the Bhagavad Gita as a primary religious text in Hindu discourse was a historical response to European criticisms of Indian culture. Europeans found that the Gita had more in common with their own Christian Bible, leading to the denouncement of Hindu practices more distantly related to monotheistic world views; with some historians claiming that Indians began to characterize their faith as the equivalent of Christianity in belief (especially in terms of monotheism) and structure (in terms of providing an equivalent primary sacred text).{{Cite journal|last=Longkumer|first=Arkotong|date=2017-04-03|title=The power of persuasion: Hindutva, Christianity, and the discourse of religion and culture in Northeast India|journal=Religion|volume=47|issue=2|pages=203–227|doi=10.1080/0048721x.2016.1256845|s2cid=151354081|issn=0048-721X|url=https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/28487092/Hindutva_Paper_Final_2_2016.pdf|hdl=20.500.11820/dd23cf50-aaa1-4120-b362-eee7028c3c8f|hdl-access=free}}

Hindu nationalism developed in the 19th century as an opposition to European ideological prominence; however, local Indian elites often aimed to make themselves and Indian society modern by "emulating the West".{{Cite book|title=Hindu Nationalism : A Reader|last=Jaffrelot|first=Christophe.|date=2007|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691130972|location=Princeton, N.J.|pages=6–7|oclc=368365428}} This led to the emergence of what some have termed 'neo-Hinduism':{{Cite journal|last=Battaglia|first=Gino|date=2017-10-03|title=Neo-Hindu Fundamentalism Challenging the Secular and Pluralistic Indian State|journal=Religions|language=en|volume=8|issue=10|pages=216|doi=10.3390/rel8100216|doi-access=free}} consisting of reformist rhetoric transforming Hindu tradition from above, disguised as a revivalist call to return to the traditional practises of the faith. Reflecting the same arguments made by Christian missionaries, who argued that the more superstitious elements of Hindu practice were responsible for corrupting the potential rational philosophy of the faith (i.e. the more Christian-like sentiments).{{Cite book|title=Hindu Nationalism : A reader|last=Jaffrelot|first=Christophe.|date=2007|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691130972|location=Princeton, N.J.|pages=7|oclc=368365428}} Moving the definitions of Hindu practice away from more overt idol worshiping, reemphasizing the concept of Brahman as a monotheistic divinity, and focusing more on the figure of Krishna in Vaishnavism due to his role as a messianic type figure (more inline with European beliefs) which makes him a suitable alternative to the Christian figure of Jesus Christ.{{Cite book|title=Bourgeois Hinduism, or the faith of the modern Vedantists : rare discourses from early Colonial Bengal|last=Hatcher|first=Brian A.|date=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0195326086|location=New York|oclc=191044640}}

File:Kerala Raksha Yatra - BJP - 2011.jpg supporters marching in Kerala]]

The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), India's current ruling party, follows this tradition of nationalistic Hinduism (Hindutva), and promotes an Indian national identity infused with neo-Vedantic which has been claimed by some to have been influenced by a "colonial mentality".{{Cite journal|last=Harriss|first=John|date=2015-10-02|title=Hindu Nationalism in Action: The Bharatiya Janata Party and Indian Politics|journal=South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies|volume=38|issue=4|pages=712–718|doi=10.1080/00856401.2015.1089826|s2cid=147615034|issn=0085-6401|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1230188|doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal|last=Singh|first=Jan|year=2015|title=India's Right Turn|url=https://read-dukeupress-edu.proxy.library.carleton.ca/world-policy-journal|journal=World Policy Journal|volume=32 |issue=2|pages=93–103|doi=10.1177/0740277515591547|url-access=subscription}}

Some critics have claimed that writer Rudyard Kipling's portrayals of Indian characters in his works supported the view that colonized people were incapable of living without the help of Europeans, describing these portrayals as racist.{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/443889.stm | work=BBC News | title=Kipling comes under review | date=10 September 1999 | access-date=2010-04-30}} In his famous poem "The White Man's Burden", Kipling directly argues for this point by romanticizing the "civilising mission" in non-Western countries.{{Cite journal|last=Brantlinger|first=Patrick|year=2007|title=Kipling's "The White Man's Burden" and Its Afterlives|journal=English Literature in Transition, 1880-1920|volume=50|issue=2|pages=172–191|doi=10.1353/elt.2007.0017|s2cid=162945098|issn=1559-2715}}{{Cite journal|last=Brantlinger|first=Patrick|year=2005|title=The Complexity of Kipling's Imperialist Politics|url=http://muse.jhu.edu.proxy.library.carleton.ca/article/366432/pdf|journal=English Literature in Transition, 1880-1920|volume=48 |issue=1|pages=88}} Jaway Syed has claimed that Kipling's poems idolizes Western culture as entirely rational and civilized, while treating non-white cultures as 'childlike' and 'demonic'.{{Cite journal|last1=Syed|first1=Jawad|last2=Ali|first2=Faiza|date=2011-03-01|title=The White Woman's Burden: from colonial civilisation to Third World development|journal=Third World Quarterly|volume=32|issue=2|pages=349–365|doi=10.1080/01436597.2011.560473|s2cid=145012248|issn=0143-6597}} Similar sentiments have been interpreted in Kipling's other works, such as his characterization of the Second Boer War as a "white man's war";{{Cite journal|last=Free|first=Melissa|year=2016|title=Fault Lines of Loyalty: Kipling's Boer War Conflict|jstor=10.2979/victorianstudies.58.2.12|journal=Victorian Studies|volume=58|issue=2|pages=314–323|doi=10.2979/victorianstudies.58.2.12|s2cid=148352835}} along with his presentation of 'whiteness' as a morally and culturally superior trait of the West.{{Cite journal|last=Mondal|first=Sharleen|year=2014|journal=Victorian Literature and Culture|volume=42|issue=4|pages=733–751|doi=10.1017/s1060150314000278|issn=1060-1503|title=Whiteness, Miscegenation, and Anti-Colonial Rebellion in Rudyard Kipling's the Man Who Would be King|s2cid=159629882 }} His portrayal of Indians in his Jungle Book stories have also been criticized by Jane Hotchkiss as examples of the chauvinistic infantilization of colonized peoples in popular culture.{{Cite journal|last=Hotchkiss|first=Jane|year=2001|journal=Victorian Literature and Culture|volume=29|issue=2|pages=435–449|doi=10.1017/s1060150301002108|issn=1470-1553|title=The Jungle of Eden: Kipling, Wolf Boys, and the Colonial Imagination|s2cid=162409338 }} Some historians claim that Kipling's works have contributed towards the development of a colonial mentality in the ways that the colonized people in these fictional narratives are made submissive to and dependent on their white rulers.{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Jonathan Rey|date=2012-11-01|title=When Lions Talk: Wittgenstein, Kipling, and the Language of Colonialism1|journal=Literature Compass|language=en|volume=9|issue=11|pages=884–893|doi=10.1111/j.1741-4113.2012.00916.x|issn=1741-4113}}{{Cite book|title=White skins/Black masks : representation and colonialism|last=Low|first=Gail Ching-Liang|date=1996|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0203359600|location=London|pages=1–10|oclc=54666707}}

In the overseas territories administered by the Spanish Empire, racial mixing between Spanish settlers and the indigenous peoples resulted in a prosperous union later called Mestizo. There were limitations in the racial classes only to people from African descent, this mainly for being descendants of slaves under a current state of slavery. Unlike Mestizos, castizos or indigenous people who were protected by the Leyes de las Indias "to be treated like equals, as citizens of the Spanish Empire". It was completely forbidden to enslave the indígenas under the death penalty charge.

[[File:Spanish_Empire_-_1824.jpg|left|thumb|

Spanish Empire, 1824

]]Mestizos and other mixed raced combinations were categorized into different castas by viceroyalty administrators. This system was applied to Spanish territories in the Americas and the Philippines, where large populations of mixed raced individuals made up the increasing majority of the viceroyalty population (until the present day).{{Cite journal|last=Olson|first=Christa|date=2009-10-16|title=Casta Painting and the Rhetorical Body|journal=Rhetoric Society Quarterly|volume=39|issue=4|pages=307–330|doi=10.1080/02773940902991429|s2cid=144818986|issn=0277-3945}}{{Cite journal|last=Lentz|first=Mark|date=2017-02-01|title=Castas, Creoles, and the Rise of a Maya Lingua Franca in Eighteenth-Century Yucatan|journal=Hispanic American Historical Review|volume=97|issue=1|pages=29–61|doi=10.1215/00182168-3727376|issn=0018-2168}}[[File:Casta painting all.jpg|thumb|Casta painting showing couples of different races arranged hierarchically,

and the resulting racial status of their children

]]

These racial categories punished those with Black African or Afro-Latin heritage; those of European descent were given privilege over these other mixtures. As a result of this system, people of African descent struggled to downplay their indigenous heritage and cultural trappings, in order to appear superficially more Spanish or natives.{{Cite book|title=Playing in the cathedral : music, race, and status in New Spain|last=Ramos-Kittrell|first=Jesús A.|year=2016 |isbn=978-0190236830|location=New York, NY|oclc=957615716}}{{Cite book|title=Maya or mestizo?: nationalism, modernity, and its discontents|first=Ronald|last=Loewe|date=2011|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=9781442601420|location=Toronto|pages=1–5|oclc=466659990}} With these internalized prejudices individuals' choices of clothes, occupations, and forms of religious expression.{{Cite book|title=Indians and mestizos in the "lettered city" : reshaping justice, social hierarchy, and political culture in colonial Peru|last=Dueñas|first=Alcira|date=2010|publisher=University Press of Colorado|isbn=9781607320197|location=Boulder, Colo.|oclc=664565692}} Those of mixed racial identities who wanted to receive the institutional benefits of being Spanish (such as higher educational institutions and career opportunities), could do so by suppressing their own cultures and acting with "Spanishness".{{Cite book|title=Playing in the cathedral : music, race, and status in New Spain|last=Ramos-Kittrell|first=Jesús A.|year=2016|isbn=9780190236816|location=New York, NY|pages=37–38|oclc=933580544}} This mentality lead to commonplace racial forgery in Latin America, often accompanied by legitimizing oral accounts of a Spanish ancestor and a Spanish surname. Most mixed-white and white people in Latin America have Spanish surnames inherited from Spanish ancestors, while most other Latin Americans who have Spanish names and surnames acquired them through the Christianization and Hispanicization of the indigenous and African slave populations by Spanish friars.{{cite web|url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/58525?tid=relatedcl|title=Y Tu Black Mama Tambien|last=Quinonez|first=Ernesto|website=Newsweek |date=19 June 2003|access-date=2008-05-02}}{{Cite news|url=http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/06360/748295-51.stm|title=Documentary, Studies Renew Debate About Skin Color's Impact|date=26 December 2006|access-date=9 August 2010|work=Pittsburgh Post Gazette}}{{Cite news|url=http://newsblogs.chicagotribune.com/race/2009/02/in-many-different-cultures-and-countries-around-the-world-skin-color-plays-a-huge-role-in-the-concept-of-beauty-lighter-ski/comments/page/2/|title=Is Light Skin Still Preferable to Dark?|date=26 February 2010|access-date=9 August 2010|work=Chicago Tribune}}

However, most initial attempts at this were only partially successful, as Amerindian groups simply blended Catholicism with their traditional beliefs.{{Cite journal|last=Ditchfield|first=Simon|date=2004-12-01|title=Of Dancing Cardinals and Mestizo Madonnas: Reconfiguring the History of Roman Catholicism in the Early Modern Period|journal=Journal of Early Modern History|volume=8|issue=3|pages=386–408|doi=10.1163/1570065043124011|issn=1570-0658}} Syncretism between native beliefs and Christianity is still largely prevalent in Indian and Mestizo communities in Latin America.{{Cite journal|last=Beatty|first=Andrew|date=2006-06-01|title=The Pope in Mexico: Syncretism in Public Ritual|journal=American Anthropologist|language=en|volume=108|issue=2|pages=324–335|doi=10.1525/aa.2006.108.2.324|issn=1548-1433}}

{{Main|Filipino mestizos}}

Prior to the arrival by the Spaniards (1565–1898), the Sulu Archipelago (located in southern Philippines) was a colony of the Majapahit Empire (1293–1527) based in Indonesia. The Americans were the last country to colonize the Philippines (1898–1946) and nationalists claim that it continues to act as a neo-colony of the US despite its formal independence in 1946.{{Harvnb|Gómez Rivera|2000}}{{Harvnb|García|2009}} In the Philippines colonial mentality is most evident in the preference for Filipino mestizos (primarily those of mixed native Filipino and white ancestry, but also mixed indigenous Filipinos and Chinese, and other ethnic groups) in the entertainment industry and mass media, in which they have received extensive exposure despite constituting a small fraction of the population.{{cite web|url=http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/viewArticle.asp?articleID=11261|title=Americanchronicle.com|access-date=28 July 2006|archive-date=19 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181019213525/http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/viewArticle.asp?articleID=11261|url-status=dead}}{{cite web|title=Is the 'racist' BAYO advert real?|url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/260881/scitech/socialmedia/is-the-racist-bayo-advert-real|work=6 June 2012|date=6 June 2012 |publisher=GMA News Online|access-date=24 August 2013}}{{cite web|title=The semantics of 'mestizo'|url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/267061/lifestyle/culture/the-semantics-of-mestizo|work=27 July 2012|date=27 July 2012 |publisher=GMA News|access-date=24 August 2013}}

The Cádiz Constitution of 1812 automatically gave Spanish citizenship to all Filipinos regardless of race. The census of 1870 stated that at least one-third of the population of Luzon had partial Hispanic ancestry (from varying points of origin and ranging from Latin America to Spain).Jagor, Fëdor, et al. (1870). [http://www.authorama.com/former-philippines-b-8.html The Former Philippines thru Foreign Eyes]

The combined number of all types of white mestizos or Eurasians is 3.6%, according to a genetic study by Stanford University.{{cite web |url=http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2001_v68_p432.pdf |title=A Predominantly Indigenous Paternal Heritage for the Austronesian-Speaking Peoples of Insular Southeast Asia and Oceania |access-date=2008-02-20 |publisher=Stanford University |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100214223039/http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2001_v68_p432.pdf |archive-date=14 February 2010 }} This is contradicted by another genetic study done by California University which stated that Filipinos possess moderate amounts of European admixture.{{cite journal |url=http://www.genetics.org/content/early/2015/06/18/genetics.115.178616.full.pdf+html|author= *Institute for Human Genetics, University of California San Francisco

|title= Self-identified East Asian nationalities correlated with genetic clustering, consistent with extensive endogamy. Individuals of mixed East Asian-European genetic ancestry were easily identified; we also observed a modest amount of European genetic ancestry in individuals self-identified as Filipinos|journal= Genetics|year=2015|volume= 200|issue= 4

|pages=1285–1295|doi= 10.1534/genetics.115.178616

|pmid= 26092716

|pmc= 4574246}}

A cultural preference for relatively light skinned people exists within the Philippines. According to Kevin Nadal and David Okazaki, light skin preference may have pre-colonial origins. However, they also suggest that this preference was strengthened by colonialism.{{cite book |last1=Nadal |first1=Kevin L. |title=Filipino American psychology : a handbook of theory, research, and clinical practice |date=2021 |publisher=Wiley |location=Hoboken |isbn=9781119677000 |pages=96–97 |edition=[Second] |url=https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Filipino+American+Psychology%3A+A+Handbook+of+Theory%2C+Research%2C+and+Clinical+Practice%2C+2nd+Edition-p-9781119677086 |language=en-us}}{{cite book |last1=Tewari |first1=Nita |last2=Alvarez |first2=Alvin |title=Asian American Psychology: Current Perspectives |date=2009 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-84169-769-7 |page=159 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w7K4bRyidcoC |language=en}} In an undated Philippine epic, the hero covers his face with a shield so that the sun would not "lessen his handsome looks". Some regard this as proof that desire for light-colored skin predates overseas influences.{{cite web |last1=Lasco |first1=Gideon |title=The real reason why so many Asian men are using skin-whitening products |url=https://www.sbs.com.au/topics/voices/culture/article/2016/11/25/real-reason-why-so-many-asian-men-are-using-skin-whitening-products |website=Special Broadcasting Service |language=en}} Regardless of the origin of the preference, the use of skin bleaching remains prevalent among Filipino men and women, however there is also a growing embrace of darker skinned female aesthetic within the Philippines.{{cite web |last1=Zapata |first1=Karina |title=Why some Filipinos lighten their skin |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/filipino-calgary-skin-lightening-karina-zapata-1.5908655 |publisher=CBC News}}

{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|

• Acculturation
• Category: History of colonialism
• Cabang Atas
• Kapitan Cina
• Kapitan Arab
• Kapitan Keling
• Colonialism
• Colorism
• Creolization
• Cultural assimilation
• Cultural cringe
• Cultural identity
• Cultural imperialism
• Decreolization
• Enculturation
• Globalization
• Hamitic theory
• Hellenization
• History of colonialism
• Impact of Western European colonialism and colonisation
• Indigenization/Indigenism
• Intercultural competence
• Language shift
• Macaulay's minutes
• Eurocentric
• Mongrel complex
• Paper Bag Party
• Passing (racial identity)
• Race
• Racialism
• Romanization (cultural)
• Self-fulfilling prophecy
• Social interpretations of race
• Syncretism
• Westernization
• "The White Man's Burden"
• Cognitive dissonance

}}

{{Reflist}}

{{Refbegin|indent=yes|2}}

• {{citation

|last=García

|first=José Miguel

|title=The North American Invasion Continues

|url=http://jmgpatria.blogspot.com/2009/06/american-invasion-continues_7055.html

|archive-url=https://archive.today/20110708044039/http://jmgpatria.blogspot.com/2009/06/american-invasion-continues_7055.html

|archive-date=8 July 2011

|access-date=5 September 2010

|date=30 June 2009

|work=Patria Philippines, at the Recovery of Our Inherited Archipelago

|publisher=Blogger by Google

|location=San Francisco, California, United States of America

|url-status=dead

}}

• {{citation

|last=Gómez Rivera

|first=Guillermo

|author-link=Guillermo Gómez Rivera

|title=The Filipino State

|url=http://www.buscoenlaces.es/kaibigankastila/rivera3.html

|date=20 September 2000

|publisher=Buscoenlaces

|location=Spain

|at=CHAPTER VI 1900s: The Filipino People was Deprived of its Own State

|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120728001343/http://www.buscoenlaces.es/kaibigankastila/rivera3.html

|archive-date=28 July 2012

|access-date=5 September 2010

|url-status=dead

}}

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Category:Ethnocentrism

Mentality

Category:Cultural anthropology

Category:Colonies in antiquity

Category:Cultural studies

Category:White supremacy

Category:Cultural genocide

Category:Race and society