Comparative endocrinology

Comparative endocrinology focuses on the complexities of vertebrate and invertebrate endocrine systems across sub-molecular, molecular, cellular, and organismal levels of analysis. It is an interdisciplinary field that bridges biology and medicine, addressing the morphological and functional aspects of organismal development. {{cite journal | last=Wingfield | first=John C. | title=Comparative endocrinology, environment and global change | journal=General and Comparative Endocrinology | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=157 | issue=3 | year=2008 | issn=0016-6480 | doi=10.1016/j.ygcen.2008.04.017 | pages=207–216| doi-access=free }} The discovery of new hormones often first occurs in model organisms before their orthologs are identified in mammals. {{cite journal | last=Denver | first=R. J. | last2=Hopkins | first2=P. M. | last3=McCormick | first3=S. D. | last4=Propper | first4=C. R. | last5=Riddiford | first5=L. | last6=Sower | first6=S. A. | last7=Wingfield | first7=J. C. | title=Comparative endocrinology in the 21st century | journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology | publisher=Oxford University Press (OUP) | volume=49 | issue=4 | date=2009-08-07 | issn=1540-7063 | doi=10.1093/icb/icp082 | pages=339–348| doi-access=free }}