Community integration

Theorists have differentiated types and levels of integration in special education as physical, functional, social, community, and organizational.Ferguson,D., Ferguson,P. & Bogdan, R. (1987). If mainstreaming is the answer, what is the question? In: V. Richardson-Koehler (Ed.), "Educator's Handbook: A Research Perspective" (pp. 394-419). New York: Longman. In disability circles, community integration meant opportunities for participation in schools, careers, homes, relationships, leisure, and a variety of interests and lifestyles.Taylor, S. & Racino, J. (1991). Community living: Lessons for today. In: L. Meyer, C. Peck, & L. Brown (Eds.), "Critical Issues in the Lives of People with Severe Disabilities." (pp. 235-238). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. Bengt Nirje and the late Wolf Wolfensberger of the US are internationally known for their concept of normalization and social role valorization,Wolfensberger, W. (1983). Social role valorization: A proposed new term for the principle of normalization. "Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities", 21(6), 234-239.Nirje, B. (1985). The basis and logic of the normalization principle. "Australia and New Zealand Journal of Developmental Disabilities", 11(2), 65-68. with a particular emphasis on physical and social integration. Anders Gustavsson ({{circa|1990}}) of Sweden has indicated that physical integration best describes the common use of the term "integration", with social integration the struggle for "equality and quality in life."Gustavsson, A. (ca. 1990). "Difficulties and Opportunities for People with Disabilities Living in an Integrated Society". Stockholm, Sweden: Stockholm College of Health and Caring Sciences.

The intent of community integration was the participation of people with disabilities in regular environments, the antithesis of exclusionary practices (such as the minority-group model).Taylor, S., Biklen, D. & Knoll, J. (1987). "Community Integration for Persons with Severe Disabilities." New York, NY: Teachers College Press.Racino, J. (1999a). "Policy, Program Evaluation and Research in Disability: Community Support for All." London: The Haworth Press. As the field moved toward community support, theories related to community living began to require applicability beyond a minority-group modelRacino, J. (2000). "Personnel Preparation in Disability and Community Life: Toward Universal Approaches to Support." Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publishers. with a new emphasis on self-determination.Abery, B., Mithaug, D., Stancliffe, R., & Wehmeyer, M. (2003). "Theory in Self-Determination: Foundations for Educational Practice." Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publishers. As described by Racino, these theories include ecological theory, community-support theories, systems theory, feminist theories, family theories, sociocultural theories, critical theories in education, psychosocial theories, the generic human-concept theory, and universal theories.

Taylor, in his analysis of community systems in the US, proposed the principle of the non-restrictive environment as a counterpoint to the federal government's least-restrictive-environment principle.Taylor, S.J., Racino, J.A., Knoll, J.A. & Lutfiyya, Z.M. (1987). "The Nonrestrictive Environment: On Community Integration of Persons with the Most Severe Disabilities." Syracuse, NY: Human Policy Press.Taylor, S. (1988). Caught in the continuum: A critical analysis of the least restrictive environment. "Journal of the Association of Persons with Severe Handicaps", 13(1), 45-53. In 2014, the governing principle in the US is that of the most integrated setting based upon the Supreme Court Olmstead Decision.Consortium of Citizens with Disabilities. (2012). "Olmstead Implementation and the Concept of the Most Integrated Setting". Washington, DC: Author.

Before the Olmstead decision, the Supreme Court addressed the community integration issues multiple times in the case, Halderman v. Pennhurst State School and Hospital, a class action filed in Pennsylvania by attorney David Ferleger.Ferleger, D. and Boyd, P., Rights, and Dignity: The Supreme Court, Congress and People With Disabilities After Pennhurst, 5 W.New Eng.L.Rev. 327 (1983) (co-author); Anti-Institutionalization and the Supreme Court, 14 Rutgers L.Rev. 595 (1983). Although the Olmstead decision explicitly did not reach the constitutional issues decided in the Pennhurst and other cases, limitations in Olmstead have been critiqued and it has been argued that there is a constitutional right to community services.Ferleger, The Constitutional Right to Community Services, 26 Georgia State University Law Rev. 763 (2010)

The analysis of large-scale systems change in community integration has involved challenges by local public agencies, key elements of these strategies (e.g., enabling leadership, putting people first, values and vision, learning for quality), and its implications for national policy.Towell, D. & Beardshaw, V. (1991, Great Britain). "Enabling Community Integration: The Role of Public Authorities in Promoting an Ordinary Life for People with Learning Disabilities in the 1990s." London, Great Britain: The King's Fund. Disability-agency, state-level disability-system, community, and societal change are essential (but insufficient) elements of the process and outcomes of community integration.Racino, J. (1994, USA). Creating change in states, agencies and communities. In: Bradley, V. Ashbaugh, J.W. & Blaney, B.C.(Eds.), "Creating Individual Supports for People with Developmental Disabilities: A Mandate for Change on Many Levels." (pp. 171-196). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

Community integration also has strong community roots which place it in community practice fields from community psychology, to sociologists studying community, to inclusive education in local school systems, competitive businesses (with rehabilitation), rural independent living, urban sociology, local parks, and recreation programs, community development and housing, neighbourhoods, and communities, among others.

Educational integration has a long history, described as "more comprehensive than academic mainstreaming".Taylor, S., Biklen, D., Lehr, S.& Searl, S. (1987). "Purposeful Integration...Inherently Equal." Syracuse, NY: Center on Human Policy for the Technical Assistance for Parent Programs. Community integration in this context refers to opportunities "to learn practical social and community living skills in a wide variety of community settings".Ford, A., Schnorr, R., Meyer, L., Davern, L., Black, J., & Dempsey, P. (1989). "The Syracuse community-referenced curriculum guide for students with moderate and severe disabilities." Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.{{Rp|page=3}} Based in part on the civil-rights movementHeller, K. (1989). The return to the community. (pp. 8-9). American Journal of Community Psychology, 17(1): 1-15. as represented by Brown v. Board of Education, school integration was based on the right to free and appropriate education.Berrigan, C. (1984). All students belong in the classroom: Johnson City Schools, Johnson, New York. In: Duncan, J. (Eds.)(1990). "Materials on Integrated Education." Syracuse, NY: Center on Human Policy, Rehabilitation Research, and Training Center in Community Integration.Murray-Seegert,C.(1989). "Nasty Girls, Thugs and Humans Like Me: Social Relationships between Severely Disabled and Nondisabled Students in the US." Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

Educational integration (often equated with inclusion) remains controversial in the US (although it is supported by law) due, in part, to special-education systems.Biklen, D. (1987). The integration question: Educational and residential placement issues. In: Cohen, D., Donnellan, A. & Paul, R. (Eds.), "Handbook of Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders." (pp. 653-667). New York: John Wiley.McDonnell, A. & Hardman, M. (1989). The desegregation of America's special schools: Strategies for change. "Journal of the Association of Persons with Severe Handicaps", 14(1), 68-74.Biklen, D. (1992). "Schooling without Labels: Parents, Educators and Inclusive Educators". Philadelphia, PA: Temple University. School integration also involves children with more significant disabilities, such as those with technology-assistance needs.Walker, P. (1991). Where there is a way, there is not always a will: Technology, public policy, and the school integration of children who are technology-assisted. Children's Health Care, 20(2), 68-74. Progress has been made in education at the post-secondary level (in almost all population groups) due, in part, to disability-services departments at colleges.Sullivan, A.P. (1994). Supported Education: Past, present and future. "Community Support Network News", 10(2), 1,9.Weir, C., Fialka, J., Timmons, J. & Nord, D. (2011, Winter/Autumn). Feature issue on post-secondary education and students with intellectual, developmental and other disabilities. "IMPACT", 23(3), 1-28. Instead of educational integration, the goal is for continued school reform through inclusion (education) and for education with legally-mandated accommodations.

In the US disability field, a major shift has occurred from the group and facility-based models to homes with support services,Racino, J., Walker, P. O'Connor, S. & Taylor, S. (1993). "Housing, Support and Community: Choices and Strategies for Adults with Disabilities." Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. emphasizing a change from "home-like" housing to community homes, neighbourhoods, and relationships.Racino, J. & O'Connor, S. (1994). "A home of our own": Homes, neighbourhoods and personal connections. In: Hayden, M. & Abery, B. (Eds.), Challenges for a Service System in Transition: Ensuring Quality Life Experiences for Persons with Developmental Disabilities". (pp.381-403). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.Taylor, S. Bogdan, R. & Racino, J. (1991). "Life in the community: Case Studies of Organizations Supporting People with Disabilities". Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. The most-recent initiatives were in homeownership,Hagner, D. & Klein, J. (2005), Homeownership for individuals with disabilities: Factors in mortgage decisions. "Journal of Disability Policy Studies", 15(4), 194-200. an important form of community integration that also involves a feeling of ownership.Shoultz, B. (1989). Supporting Individuals within Their Families or in Homes of their Own: The CAP-MR/DD Program in Raleigh, North Carolina. Syracuse, NY: Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Community Integration. Housing integration builds on a long history of support for good quality, affordable housing which often includes analyses of social exclusion which may concentrate on US-protected classes.Ratcliffe, P. (1999). Housing inequality and 'race': some critical reflections on the concept of 'social exclusion'. "Ethnic and Racial Studies", 22(1): 1-22.

Housing integration is of great importance, in part, because of the history of residential segregation (usually by race and class) in the US.Massey, D.S. & Denton, N. A. (1990). Hypersegregation in US metropolitan areas: Black and Hispanic segregation along five dimensions. "Demography", 26(1): 373-391.Rohe, W. & Freeman, L. (2001). Assisted housing and residential segregation: The role of race and ethnicity in the siting of assisted housing developments. "Journal of the American Planning Association", 67(3), 279-292. Residential segregation due to inequality and disparity continues to be studied in ethnic, social, and economic frameworks, including the process of desegregation, gentrification, and hyper segregation.Massey,D., Condran, G.A., & Denton, M.A. (1987). The effect of residential segregation on black social and economic well-being, "Social Forces", 66, 29-56.Taylor, S.J.L. (1998). "Desegregation in Boston & Buffalo: The Influence of Local Leaders." Albany, NY: State University at Albany.Ley, D. (1993). Gentrification in recession: Social change in six Canadian inner cities, 1981-1986. "Urban Geography", 13(3): 230-256. In addition, redlining, as a bridge issue across lower and middle classes, affects housing and neighbourhood integration from as early as the 1970s with gerrymandering districts for community development funds more common in the 2000s.Rosenbloom, R. A. (1979). The politics of the neighbourhood movement. South Atlantic Urban Studies, 4: 103-120. A discussion of residential segregation in the US and Europe and a "critique of the ideal of integration" can be found in Inclusion and Democracy.Young, I.M. (2000). "Inclusion and Democracy". New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

In the US, mixed-income and scattered-site housing was reported in a case study of a housing association supporting people with disabilities in Madison, Wisconsin (the Madison Mutual Housing Association and Cooperative).Racino, J. (1993). Madison Mutual Housing Association. In: Racino, J., Walker, P., O'Connor, S. & Taylor, S. (1993). "Housing, Support and Community". (pp. 253-280). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. In Canada, the Prairie Housing Cooperative (as reported by David Wetherow) integrates persons with disabilities into the community via housing.Kappel, B. & Wetherow, D. (1986). People care about people. The Prairie Housing Cooperative. "Entourage", 1(4), 37-42. An early review on nonprofit housing in the US and Canada, with increasing governmental funds in the US today, indicates that mixed-income housingUS Department of Housing and Urban Development. (2013, Spring). Confronting concentrated poverty with a mixed-income strategy. Evidence Matters. Washington, DC: US HUD, Office of Policy Development and Research. was used primarily in "troubled neighbourhoods" with efforts to seek higher-income tenants to move into those neighbourhoods as opposed to raising the entire group's living standards.Dreier, P. & Hulchanski, J.D. (1993). The role of nonprofit housing in Canada and the United States: some comparisons. Housing Policy Debate, 4(1): 43-79. In 2013, the emphasis is on inclusive and sustainable housing,O'Brien, J. & Towell, D. (2009)/10). "Conversations about Sustainable and Inclusive Communities: An Invitation". London: Centre for Inclusive Futures" while other groups support equitable and sustainable housing in the US (Policy Link). The status of housing and disability in America was reported by the National Council on Disability in the US,National Council on Disability. (2010). The State of Housing in America in the 21st Century: A Disability Perspective. Washington, DC: Author. and compared to Harvard University's report on the nation's housing.Harvard Joint Center for Housing Studies. (2012). State of the Nation's Housing 2012. Cambridge, MA: President and Fellows of Harvard University.Racino, J. (2014). Housing, and disability: Toward inclusive, equitable and sustainable communities. Public Administration and Disability: Community Services Administration in the US. London: CRC Press, Francis and Taylor.

Being in the community has meant being part of local activities and events in towns, cities, and suburbs.Racino, J. (2000). "Personnel Preparation in Disability and Community Life: Toward Universal Approaches to Support". (pp. 215-216). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publishers. Recreational integration is one facet of inclusion and community access.Schleien, S. (1993). Access and inclusion to community leisure services. "Parks and Recreation", 28(4), 66-72. School-and-recreation integration was promoted in the US, Canada, and Australia.Moon, S. (1994). "Making School and Integration Fun for Everyone: Places and Ways to Integrate". Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.Pedlar, A. (1990). Deinstitutionalization and the role of therapeutic recreationists in social integration. "Journal of Applied Recreation Research", 15(2): 101-115. On the local level, concerns have included acceptance and friendships, support services, site accessibility, group size, and "truly integrated" (in contrast to side-by-side) activities; in Great Britain, for example, community opportunities were sought for people to belong, contribute and make friends.Ward, L. (1988). Developing opportunities for ordinary community life. In: D. Towell (Ed.), "An Ordinary Life in Practice: Developing Comprehensive Community-based Services for People with Learning Disabilities." (pp. 68-79). London: King Edward's Hospital Fund. Recreational funding has also often been tied to facilities, and community integration involves staffing changes in environments such as the YMCA.Browder, D. & Copper, K. (1994, April). Inclusion of older adults with mental retardation in leisure opportunities. "Mental Retardation", 32(2), 91-99.

Recreational inclusion may be a camp,Walker, P. & Edinger, B. (1988, May). The kid from Cabin 17. "Camping Magazine, 18-21. a neighbourhood centre,Walker, P. (1988). Supporting children in integrated recreation. TASH Newsletter, 4-6. In: P. Walker, "Resources on Integrated Recreation/Leisure Opportunities for Children and Teens with Developmental Disabilities". Syracuse, NY: Rehabilitation Research and Training Center. a girls' softball league,Bernabe, E. & Block, M. (1994). Modifying rules of a regular girls' softball league to facilitate the inclusion of a child with severe disabilities. "Journal of the Association of Persons with Severe Handicaps", 19(1), 24-31. school sports or technology clubs,Walker, P., Edinger, B., Willis, C. & Kenney, M. E. (1988). "Beyond the Classroom: Involving Students with Disabilities in Extracurricular Activities at Levy Middle School. Syracuse, NY: Center on Human Policy, Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Community Integration and Transitional Living Services of Onondaga County, Inc. a community choir,Bogdan, R. (1995). "Singing for an Inclusive Society: The Community Choir". In: Taylor, S.J., Bogdan, R. & Lutfiyya, Z.M. (Eds), The Variety of Community Experiences: Qualitative Studies of Family and Community Life". (pp. 141-154). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. or a public-speaking courseFisher, E. (1995). "A Temporary Place to Belong: Inclusion in a Public Speaking and Personal Relations Course". In: Taylor, S.J., Bogdan, R. & Lutfiyya, Z. (Eds.), "The Variety of Community Experiences: Qualitative Studies of Family and Community Life".(pp. 127-140). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. as integrated social participation.{{Cite Q|Q90675935}}Taylor, S.J. (1991). "Leisure and Entertainment as Participation in Social Worlds. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University, Center on Human Policy, Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Community Integration. Auto-related examples include an amusement-park car track; car shows, bike nights and car cruise-ins, and model-car racing.Racino, J. (2003). "Motorsports Research Series". Rome, NY: Community and Policy Studies.

Employment integration was advocated during the 1970s for women, people with disabilities, and racial groups, who were seen as discriminated against in employment (Racino for the Urban League of Onondaga County, Inc., 1978); for example, occupations and professions were constructed based upon gender: women's professions (nurses, teachers, secretaries) and men's professions (scientists, managers, administrators, police, firemen, and construction).Boyd, M. (1997). Feminizing paid work. "Current Sociology: Feminism in the 1990s", 45(2), 49-73 Progress has been made at the leadership level with the first African American president (Barack Obama), disability leadership in the United States Department of Education (Judith Heumann), and the rise of prominent women in the State Department (Madeleine Albright and Hillary Clinton).

For those with severe disabilities, employment-integration initiatives were often framed as supported employment, which allowed jobs at regular businesses and employment sites.Wehman, P. & Kregel, J. (1998). "More Than a Job: Securing Satisfying Careers for People with Disabilities." Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.Rogan, P., Hagner, D., & Murphy, S. (1993). Natural supports: Reconceptualizing job coach roles. "Journal of the Association of Persons with Severe Handicaps", 18(4), 275-281.Danley, K.S. & Anthony, W. (1987). The choose-get-keep model. "American Rehabilitation", 13(4), 6-9.Goodall, P., Lawyer, H., Wehman, P. (1994). Vocational rehabilitation and traumatic brain injury: A legislative and public policy perspective. "Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation", 9(2), 61-81.Hagner, D. & DiLeo, D. (1993). Working Together: Workplace Culture, Supported Employment and Persons with Disabilities. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books. Similar initiatives in the mental health field were often called transitional employment, and other forms of integration included competitive placements in businesses and industry, targeted positions, and even affirmative businesses in the hearts of business districts. A major success was the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, amended in 2008 (following the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, amended in 1978), which protected men and women with disabilities in obtaining jobs, careers, and positions with necessary workplace accommodations.Blanck, P. (2000). "Employment, Disability and the Americans with Disability Act: Issues in Law, Public Policy and Research." Chicago, IL: Northwestern University Press. A key service for employment integration is often considered to be personal assistance services,Solovieva, T., Walsh, R.T., Hendricks, D.J. & Dowlder, D. (2010). Workplace personal assistance services for people with disabilities: Making productive employment possible. Journal of Rehabilitation, 76: 3-8. or in other fields a job coachWehman, P. & Kregel, J. (1985). A supported work approach to competitive employment of individuals with severe and moderate disabilities. Journal of the Association of Persons with Severe Handicaps, 10: 3-11. before more "natural" models of supervision and support.Nisbet, J. (1992). Natural Supports at School, Work, and in the Community. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

In this context employment integration has been conceptualized, including social aspects of promotion, discriminatory hiring and termination practices, performance standards, job-sharing and modification, educational attainment, internships and volunteer experiences, workplace relationships, team-building, supervisory roles, workers' compensation, accommodations, and supports (Urban League of Onondaga County, 1978). Competitive employment integration in the US workplace is expected by law, and categorical services have tended to be developed segregated bases (e.g., sheltered facilities to supported employment). Employment integration is a worldwide issue, modified by approaches to multicultural groups (e.g. the growing Latino population in the US), the changing economy (e.g. from manufacturing to service), and increasing unemployment.

Community integration has been most criticized for its inattention to gender, ethnic, cultural, racial, class, and economic factorsTaylor, S., Bogdan, R. & Racino, J. (1991). "Life in the Community: Case Studies of Organizations Supporting People with Disabilities. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.Towell, D. & Beardshaw, V. (1991). "Enabling Community Integration:. London, Great Britain: The King's Fund College." ("double discrimination", pp. 60–61). At the university level multiculturalism, including disability, was proposed as the solution to these complex issues.Traustadottir, R., Lutfiyya, Z.M. & Shoultz,B. (1994). Community living: A multicultural perspective. In: Hayden, M. & Abery, B. (Eds.), "Challenges for a Service System in Transition." (pp. 408-426). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. Community integration, in practice, involves diverse approaches and models (age, team, agency, area, and gender integration or segregation) and has been integral to de-institutionalization and community development for over two decades.Racino, J. (1991). Organizations in community living: Supporting people with disabilities." "Journal of Mental Health Administration", 18(1), 51-59.{{cite Q|Q47439172}} Community integration is a policy, concept, and practice to address systemic stigma and discrimination related to disability.Racino, J. (2000). Personnel Preparation in Disability and Community Life: Toward Universal Approaches to Support." Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publishing Co.Towell, D. & Beardshaw, V. (1991). "Enabling Community Integration." London, Great Britain: King's Fund College. It competes with other policy models (such as multiculturalism) and changes its practices over time.Canadian Association for Community Living. (1990, Summer). New Brunswick says yes to integration. "Newsbreak." Downsview, Ontario: Author.

In the sub-field of brain injury, community integration included areas ranging from supported employment to daily living skills, family interventions (versus support) and memory training, school reintegration, and transition to post-secondary education.Kreutzer, J. & Wehman, P. (1990). "Community Integration Following Traumatic Brain Injury." Sydney, Australia: Paul H. Brookes.Willer, B., Linn, R. & Allen, F. (1994). Community integration and barriers to integration for individuals with brain injury. In: Finlayson, M.A.J. & Garner, S. (Eds.), "Brain Injury Rehabilitation: Clinical Consideration" (pp. 355-375). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.Krankowski, T. (1995). Transitioning the student with TBI from school to employment, post-secondary education and independent living. TBI Challenge, 3(2): 46-47.Singer, G.H.S. & Nixon, C.D. (1990). "You Can't Imagine Unless You have Been There Yourself": A Report on the Concerns of Parents of Children with Traumatic Brain Injury. Eugene, OR: Oregon Research Institute. Community integration was being diversely defined by researchers, including those in fields such as brain injury,McColl,M., Carlson, P., Johnston, J., Minnes, P., Shue, K., Davies, D. & Karlovitz, T. (1988). The definition of community integration: Perspectives of people with brain injuries. "Brain Injury", 12(1), 15-30.Wehman, P., Gentry, T., West, M., et al. (2009). Community integration: Current issues in cognitive and rehabilitation for individuals with brain injury. Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, 46: 909-918. sensory impairments (e.g., hearing, visual),Racino, J. (2004). "Utica Monday Nite: Arts, Culture, Nature and History on the City Level." Rome, NY: Community and Policy Studies. developmental,Harris, P. (1999, July). "Community Integration Policy and Abstracts: Fifth Edition." Syracuse, New York: Center on Human Policy, Syracuse University, Rehabilitation Research and Training Center. and physical disabilities.Wehman, P., Wilson, K., Targett, P., West, M., Bricourt, J. & McKinley, W. (1999). Removing transportation barriers for persons with spinal cord injuries: An ongoing challenge to community reintegration. "Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation", 13(1), 21-30 News and professional-journal articles will often read, "integration into the community" (from institutions and facilities), integrated care (health services integration), or "community reintegration" (after hospital care)Willer, B., Ottenbacher, K.J. & Coad, M.L. (1994). The community integration questionnaire: A comparative examination. American Journal of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 103-111. worldwide.

In the field of mental health Paul Carling promoted community integration in the 1980s and 1990s in opposition to the predominant medical model,Carling, P. (1990). Community integration of people with psychiatric disabilities: Emerging trends. In: Jacobsen, J.W., Burchard, S., & Carling, P. (Eds.), Clinical Services, Social Adjustment and Worklife in Community Living." Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.Carling, P. (1988, April 6). Principles for Promoting Community Integration of People with Psychiatric Disabilities: The Challenge to Academic Psychology. Invited Address to the National Conference on Clinical Training Policy in Psychology at the University of Houston, Houston, Texas. Burlington, VT: Center for Change through Housing and Support, University of Vermont. while psychiatric rehabilitation is also linked to the medical, often allied health, professions. Carling's approach to community integration in mental health was congruent with intellectual disabilities, particularly in areas of community living (e.g., supportive living in intellectual disabilities, supported housing in mental health, and housing and support).Allard, M. (1996). Supported living policies and programs in the USA. In: J. Mansell & K. Ericsson, Deinstitutionalisation and Community Living (pp. 98-116). London: Chapman & Hall. In 2008, Disability and Society, a popular disability policy journal discussed community reintegration for people with psychiatric disabilities and their relationship to centres for independent living.Mirza, M. et al. (2008). Community reintegration for people with psychiatric disabilities: Challenging systemic barriers to service provision and public policy through participatory action research. "Disability and Society", 23(4): 323-336.

Comprehensive medical systems were proposed to support the family in community integration, including new roles for specialized personnel from neuropsychologists to physiatrists.Zasler, N.D. & Kreutzer, J.S. (1991). Family and sexuality after traumatic brain injury. In: J.M. Williams & T. Kay (Eds.), Head Injury: A Family Matter. (pp. 253-270). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. In the field of traumatic brain injury, community integration was framed by both the social and medical models of disability to transition people from hospitals and rehabilitation centres.Reynolds, W. & Rosen, B. (1994, June). Special Issue on Public Policy. "The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation", 9(2).Kreutzer, J.S., Leininger, B.S. & Harris, J.A. (1990). The evolving role of neuropsychology in community integration. In: J. Kreutzer & P. Wehman (Eds), Community Integration Following Traumatic Brain Injury. (pp. 49-66). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. Today, the Brain Injury Association of America recommends the educational needs of children with traumatic brain injuries and the health care required.Brain Injury Association of America and the Mount Sinai Brain Injury Research Center. (nd/2012). "State of the States: Meeting the Educational Needs of Children with Traumatic Brain Injury". NY, NY and Washington, DC: Authors.

In 1985, the US government-funded a national community-integration project identifying best community practices for people with the "most severe disabilities".Knoll, J., Taylor, S., Racino, J., Good, A., Traustadottir, R., Searl, S., Meyer, I., Ford, A., Nisbet, J. & Biklen, D. (1987). "Annotated Bibliography on Community Integration for Persons with Severe Disabilities." (1987). Syracuse, NY: Center on Human Policy, Community Integration Project.Taylor, S., Racino, J., Knoll, J. & Lutfiyya, Z. (1987). "The Nonrestrictive Environment on Community Integration for Persons with the Most Severe Disabilities." Syracuse, NY: Human Policy Press. Technical assistance was funded through the Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Community Integration (of the National Institute on Disability Rehabilitation Research and Training Center, US Department of Education) to all states.Racino, J. (1999b). "Statewide approaches to community integration: Moving toward technical assistance strategies that make a difference. "Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation", 13(1), 31-44.Taylor, S.J., Biklen, D., & Knoll, J. (1987). Community Integration for People with Severe Disabilities. NY, NY and London: Teachers College Press. The Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Community Integration (Syracuse University, headed by Steve Taylor) also subcontracted with the University of Illinois (David Braddock), the University of Minnesota Institute on Community Integration (K. Charlie Lakin)Hayden, M. F. & Abery, B.H. (1994). Challenges for a Service System in Transition. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. The federal departments subsequently offered contracts to evaluate the status of these new community services in the US{{Citation |last1=Doty |first1=Pamela |title=Cost-Effectiveness of Home and Community-Based Long-Term Care Services |date=June 2000 |publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services |url=http://aspe.hhs.gov/daltcp/reports/2000/costeff.htm}} and others.

The principles of community integration through the national flagship centres (the Rehabilitation Research and Training Centre on Family and Community Living,Rehabilitation Research and Training Centre on Family and Community Living. (1990). "Sharing the Vision...Meeting the Challenge." Washington, DC, Syracuse, NY & Minneapolis, Minnesota: University of Minnesota, Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Community Living, Institute on Community Integration. facilitated by Lakin and J.A. Racino of Syracuse University) were:

• All people with disabilities will be able to live successfully in (and as part of) natural communities that provide them with the support they need.
• All people with disabilities will be recognized for the positive contributions they make to their families and communities.
• All people with disabilities will benefit from enduring relationships with other people (including family members and community members without disabilities).
• All people with disabilities (and their family members) will be entitled to participate in decisions affecting the nature and quality of services they receive.
• All people with disabilities will have access to services and supports that provide choice and support for full citizenship.
• Services and supports for people with disabilities will be individualized and responsive to cultural and ethnic differences, economic resources, and life circumstances.
• Public policy will provide the opportunity to enjoy productive, integrated lives.

The 1988 Leadership Institute on Community Integration (From Being in the Community to Being Part of the Community, Steve J. Taylor, director; Julie Ann Racino, deputy director and B. Shoultz, information coordinator), held in Washington, D.C., was sponsored by the Research and Training Center on Community Integration in cooperation with the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research, the Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, US Department of Education, Beach Center on Families and Disability (University of Kansas), California Research Institute (University of Connecticut), Rehabilitation Research and Training Center (Virginia Commonwealth University), Research and Training Center Consortium on Aging and Developmental Disabilities (an eight-university consortium coordinated by the University of Cincinnati), Research and Training Center on Community Living (University of Minnesota) and the University-Affiliated Program in Developmental Disabilities (University of Illinois at Chicago).Research and Training Center on Community Integration. (1988). "From Being in the Community to Being Part of the Community." Syracuse, NY: Research and Training Center, Center on Human Policy, Syracuse University. Workgroups were facilitated in community living, families, school, and employment with papers prepared, respectively, by K. Charlie Lakin, Ann P. Turnbull and H. Rud Turnbull, Douglas Biklen, and Paul Wehman.

By the late 2000s, the Centers were renamed to Community Participation, one aspect of community integration, or Employment, or other priority areas, such as Health, with many of the above centres still federally funded through the NIDRR program (National Institute on Rehabilitation Research and Rehabilitation), US Department of Education and new academic centres at universities such as Temple University in Pennsylvania.

In particular, community integration in intellectual, disabilities, and developmental disabilities means families for all children.Center on Human Policy (1987). "A Statement in Support of Children and their Families." Reprinted in: Taylor, S., Racino, J., & Walker, P. (1992). Inclusive community living. In: Stainback, W. & Stainback, S. (Eds.), "Controversial Issues Confronting Special Education."(pp.299-312) Boston: Allyn & Bacon.Taylor, S., Bogdan, R. & Racino, J. (1991). "Life in the Community: Case Studies of Organizations Supporting People with Disabilities". Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. For adults, it means 'ordinary' or 'regular' homes with support services.Brazil, R. & Carle, N. (1988). An ordinary home life. In: Towell, D. (Ed.), "An Ordinary Life in Practice: Developing Comprehensive Community-based Services for People with Learning Disabilities. (pp. 59-67). London: King Edward's Hospital Fund.Center on Human Policy. (1989). A Statement in Support of Adults Living in the Community. Syracuse, NY: Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Community Integration.Dilys Page (1995, April). Whose services? Whose needs? "Community Development Journal", 30(2), 217-235. In addition, community integration means recreation, employment, transportation, and education with the personal assistance and support(s) necessary to participate fully in the community.Heumann, J. (1993). A disabled woman's reflections: Myths and realities of integration. In: Racino, J., Walker, P., O'Connor, S., & Taylor, S. (Eds.), "Housing, Support and Community: Choices and Strategies for Adults with Disabilities". (pp.233-249). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.Racino,J. (2000). "Personnel Preparation in Disability and Community Life: Universal Approaches to Support". Springfield, IL: Charles C.Thomas Publishers.Roberts, E. & O'Brien, J. (1993). Foreword. In: J. Racino, et al, "Housing, Support and Community". (pp.xi-xx). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

However, community support (e.g., consumer-directed services) as part of community-agency change and deinstitutionalization,Racino, J. (1990). Preparing personnel to work in community support services. In: Kaiser, A.P. & McWhorter, C.M. (Eds.), Preparing Personnel to Work with Persons with Severe Disabilities." (pp.203-226). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.Walker, P. (2009, January). Implementation of consumer-directed services for intellectual and developmental disabilities: A national study. "Policy Research Brief", 20(1). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota. self-determination,Abery, B., Mithaug, D., Stancliffe, R., & Wehmeyer, M. (2003). "Theory in Self-Determination: Foundations for Educational Practice." Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.Kennedy, M. (1993). Turning the pages of life. In: J. Racino, P. Walker, S. O'Connor, & S. Taylor (Eds.), "Housing, Support and Community". (pp. 205-216). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. community participation,Bogdan, R. & Taylor, S. (1999). "Building Stronger Communities for All: Thoughts about Community Participation for People with Developmental Disabilities." Syracuse, NY: Center on Human Policy, Syracuse University. [Presented to the President's Committee on "Intellectual Disabilities]. Taylor, Racino & Shoultz, 1988) individual planning,O'Brien, J. & Mount, B. (2007) "Make A Difference: A Guidebook for Person-Centered Direct Support". Toronto, Ontario: Inclusion Press.O'Brien, J. & O'Brien, C. (2002). "Implementing Person-Centered Planning: Voices of Experience." Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Inclusion Press. social relationshipsLutfiyya, Z.M (1990). "Affectionate Bonds: What We Can Learn By Listening To Friends." Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University, Center on Human Policy. and personal-assistance servicesCenter for Personal Assistance Services. (2011). "About the Center." San Francisco, CA: University of California.Weissman, J., Kennedy, J. & Litvak, S. (1991). "Personal Perspectives on Personal Assistance Services." Berkeley, CA: Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Public Policy and Independent Living. became the leading direction in US community integration. Community integration has also been described as comparative to normalization, a widely known value-based system of human services (See, Wolfensberger, Nirje & Bank-Mikkelsen).

Community integration has been tied to quality assurance in the community and improved quality of life.Bradley, V. and Bersani, H. (1990). "Quality Assurance for People with Developmental Disabilities". Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.Felce, D. & Perry, J. (2007). Living with supports in the community: Factors associated with quality life outcomes. In: Odom, S., Horner, R., Snell, M., & Blacher, J. (Eds.), "Handbook on Developmental Disabilities". Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.Lutfiyya, Z.M, Moseley, C., Walker, P., Zollers, N., Lehr, S., Pugliese, J., Callahan, M., & Centra, N. (1987, July). A Question of Community: Quality of Life and Integration in "Small Residential Units" and Other Residential Settings. Syracuse, NY: Center on Human Policy, Syracuse University. It has involved evaluations and studies over at least two decades in areas ranging from service costs to personnel studies, service typologies, best practices and innovations, and community and integration studies.Braddock, D., Hemp, R., Fujuira, G., Bachelder, L., & Mitchell, D. (1990). "The State of the States in Developmental Disabilities." Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.Emerson, E., Robertson, J., Gregory, N., Hatton, C. et al (2001). Quality and costs of supportive living residences and group homes in the UK. "American Journal on Intellectual Disabilities"Hagner, D. (1989). "Social Integration of Supported Employees: A Qualitative Study". Syracuse, NY: Center on Human Policy, Syracuse University, Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Community Integration.Knoll, J., Covert, S., Osuch, R., O'Connor, S., Agosta, J., & Blaney, B. (1992). "Family Support Services in the US: An End of the Decade Status Report." Cambridge, MA: Human Services Research Institute.Larson, S. & Lakin, K.C. (1992). Direct care staff stability in a national sample of small group homes. "Intellectual Disabilities", 30, 13-22.Lowe, K. & dePaiva, S. (1988). "The Evaluation of NIMROD: A Community-based Service for People with Mental Handicaps." Cardiff, Wales: The Mental Handicaps in Wales Applied Research Unit, St. David's Hospital.Racino, J. (1999a). Policy, Program Evaluation Research in Disability and Community Life: Community Support for All". London: The Haworth Press. Internationally, quality of life has been explored in Finland, Australia, the US, Germany, Hungary, Denmark, and Canada.Goode, D. (1994). "Quality of Life for Persons with Disabilities: International Perspectives". Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.

Researchers in the US (Julie Ann Racino, Syracuse University) and Great Britain (David Towell, King's Fund College) collaborated on community integration, including a 1990 series of international seminars on community integration in the US held at the University of Manchester (Hester Adrian Research Center), Manchester Polytechnic and Manchester Health Authority, the King's Fund College (with Lyn Rucker), Campaign for the Mentally Handicapped (London), the University of Wales at Bangor (Center for Social Policy Research), and the University of Wales (Mental Handicap Research Unit). Internationally, research began on the "first integrated generation" in countries such as SwedenTideman, M. (2005). Conquering life: The first experiences of the integrated generation In: K. Johnson & R. Traustadottir (Eds.), "Deinstitutionalization and People with Intellectual Disabilities: In and Out of Institutions". (pp. 211-221). London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. and integration were confirmed as a legal principle in the US.Turnbull, H.R., Stowe, M.J., Turnbull, A., & Schrandt, M.S. (2007). Public policy and developmental disabilities: A 35-year and 5-year prospective based on the core concepts of disability. In: Odom, S., Horner, R. H., Snell, M.E., & Blacher, J. (Eds.), "Handbook on Developmental Disabilities". (pp.15-34). London: Guilford Press.

Community services support, integration and inclusion are changing in countries such as Czechoslovakia (now the Czech Republic and Slovakia),Towell, D. & Racino, J. (1990). "Consultation with the National Health Service of Czechoslovakian Government in Prague, Czechoslovakia". London, UK & Syracuse, NY: National Development Team, Great Britain and Syracuse University, Center on Human Policy, Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Community Integration. Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Israel, Austria, Great Britain, Iceland, and Sweden.Center on Human Policy (1990). "Meetings at the Center on Human Policy." Syracuse, NY: Center on Human Policy, Syracuse University, Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Community Integration. Since the 1990s the European Union has formed, populations in the Middle East have been emancipated, community self-advocacy has developed in South America and Africa and financial ownership of US debt has been undertaken (in part) by China.Racino, J. (2011, draft). "Outcomes of Technical Assistance in Community Integration in States in the US: A Retrospective and Prospective on the Rehabilitation Research and Training Centers. Rome, NY: Author. The United NationsUnited Nations.[http://www.un.org/disabilities/convention/conventionfull.shtml The UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, Article 19, Living in the community]. ENABLE. 2012. Department of Economic and Social Affairs Disability. New York City: United Nations. offers guidance and leadership through its Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (particularly Article 19, which addresses independent living and community inclusion). A book based on these principles is "Public Administration and Disability: Community Services Administration in the US" (Racino, 2014)Racino, J. (2014, in press). "Public Administration and Disability: Community Services Administration in the US". NY, NY: CRC Press, Francis and Taylor. which links to the diverse nation-states and rationales for continuing educational, employment, and housing segregation Segregation in Northern Ireland.

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Category:Disability rights