Confidence

{{Original research|section|date=March 2024|reason=This section lacks secondary sources.}}

Ideas about the causes and effects of self-confidence have appeared in English-language publications describing characteristics of a sacrilegious attitude toward God,{{Cite book|title=Some Thoughts Concerning the Present Revival of Religion in New England.|last=Edwards, J., & Wesley, J.|publisher=S. Kneeland and T. Green.|year=1742}} the character of the British empire,{{Cite book|title=This Vicissitude of Motion and Rest, Which We Call Life|last=Freiburg|first=R|publisher=The Spectator|year=1742}} and the culture of colonial-era American society.{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/democracyinamer10tocqgoog|title=Democracy in America: Volume II|last=Tocqueville|first=Alexis de|year=1899|publisher=Washington Square Press|language=en}}

In 1890, the philosopher William James in his Principles of Psychology wrote, "Believe what is in the line of your needs, for only by such belief is the need fulfilled... Have faith that you can successfully make it, and your feet are nerved to its accomplishment".{{Full citation needed|date=March 2024}}

With World War I, psychologists praised self-confidence as greatly decreasing nervous tension, allaying fear, and ridding the battlefield of terror; they argued that soldiers who cultivated a strong and healthy body would also acquire greater self-confidence while fighting.{{Cite journal|last=Bird|first=Charles|date=1917-01-01|title=From Home to the Charge: A Psychological Study of the Soldier|jstor=1413607|journal=The American Journal of Psychology|volume=28|issue=3|pages=315–348|doi=10.2307/1413607}} At the height of the temperance movement of the 1920s, psychologists associated self-confidence in men with remaining at home and taking care of the family when they were not working.{{Cite journal|last=Wheeler|first=Mary P.|year=1918|title=Alcohol and Social Case Work|jstor=1014456|journal=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science|volume=77|pages=154–159|doi=10.1177/000271621807700116|s2cid=143016895|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1448670}} During the Great Depression, academics Philip Eisenberg and Paul Lazarsfeld wrote that a sudden negative change in one's circumstances, especially a loss of a job, could lead to decreased self-confidence, but more commonly if the jobless person believes the fault of his unemployment is his. They also noted how if individuals do not have a job long enough, they become apathetic and lose all self-confidence.{{Cite journal|last1=Eisenberg|first1=P.|last2=Lazarsfeld|first2=P. F.|date=1938-06-01|title=The psychological effects of unemployment |journal=Psychological Bulletin|language=en|volume=35|issue=6|pages=358–390|doi=10.1037/h0063426|issn=1939-1455}}

In 1943, American psychologist Abraham Maslow argued in his paper "A Theory of Human Motivation" that an individual is only motivated to acquire self-confidence (one component of "esteem") after achieving what they need for physiological survival, safety, and love and belonging. He claimed that satisfaction with self-esteem led to feelings of self-confidence that, once attained, led to a desire for "self-actualization".{{Cite journal|last=Maslow|first=A. H.|date=1943-07-01|title=A theory of human motivation |journal=Psychological Review|language=en|volume=50|issue=4|pages=370–396|doi=10.1037/h0054346|issn=1939-1471|citeseerx=10.1.1.334.7586|s2cid=53326433 }} As material standards of most people rapidly rose in developed countries after World War II and fulfilled their material needs, a plethora of widely cited academic research about confidence and related concepts like self-esteem and self-efficacy emerged.{{multiref2

|1={{Cite journal|last1=Greenwald|first1=A. G.|last2=Banaji|first2= M. R.|year=1995|title=Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes |journal=Psychological Review|language=en|volume=102|issue=1|pages=4–27|doi=10.1037/0033-295X.102.1.4|pmid=7878162|issn=1939-1471|citeseerx=10.1.1.411.2919|s2cid=8194189 }}

|2={{Cite book |title=Psychology, Rationality and Economic Behaviour|last1=Bénabou|first1=Roland|last2=Tirole|first2=Jean|year=2005|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|isbn=9781349521449|editor-last=Agarwal|editor-first=Bina|series=International Economic Association Series|pages=19–57|language=en|doi=10.1057/9780230522343_2|editor-last2=Vercelli|editor-first2=Alessandro|citeseerx=10.1.1.179.119}}

|3={{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eJ-PN9g_o-EC|title=Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control|last=Bandura|first=Albert|date=1997-02-15|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=978-0-7167-2850-4}}

|4={{Cite journal|last1=Baumeister|first1=Roy F.|last2=Campbell|first2=Jennifer D.|last3=Krueger|first3=Joachim I.|last4=Vohs|first4=Kathleen D.|date=2003-05-01|title=Does High Self-Esteem Cause Better Performance, Interpersonal Success, Happiness, or Healthier Lifestyles? |journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=1–44|doi=10.1111/1529-1006.01431|issn=1529-1006|pmid=26151640|doi-access=free}}

}}

{{Outdated|part=section|date=March 2024|reason=There is a lack of modern sources}}

One of the earliest measures of self-confidence used a 12-point scale, ranging from a minimum score characterizing someone who is "timid and self-distrustful, shy, never makes decisions, self-effacing" to a maximum score characterizing someone who is "able to make decisions, absolutely confident and sure of his own decisions and opinions". Some researchers have measured self-confidence as a simple construct divided into affective and cognitive components: anxiety as an affective aspect and self-evaluations of proficiency as a cognitive component.{{Cite journal |last1=Clément |first1=Richard |last2=Kruidenier |first2=Bastian G. |date=1983-09-01 |title=Orientations in Second Language Acquisition: I. the Effects of Ethnic, Milieu, and Target Language on Their Emergence |journal=Language Learning |language=en |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=273–291 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-1770.1983.tb00542.x |issn=1467-9922}} Other researchers have used body language proxies, rather than self-reports, to measure self-confidence by having examiners measure on a scale of 1{{Nbsp}}to{{Nbsp}}5 the subject's body language such as eye contact, fidgeting, posture, facial expressions, and gestures.

Some methods measure self-esteem and self-confidence in various aspects or activities, such as speaking in public spaces, academic performance, physical appearance, romantic relationships, social interactions, and athletic ability.{{Cite journal |last1=Shrauger |first1=J. Sidney |last2=Schohn |first2=Mary |date=1995-09-01 |title=Self-Confidence in College Students: Conceptualization, Measurement, and Behavioral Implications |journal=Assessment |language=en |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=255–278 |doi=10.1177/1073191195002003006 |issn=1073-1911 |s2cid=144758626}} In sports, researchers have measured athletes' confidence about winning upcoming matches{{Cite journal |last1=Rees |first1=Tim |last2=Freeman |first2=Paul |date=2007-07-01 |title=The effects of perceived and received support on self-confidence |journal=Journal of Sports Sciences |volume=25 |issue=9 |pages=1057–1065 |citeseerx=10.1.1.329.9348 |doi=10.1080/02640410600982279 |issn=0264-0414 |pmid=17497407 |s2cid=424766}} and how sensitive respondents' self-confidence is to performance and negative feedback.{{Cite journal |last1=Beattie |first1=Stuart |last2=Hardy |first2=Lew |last3=Savage |first3=Jennifer |last4=Woodman |first4=Tim |last5=Callow |first5=Nichola |date=2011-03-01 |title=Development and validation of a trait measure of robustness of self-confidence |journal=Psychology of Sport and Exercise |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=184–191 |doi=10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.09.008}}

Abraham Maslow and others have emphasized the need to distinguish between self-confidence as a generalized personality characteristic and self-confidence concerning a specific task, ability, or challenge (i.e., self-efficacy). The term "self-confidence" typically refers to a general personality trait— in contrast, "self-efficacy" is defined by psychologist Albert Bandura as a "belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task".{{Cite book |last1=Luszczynska |first1=A. |title=Predicting health behaviour |last2=Schwarzer |first2=R. |publisher=Open University Press |year=2005 |editor-last1=Conner |editor-first1=M. |edition=2nd |location=Buckingham, England |pages=127–169 |chapter=Social cognitive theory |editor-last2=Norman |editor-first2=P.}}

Various factors within and beyond an individual's control may affect their self-confidence. An individual's self-confidence can vary in different environments, such as at home or at school, and concerning different types of relationships and situations.{{Cite journal |last=Reis |first=Harry T. |date=2008-11-01 |title=Reinvigorating the Concept of Situation in Social Psychology |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Review |language=en |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=311–329 |doi=10.1177/1088868308321721 |issn=1088-8683 |pmid=18812499 |s2cid=206682425}} When people attribute their success to a matter under their control, they are less likely to be confident about being successful in the future. If someone attributes their failure to a factor beyond their control, they are more likely to be confident about succeeding in the future.{{Cite journal|last=Weiner|first=Bernard|s2cid=6499506|year=1985|title=An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion|journal=Psychological Review|volume=92 |issue=4|pages=548–573|doi=10.1037/0033-295x.92.4.548|pmid=3903815}} If a person believes they failed to achieve a goal because of a factor that was beyond their control, they are more likely to be more self-confident that they can achieve the goal in the future.{{Cite journal|last1=Eiser|first1=J. Richard|last2=Sutton|first2=Stephen R.|year=1977|title=Smoking as a subjectively rational choice |journal=Addictive Behaviors|volume=2|issue=2–3|pages=129–134|doi=10.1016/0306-4603(77)90030-2|pmid=899903}} One's self-confidence often increases as one satisfactorily completes particular activities.{{Cite book |last1=Snyder |first1=C. R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6IyqCNBD6oIC |title=Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology |last2=Lopez |first2=Shane J. |date=2009-01-01 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-518724-3}} American social psychologist Leon Festinger found that self-confidence in an individual's ability may only rise or fall when that individual can compare themselves to others who are roughly similar, in a competitive environment.{{Cite journal |last=Festinger |first=L. |year=1954 |title=A theory of social comparison processes. |journal=Human Relations |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=117–140 |doi=10.1177/001872675400700202 |s2cid=18918768}}

A person can possess self-confidence in their ability to complete a specific task (self-efficacy)—e.g. cook a good meal or write a good novel—even though they may lack general self-confidence, or conversely be self-confident though they lack the self-efficacy to achieve a particular task. These two types of self-confidence are, however, correlated with each other, and for this reason, can be easily conflated.{{Cite journal |last=Bauer |first=Raymond |date=1964-05-01 |title=The obstinate audience: The influence process from the point of view of social communication |journal=American Psychologist |language=en |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=319–328 |doi=10.1037/h0042851 |issn=1935-990X}}

Social psychologists have found self-confidence to be correlated with other psychological variables including saving money,{{Cite journal |last=Thorndike |first=Edward L. |year=1920 |title=Psychological Notes on the Motives for Thrift |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1448674 |journal=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |volume=87 |pages=212–218 |doi=10.1177/000271622008700133 |jstor=1014401 |s2cid=145103629}} influencing others,{{Cite journal |last=Mowday |first=Richard T. |date=1979-12-01 |title=Leader Characteristics, Self-Confidence, and Methods of Upward Influence in Organizational Decision Situations |journal=Academy of Management Journal |language=en |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=709–725 |doi=10.2307/255810 |issn=0001-4273 |jstor=255810}} and being a responsible student.{{Cite journal |last1=Gough |first1=Harrison G. |last2=McClosky |first2=Herbert |last3=Meehl |first3=Paul E. |year=1952 |title=A personality scale for social responsibility |journal=The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=73–80 |doi=10.1037/h0062924 |issn=0096-851X |pmid=14907250}} Self-confidence affects interest, enthusiasm, and self-regulation.{{Cite journal |last=Locke |first=Edwin A. |year=1987 |title=Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social-Cognitive View (review) |journal=Academy of Management Review |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=169–171 |doi=10.5465/amr.1987.4306538 |issn=0363-7425}} Self-confidence is important for accomplishing goals and improving performance.{{Cite book |url=https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/2303/learning-remembering-believing-enhancing-human-performance |title=Learning, Remembering, Believing: Enhancing Human Performance |publisher=National Academies Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-309-04993-1 |editor-last1=Druckman |editor-first1=Daniel |location=Washington, D.C. |doi=10.17226/2303 |editor-last2=Bjork |editor-first2=Robert A.}} Marketing researchers have found that the general self-confidence of a person is negatively correlated with their level of anxiety.{{Cite journal |last1=Locander |first1=William B. |last2=Hermann |first2=Peter W. |year=1979 |title=The Effect of Self-Confidence and Anxiety on Information Seeking in Consumer Risk Reduction |journal=Journal of Marketing Research |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=268–274 |doi=10.2307/3150690 |jstor=3150690}} Self-confidence increases a person's general well-being{{multiref2|{{Cite journal|last1=Akerlof|first1= G. A.|last2=Dickens|first2= W. T.|year=1972|title=The Economic Consequences of Cognitive Dissonance|journal=American Economic Review|volume=72 |issue=3|pages=307–319}}|{{Cite journal|last1=Caplin|first1= A.|last2=Leahy|first2= J.|year=2001|title=Psychological expected utility theory and anticipatory feelings|jstor=2696443|journal=Quarterly Journal of Economics|volume=116|issue=1|pages=55–79|doi=10.1162/003355301556347|citeseerx=10.1.1.334.9951}}

}} and one's motivation{{Cite journal |last1=Bénabou |first1=R. |last2=Tirole |first2=J. |year=2005 |title=Self-confidence and personal motivation |url=http://publications.ut-capitole.fr/1026/1/self_confidence.pdf |journal=Psychology, Rationality and Economic Behaviour |pages=19–57 |doi=10.1057/9780230522343_2 |isbn=978-1-349-52144-9}} which often increases performance.{{Cite journal |last1=Compte |first1=O. |last2=Postlewaite |first2=A. |year=2004 |title=Confidence-enhanced performance |journal=The American Economic Review |volume=94 |issue=5 |pages=1536–1557 |citeseerx=10.1.1.318.7105 |doi=10.1257/0002828043052204}} It also increases one's ability to deal with stress and mental health.{{multiref2|{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9LYzgr6niYoC&pg=PR11 |title=The Ecology of Stress|last=Hobfoll|first=Stevan E.|year=1988|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=9780891168454|language=en}}|{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sAbHKvNF5tQC&pg=PP1 |title=The Social Psychology of Everyday Life|last=Argyle|first=Michael|date=2013-04-15|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781134961733|language=en}}

}} The more self-confident an individual is, the less likely they are to conform to the judgments of others.{{Cite journal |last1=Deutsch |first1=Morton |last2=Gerard |first2=Harold B. |year=1955 |title=A study of normative and informational social influences upon individual judgment |journal=The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=629–636 |doi=10.1037/h0046408 |pmid=13286010 |s2cid=35785090}} Higher confidence is correlated with individuals setting higher goals. When people face feelings of discontent because they do not accomplish a certain goal, people who have higher self-confidence may become even more persistent in accomplishing their goals, whereas those with low self-confidence are more prone to giving up quickly.{{Cite journal |last1=Bandura |first1=Albert |last2=Cervone |first2=Daniel |year=1983 |title=Self-evaluative and self-efficacy mechanisms governing the motivational effects of goal systems |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1984-12232-001 |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |language=en |volume=45 |issue=5 |pages=1017–1028 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.45.5.1017 |issn=0022-3514}}{{Cite journal |last1=Bandura |first1=Albert |last2=Cervone |first2=Daniel |date=1983 |title=Self-evaluative and self-efficacy mechanisms governing the motivational effects of goal systems. |url=https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.45.5.1017 |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |language=en |volume=45 |issue=5 |pages=1017–1028 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.45.5.1017 |issn=1939-1315}} Albert Bandura argued that a person's perceived confidence indicates capability. If people do not believe that they are capable of coping, they experience disruption which lowers their confidence about their performance.{{Cite journal |last1=Kent |first1=Gerry |last2=Gibbons |first2=Rachel |date=March 1987 |title=Self-efficacy and the control of anxious cognitions |journal=Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry |language=en |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=33–40 |doi=10.1016/0005-7916(87)90069-3 |pmid=3558850}} Salespeople who are high in self-confidence tend to set higher goals for themselves, which makes them more likely to stay employed,{{Cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=S.P. |last2=Cron |first2=W.L. |last3=Slocum Jr. |first3=J.W. |year=1988 |title=Effects of trait competitiveness and perceived intraorganizational competition on salesperson goal setting and performance |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277440987 |journal=The Journal of Marketing |pages=88–98}} yield higher revenues, and generate higher customer service satisfaction.{{multiref2|{{Cite journal|last1=de Jong|first1=Ad|last2=Ruyter|first2=Ko de|last3=Wetzels|first3=Martin|s2cid=168139940|title=Linking employee confidence to performance: A study of self-managing service teams|journal=Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science|language=en|volume=34|issue=4|pages=576|doi=10.1177/0092070306287126|issn=0092-0703|year=2006}}|{{Cite journal|last=Westbrook|first=R.A.|year=1980|title=Intrapersonal affective influences on consumer satisfaction with products|journal=Journal of Consumer Research|volume=7 |issue=1|pages=49–54|doi=10.1086/208792|citeseerx=10.1.1.1032.3637}}

}} In certain fields of medical practice, patients experience a lack of self-confidence during the recovery period. This is commonly referred to as DSF or {{lang|la|defectum sui fiducia}} from the Latin for lack of self-confidence. This can be the case after a stroke, when the patient refrains from using a weaker lower limb due to fear of it not being strong enough.{{cite journal |last1=Franzoni |first1=S. |last2=Rozzini |first2=R. |last3=Boffelli |first3=S. |last4=Frisoni |first4=G.B. |last5=Trabucchi |first5=M. |year=1994 |title=Fear of falling in nursing home patients |journal=Gerontology |volume=40 |pages=38–44 |doi=10.1159/000213573 |pmid=8034202 |number=1}}

On the overconfidence effect, Martin Hilbert argues that confidence bias can be explained by a noisy conversion of objective evidence into subjective estimates, where noise is defined as the mixing of memories during the observing and remembering process.{{cite journal |last=Hilbert |first=Martin |year=2012 |title=Toward a synthesis of cognitive biases: How noisy information processing can bias human decision making |url=https://martinhilbert.net/HilbertPsychBull.pdf |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=138 |pages=211–237 |doi=10.1037/a0025940 |pmid=22122235 |number=2}} Dominic D. P. Johnson and James H. Fowler write that "overconfidence maximizes individual fitness and populations tend to become overconfident, as long as benefits from contested resources are sufficiently large compared with the cost of competition".{{Cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Dominic D.P. |last2=Fowler |first2=James H. |date=2011-09-14 |title=The evolution of overconfidence |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature10384/ |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=477 |issue=7364 |pages=317–320 |arxiv=0909.4043 |bibcode=2011Natur.477..317J |doi=10.1038/nature10384 |issn=1476-4687 |pmid=21921915 |s2cid=4384687}} In studies of implicit self-esteem, researchers have found that people may consciously overreport their levels of self-esteem.{{cite journal |last1=Timko |first1=Alix |last2=England |first2=Erica |last3=Herbert |first3=James |last4=Foreman |first4=Evan |date=Fall 2010 |title=The Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure as a measure of Self-Esteem |url=https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/tpr/vol60/iss4/9 |url-status=dead |journal=The Psychological Record |volume=60 |issue=4 |pages=679 |doi=10.1007/BF03395739 |s2cid=55255465 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126111539/https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/tpr/vol60/iss4/9/ |archive-date=2020-01-26 |access-date=2020-01-26}} Inaccurate self-evaluation is commonly observed in healthy populations. In the extreme, large differences between one's self-perception and one's actual behaviour are a hallmark of several disorders that have important implications for understanding treatment-seeking and compliance.{{cite journal |last=Beer |first=J. |author2=Lombardo M |author3=Bhanji J. |date=September 2010 |title=Roles of Medial Prefrontal Cortex and Orbitofrontal Cortex in Self-evaluation |journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience |volume=22 |issue=9 |pages=2108–2119 |doi=10.1162/jocn.2009.21359 |pmc=4159715 |pmid=19925187}} Overconfidence supports delusional thinking, such as frequently occurs in individuals with schizophrenia.{{Cite journal |last1=Hoven |first1=Monja |last2=Lebreton |first2=Maël |last3=Engelmann |first3=Jan B. |last4=Denys |first4=Damiaan |last5=Luigjes |first5=Judy |last6=van Holst |first6=Ruth J. |year=2019 |title=Abnormalities of confidence in psychiatry: an overview and future perspectives |journal=Translational Psychiatry |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=268 |doi=10.1038/s41398-019-0602-7 |issn= |pmc=6803712 |pmid=31636252}}

Whether a person, in making a decision, seeks out additional sources of information depends on their level of self-confidence specific to that area. As the complexity of a decision increases, a person is more likely to be influenced by another person and seek out additional information. Several psychologists suggest that self-confident people are more willing to examine evidence that both supports and contradicts their attitudes. Meanwhile, people who are less self-confident and more defensive may prefer attitudinal information over information that challenges their perspectives.{{multiref2

|1={{Cite journal|last1=Albarracín|first1=D.|last2=Mitchell|first2=A.L.|year=2004|title=The role of defensive confidence in preference for attitudinal information: How believing that one is strong can sometimes be a defensive weakness.|pmc=4803283|journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin|volume=30 |issue=12|pages=1565–1584|doi=10.1177/0146167204271180|pmid=15536240}}

|2={{Cite journal|last=Byrne|first=Donn|date=1961-09-01|title=The repression-sensitization scale: rationale, reliability, and validity |journal=Journal of Personality|language=en|volume=29|issue=3|pages=334–349|doi=10.1111/j.1467-6494.1961.tb01666.x|pmid=13689584|issn=1467-6494}}

|3={{Cite journal|last1=Albarracín|first1=Dolores|last2=Mitchell|first2=Amy L.|date=2004-12-01|title=The Role of Defensive Confidence in Preference for Proattitudinal Information: How Believing That One Is Strong Can Sometimes Be a Defensive Weakness |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin|language=en|volume=30|issue=12|pages=1565–1584|doi=10.1177/0146167204271180|issn=0146-1672|pmc=4803283|pmid=15536240}}

}} When individuals with low self-confidence receive feedback from others, they are averse to receiving information about their relative ability and negative informative feedback, and not averse to receiving positive feedback.{{Cite journal |last1=Mobius |first1=M. M. |last2=Niederle |first2=M. |last3=Niehaus |first3=P. |last4=Rosenblat |first4=T. S. |year=2011 |title=Managing Self-Confidence: Theory and Experimental Evidence |journal=NBER Working Paper No. 17014 |doi=10.3386/w17014 |doi-access=free }} If new information about an individual's performance is negative feedback, this may interact with a negative affective state (low self-confidence) causing the individual to become demoralized, which in turn induces a self-defeating attitude that increases the likelihood of failure in the future more than if they did not lack self-confidence.{{multiref2|{{Cite journal|last1=Cervone|first1=Daniel|last2=Kopp|first2=Deborah A.|last3=Schaumann|first3=Linda|last4=Scott|first4=Walter D.|date=1994-09-01|title=Mood, self-efficacy, and performance standards: Lower moods induce higher standards for performance |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|language=en|volume=67|issue=3|pages=499–512|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.67.3.499|issn=1939-1315}}|{{Cite journal|last1=Wright|first1=J. C.|last2=Mischel|first2= W.|year=1982|title=The influence of affect on cognitive social learning person variables |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=43|issue=5|pages=901–914|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.43.5.901}}

}} People may be more self-confident about what they believe if they consult sources of information that agree with their world views.{{Cite book |title=Advances in Experimental Social Psychology|last=Frey|first=Dieter|year=1986|publisher=Academic Press|editor-last=Berkowitz|editor-first=Leonard|volume=19|pages=41–80|doi=10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60212-9|isbn=9780120152193}} People may deceive themselves about their positive qualities and the negative qualities of others so that they can display greater self-confidence than they might otherwise feel, thereby enabling them to advance socially and materially.{{Cite journal |last1=Hippel |first1=William von |last2=Trivers |first2=Robert |date=2011-02-01 |title=The evolution and psychology of self-deception |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/behavioral-and-brain-sciences/article/the-evolution-and-psychology-of-self-deception/B87968EC4A6B4DC93A21C217ABC13E13 |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=1–16 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X10001354 |issn=1469-1825 |pmid=21288379}}

People with high self-confidence are more likely to impress others, as others perceive them as more knowledgeable and more likely to make correct judgments.{{Cite journal|last1=Price|first1=Paul C.|last2=Stone|first2=Eric R.|year=2004|title=Intuitive evaluation of likelihood judgment producers: evidence for a confidence heuristic |journal=Journal of Behavioral Decision Making|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=39–57|doi=10.1002/bdm.460|issn=1099-0771|hdl=10211.3/187361|s2cid=145763938 |hdl-access=free}} Despite this, a negative correlation is sometimes found between the level of their self-confidence and the accuracy of their claims.{{Cite journal|last=Slovenko|first= R.|year=1999|title=Testifying with confidence|url=http://jaapl.org/content/27/1/127.short|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law Online|volume=27 |issue=1|pages=127–131|pmid=10212032}} When people are uncertain and unknowledgeable about a topic, they are more likely to believe the testimony,{{Cite journal|last1=Penrod|first1=Steven|last2=Cutler|first2=Brian|title=Witness confidence and witness accuracy: Assessing their forensic relation |journal=Psychology, Public Policy, and Law|volume=1|issue=4|pages=817–845|doi=10.1037/1076-8971.1.4.817|year=1995}} and follow the advice of those that seem self-confident.{{Cite journal|last1=Zarnoth|first1=P.|last2=Sniezek|first2=J.A.|s2cid=28783168|year=1997|title=The social influence of confidence in group decision making |journal=Journal of Experimental Social Psychology|volume=33 |issue=4|pages=345–366|doi=10.1006/jesp.1997.1326|pmid=9247369}} However, expert psychological testimony on the factors that influence eyewitness memory appears to reduce juror reliance on self-confidence.

People prefer leaders with greater self-confidence over those with less self-confidence.{{multiref2

|1={{Cite journal|last1=Conger|first1=Jay A.|last2=Kanungo|first2=Rabindra N.|year=1994|title=Charismatic Leadership in Organizations: Perceived Behavioral Attributes and Their Measurement|jstor=2488215|journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior|volume=15|issue=5|pages=439–452|doi=10.1002/job.4030150508}}

|2={{Cite journal|last1=Shamir|first1=Boas|last2=House|first2=Robert J.|last3=Arthur|first3=Michael B.|year=1993|title=The Motivational Effects of Charismatic Leadership: A Self-Concept Based Theory|jstor=2635081|journal=Organization Science|volume=4|issue=4|pages=577–594|doi=10.1287/orsc.4.4.577}}

}} Self-confident leaders tend to influence others through persuasion instead of resorting to coercive means. They are more likely to resolve issues by referring them to another qualified person or calling upon bureaucratic procedures, which avoid personal involvement.{{multiref2

|1={{Cite book|title=Power and Discontent|last=Gamson|first=W.|location=Homewood, Ill.|publisher=Dorsey|year=1968}}

|2={{Cite book|title=Men and women in the corporation|last=Kanter|first=R.|location=New York|publisher=Basic Books|year=1977}}

|3={{Cite journal|last1=Kipnis|first1=D.|last2=Lane|first2=W.|year=1962|title=Self-confidence and leadership|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=46|issue=4|pages=291–295|doi=10.1037/h0044720}}

|4={{Cite journal|last1=Goodstadt|first1=B.|last2=Kipnis|first2=D.|year=1970|title=Situational influence on the use of power|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=54|issue=3|pages=201–207|doi=10.1037/h0029265}}

}} Others suggest that self-confidence does not affect leadership style but is only correlated with years of supervisory experience and self-perceptions of power.

Social scientists have discovered that self-confidence operates differently in different categories of people.

In children, self-confidence emerges differently than in adults. For example, only children as a group may be more self-confident than other children.{{Cite journal|last=Fenton|first=Norman|title=The Only Child |journal=The Pedagogical Seminary and Journal of Genetic Psychology|volume=35|issue=4|pages=546–556|doi=10.1080/08856559.1928.10532171|year=1928}} If children are self-confident, they may be more likely to sacrifice immediate recreational time for possible rewards in the future, enhancing their self-regulatory capability.{{Cite journal|last=Zimmerman|first=Barry J.|year=1990|title=Self-Regulated Learning and Academic Achievement: An Overview|journal=Educational Psychologist|volume=25|issue=1|pages=3–17|doi=10.1207/s15326985ep2501_2|issn=0046-1520}} Successful performance of children in music increases feelings of self-confidence, increasing motivation for study.{{multiref2

|1={{Cite journal|last1=Clift|first1=S.|last2=Hancox|first2=G.|last3=Staricoff|first3=R.|last4=Whitmore|first4=C.|year=2008|title=Singing and health: A systematic mapping and review of non-clinical research|journal=Sidney de Haan Research Centre for Arts and Health: Canterbury Christ Church University}}

|2={{Cite journal|last=Hallam|first=Susan|date=2010-08-01|title=The power of music: Its impact on the intellectual, social and personal development of children and young people|journal=International Journal of Music Education|language=en|volume=28|issue=3|pages=269–289|doi=10.1177/0255761410370658|issn=0255-7614|s2cid=5662260}}

}} By adolescence, youth who have little contact with friends tend to have low self-confidence.{{Cite journal|last=Waddell|first=Kathleen J.|date=1984-03-01|title=The self-concept and social adaptation of hyperactive children in adolescence|journal=Journal of Clinical Child Psychology|volume=13|issue=1|pages=50–55|doi=10.1080/15374418409533169|issn=0047-228X}} In adolescents, low self-confidence may be a predictor of loneliness.{{Cite journal |last1=Cheng |first1=Helen |last2=Furnham |first2=Adrian |date=2002-06-01 |title=Personality, peer relations, and self-confidence as predictors of happiness and loneliness |journal=Journal of Adolescence |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=327–339 |doi=10.1006/jado.2002.0475 |pmid=12128043}}File:Bashful Sturgeon Bay.jpg]]

In general, students who perform well have increased confidence, which likely in turn encourages them to take greater responsibility to complete tasks.{{Cite journal|last1=Zimmerman|first1=Barry J.|last2=Kitsantas|first2=Anastasia|date=2005-10-01|title=Homework practices and academic achievement: The mediating role of self-efficacy and perceived responsibility beliefs |journal=Contemporary Educational Psychology|volume=30|issue=4|pages=397–417|doi=10.1016/j.cedpsych.2005.05.003|s2cid=145715728 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/940375}} Teachers affect the self-confidence of their students depending on how they treat them.{{Cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Eliot R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7A2LKwAACAAJ |title=Social Psychology |last2=Mackie |first2=Diane M. |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-84169-408-5}} Students who perform better receive more positive evaluation reports and have greater self-confidence.{{Cite journal|last1=Pajares|first1=Frank|last2=Johnson|first2=Margaret J.|date=1996-04-01|title=Self-efficacy beliefs and the writing performance of entering high school students |journal=Psychology in the Schools|language=en|volume=33|issue=2|pages=163–175|doi=10.1002/(sici)1520-6807(199604)33:2<163::aid-pits10>3.0.co;2-c|issn=1520-6807}} Characteristically low-achieving students report less confidence, while characteristically high-performing students report higher self-confidence.{{Cite journal|last1=Zusho|first1=Akane|last2=Pintrich|first2=Paul R.|last3=Coppola|first3=Brian|s2cid=17385637|date=2003-09-01|title=Skill and will: The role of motivation and cognition in the learning of college chemistry |journal=International Journal of Science Education|volume=25|issue=9|pages=1081–1094|doi=10.1080/0950069032000052207|issn=0950-0693|bibcode=2003IJSEd..25.1081Z}} Extracurricular activities in school settings can boost confidence in students at earlier ages. These include participation in games or sports, visual and performing arts, and public speaking.{{Cite web |last=Gurukul |first=Vishwashanti |title=Importance of Cultural Activities |url=https://www.mitgurukul.com/Why-cultural-activities-are-important-along-with-academics.php#:~:text=Social%20Benefits,opportunities%20to%20interact%20with%20others.&text=Interaction%20with%20other%20students%20belonging,they%20learn%20to%20respect%20others. |access-date=2021-07-08 |website=www.mitgurukul.com}}

In a phenomenon known as stereotype threat, African American students perform more poorly on exams (relative to White American students) if they must reveal their racial identities before the exam.{{Cite journal|last1=Steele|first1=C.M.|last2=Aronson|first2=J.|s2cid=4665022|year=1995|title=Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=69| issue = 5|pages=797–811|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797|pmid=7473032}} A similar phenomenon has been found in female students' performance (relative to male students) on math tests.{{Cite journal|last1=Keller|first1=Johannes|last2=Dauenheimer|first2=Dirk|date=2003-03-01|title=Stereotype Threat in the Classroom: Dejection Mediates the Disrupting Threat Effect on Women's Math Performance |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin|language=en|volume=29|issue=3|pages=371–381|doi=10.1177/0146167202250218|issn=0146-1672|pmid=15273014|s2cid=38999448}} The opposite has been observed in Asian Americans, whose confidence becomes tied up in expectations that they will succeed by both parents and teachers and who claim others perceive them as excelling academically more than they are.{{Cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=J. |last2=Zhou |first2=M. |year=2014 |title=From unassimilable to exceptional: The rise of Asian Americans and 'Stereotype Promise' |url=https://newdiversities.mmg.mpg.de/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/2014_16-01_02_Lee.pdf |journal=New Diversities |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=7–22}}

Male university students may be more confident than their female counterparts.{{Cite journal |last1=Lopez |first1=F.G. |last2=Gormley |first2=B. |year=2002 |title=Stability and change in adult attachment style over the first-year college transition: Relations to self-confidence, coping, and distress patterns |journal=Journal of Counseling Psychology |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=355–364 |doi=10.1037/0022-0167.49.3.355}} In regards to inter-ethnic interaction and language learning, those who engage more with people of different ethnicity and language become more self-confident in interacting with them.{{Cite journal|last1=Noels|first1=Kimberly A.|last2=Pon|first2=Gordon|last3=Clement|first3=Richard|date=1996-09-01|title=Language, Identity, and Adjustment The Role of Linguistic Self-Confidence in the Acculturation Process |journal=Journal of Language and Social Psychology|language=en|volume=15|issue=3|pages=246–264|doi=10.1177/0261927X960153003|s2cid=145666109|issn=0261-927X}}

Women who are either high or low in general self-confidence are more likely to be persuaded to change their opinion than women with medium self-confidence. However, when specific high confidence (self-efficacy) is high, generalized confidence plays less of a role.{{Cite journal |last1=Cox |first1=Donald F. |last2=Bauer |first2=Raymond A. |year=1964 |title=Self-Confidence and Persuasibility in Women |journal=The Public Opinion Quarterly |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=453–466 |doi=10.1086/267266 |jstor=2747017}} Men who have low generalized self-confidence are more easily persuaded than men of high generalized self-confidence.{{multiref2|{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/documentsofgesta027559mbp |page=[https://archive.org/details/documentsofgesta027559mbp/page/n235 222] |title=Documents of Gestalt Psychology|last=Henle|first=Mary|year=1961|publisher=University of California Press|language=en}}|{{Cite journal|last1=Berkowitz|first1=Leonard|last2=Lundy|first2=Richard M.|date=1957-03-01|title=Personality Characteristics Related to Susceptibility to Influence by Peers or Authority Figures |journal=Journal of Personality|language=en|volume=25|issue=3|pages=306–316|doi=10.1111/j.1467-6494.1957.tb01529.x|pmid=13439514|issn=1467-6494}}|{{Cite journal|last=Janis|first=Irving L|date=1954-06-01|title=Personality Correlates of Susceptibility To Persuasion |journal=Journal of Personality|language=en|volume=22|issue=4|pages=504–518|doi=10.1111/j.1467-6494.1954.tb01870.x|pmid=13163818|issn=1467-6494}}

}}

Women tend to respond less to negative feedback and be more averse to negative feedback than men. In experiments conducted by economists Muriel Niederle and Lise Vesterlund, the researchers found that male overconfidence and male preference for competition contributed to higher male participation in a competitive tournament scheme, while risk and feedback aversion played a negligible role.{{Cite journal |last1=Niederle |first1=M. |last2=Vesterlund |first2=L. |year=2007 |title=Do women shy away from competition? Do men compete too much? |url=https://econweb.ucsd.edu/~jandreon/Econ264/papers/Vesterlund%20Niederle%20NBER%202005.pdf |journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics |volume=122 |issue=3 |pages=1067–1101 |citeseerx=10.1.1.151.4864 |doi=10.1162/qjec.122.3.1067}} Some scholars partly attribute the fact of women being less likely to persist in engineering college than men to women's diminished sense of self-confidence.{{Cite journal |last1=Cunningham |first1=C.M. |last2=Thompson |first2=M. |last3=Lachapelle |first3=C.P. |last4=Goodman |first4=I.F. |last5=Bittinger |first5=K.C. |year=2006 |title=Women's experiences in college engineering and support programs: Findings from the WECE project |url=https://journals.psu.edu/wepan/article/viewFile/58204/57892 |journal=Women in Engineering ProActive Network.}}

More self-confident women may receive high-performance evaluations but not be as well-liked as men who engage in the same behaviour.{{Cite journal|last1=Butler|first1=D.|last2=Geis|first2=F.L.|year=1990|title=Nonverbal affect responses to male and female leaders: Implications for leadership evaluations|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=58|pages=48–59|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.58.1.48}} Confident women may be considered a better job candidate than both men and women who behaved modestly.{{Cite journal|last=Rudman|first=L. A.|year=1988|title=Self-promotion as a risk factor for women: the costs and benefits of counterstereotypical impression management|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=74 |issue=3|pages=629–645|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.74.3.629|pmid=9523410|citeseerx=10.1.1.453.3587}} Male common stock investors trade 45% more than their female counterparts, which they attribute to greater recklessness (though also self-confidence) of men, reducing men's net returns by 2.65 percentage points per year versus women's 1.72 percentage points.{{cite journal |last1=Barber |first1=B.M. |last2=Odean |first2=T. |year=2001 |title=Boys will be boys: Gender, overconfidence, and common stock investment |journal=Quarterly Journal of Economics |volume=116 |pages=261–292 |citeseerx=10.1.1.295.7095 |doi=10.1162/003355301556400}} Women report lower self-confidence levels than men in supervising subordinates.{{Cite journal|last1=Instone|first1=D.|last2=Major|first2=B.|last3=Bunker|first3=B.B.|year=1983|title=Gender, self-confidence, and social influence strategies: An organizational simulation|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=44 |issue=2|pages=322–333|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.44.2.322}}

One study found that women who viewed commercials with women in traditional gender roles appeared less self-confident in giving a speech than those who viewed commercials with women taking on more masculine roles.{{Cite journal|last1=Jennings-Walstedt|first1=J.|last2=Geis|first2=F.L.|last3=Brown|first3=V.|year=1980|title=Influence of television commercials on women's self-confidence and independent judgment |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=38 |issue=3|pages=203–210|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.38.2.203}} Such self-confidence may also be related to body image, as one study found a sample of overweight people in Australia and the US are less self-confident about their body's performance than people of average weight, and the difference is even greater for women than for men.{{Cite journal|last1=Tiggemann|first1=Marika|last2=Rothblum|first2=Esther D.|s2cid=145751588|title=Gender differences in social consequences of perceived overweight in the United States and Australia|journal=Sex Roles|language=en|volume=18|issue=1–2|pages=75–86|doi=10.1007/BF00288018|issn=0360-0025|year=1988}} Others found that if a newborn is separated from its mother upon delivery, the mother is less self-confident in her ability to raise that child than one who was not separated from her child. Furthermore, women who initially had low self-confidence are likely to experience a larger drop of self-confidence after separation from their children than women with relatively higher self-confidence.{{Cite journal|last1=Seashore|first1=M.J.|last2=Leifer|first2=A.D.|last3=Barnett|first3=C.R.|last4=Leiderman|first4=P.H.|year=1973|title=The effects of denial of early mother-infant interaction on maternal self-confidence |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=26 |issue=3|pages=369–378|doi=10.1037/h0034497|pmid=4710108}} Heterosexual men who exhibit greater self-confidence relative to other men more easily attract single and partnered women.{{multiref2|{{Cite journal|last=Buss|first=D.M.|year=2009|title=The great struggles of life: Darwin and the emergence of evolutionary psychology|url=http://bernard.pitzer.edu/~dmoore/2009_Buss_AmPsycho_Darwin.pdf|journal=American Psychologist|volume=64|issue=2|pages=140–148|doi=10.1037/a0013207|pmid=19203146|access-date=2020-01-26|archive-date=2019-02-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190214195259/http://bernard.pitzer.edu/~dmoore/2009_Buss_AmPsycho_Darwin.pdf|url-status=dead}}|{{Cite journal|last1=Schmitt|first1=D.P.|last2=Buss|first2=D.M.|year=2001|title=Human mate poaching: Tactics and temptations for infiltrating existing mateships|url=http://bradley.edu/dotAsset/165822.pdf|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=80|issue=6|pages=894–917|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.80.6.894|pmid=11414373}}

}}

Self-confidence is one of the most influential factors in how well an athlete performs in a competition.{{multiref2

|1={{Cite journal|last1=Craft|first1=L.L.|last2=Magyar|first2=T.M.|author-link3=Betsy Becker|last3=Becker|first3=B.J.|last4=Feltz|first4=D.L.|year=2003|title=The relationship between the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 and sport performance: A meta-analysis|journal=Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology|volume=25 |issue=1|pages=44–65|doi=10.1123/jsep.25.1.44|citeseerx=10.1.1.459.4342}}

|2={{Cite journal|last1=Woodman|first1=Tim|last2=Hardy|first2=Lew|s2cid=481243|year=2003|title=The relative impact of cognitive anxiety and self-confidence upon sport performance: a meta-analysis |journal=Journal of Sports Sciences|volume=21|issue=6|pages=443–457|doi=10.1080/0264041031000101809|issn=0264-0414|pmid=12846532}}

}} In particular, "robust self-confidence beliefs" are correlated with aspects of mental toughness—the ability to cope better than one's opponents and remain focused under pressure.{{multiref2

|1={{Cite journal|last1=Bull|first1=Stephen J.|last2=Shambrook|first2=Christopher J.|last3=James|first3=Wil|last4=Brooks|first4=Jocelyne E.|s2cid=145484578|date=2005-09-01|title=Towards an Understanding of Mental Toughness in Elite English Cricketers |journal=Journal of Applied Sport Psychology|volume=17|issue=3|pages=209–227|doi=10.1080/10413200591010085|issn=1041-3200}}

|2={{Cite journal|last1=Connaughton|first1=Declan|last2=Wadey|first2=Ross|last3=Hanton|first3=Sheldon|last4=Jones|first4=Graham|s2cid=23040478|year=2008|title=The development and maintenance of mental toughness: Perceptions of elite performers |journal=Journal of Sports Sciences|volume=26|issue=1|pages=83–95|doi=10.1080/02640410701310958|issn=0264-0414|pmid=17852671}}

}} These traits enable athletes to "bounce back from adversity".{{Cite journal|last1=Galli|first1=N.|last2=Vealey|first2=R.S.|s2cid=44199464|year=2008|title=Bouncing back from adversity: Athletes' experiences of resilience|journal= The Sport Psychologist|volume=22 |issue=3|pages=316–335|doi=10.1123/tsp.22.3.316}} When athletes confront stress while playing sports, their self-confidence decreases. However, feedback from their team members in the form of emotional and informational support reduces the extent to which stresses in sports reduce their self-confidence. At high levels of support, performance-related stress does not affect self-confidence.{{Cite journal|last1=Freeman|first1=Paul|last2=Rees|first2=Tim|s2cid=143561743|year=2010|title=Perceived social support from team-mates: Direct and stress-buffering effects on self-confidence |journal=European Journal of Sport Science|volume=10|issue=1|pages=59–67|doi=10.1080/17461390903049998|issn=1746-1391|hdl=10871/16326|url=https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/bitstream/10871/16326/2/Freeman%20%26%20Rees%20%282010%29.pdf|hdl-access=free}} Among gymnasts, those who tend to talk to themselves in an instructional format tend to be more self-confident than those who do not.{{Cite journal |last1=Mahoney |first1=Michael J. |last2=Avener |first2=Marshall |year=1977 |title=Psychology of the elite athlete: An exploratory study |journal=Cognitive Therapy and Research |language=en |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=135–141 |doi=10.1007/BF01173634 |issn=0147-5916 |s2cid=39561309}} In a group, members' desire for success and confidence can also be related. Groups that had a higher desire for success did better in performance than groups with a weaker desire. The more frequently a group succeeded, the more interest they had in the activity and success.{{Cite journal|last1=Zander|first1=Alvin|last2=Ulberg|first2=Cyrus|date=May 1971|title=The group level of aspiration and external social pressures|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(71)90023-7|journal=Organizational Behavior and Human Performance|volume=6|issue=3|pages=362–378|doi=10.1016/0030-5073(71)90023-7|hdl=2027.42/33663|issn=0030-5073|hdl-access=free}}

The utility of self-confidence may vary by culture. Some find Asians perform better when they lack confidence, especially when compared to North Americans.{{multiref2|{{Cite journal|last1=Heine|first1=S.J.|last2=Kitayama|first2=S.|last3=Lehman|first3=D.R.|last4=Takata|first4=T.|last5=Ide|first5=E.|last6=Leung|first6=C.|last7=Matsumoto|first7=H.|s2cid=3745951|year=2001|title=Divergent consequences of success and failure in japan and north America: an investigation of self-improving motivations and malleable selves|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=81 |issue=4|pages=599–615|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.81.4.599|pmid=11642348}}|{{Cite journal|last1=Diener|first1=Ed|last2=Oishi|first2=Shigehiro|last3=Lucas|first3=Richard E.|date=2003-02-01|title=Personality, Culture, and Subjective Well-Being: Emotional and Cognitive Evaluations of Life |journal=Annual Review of Psychology|volume=54|issue=1|pages=403–425|doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145056|issn=0066-4308|pmid=12172000}}|{{Cite journal|last1=Peters|first1=Heather J.|last2=Williams|first2=Jean M.|s2cid=145178557|date=2006-09-01|title=Moving Cultural Background to the Foreground: An Investigation of Self-Talk, Performance, and Persistence Following Feedback |journal=Journal of Applied Sport Psychology|volume=18|issue=3|pages=240–253|doi=10.1080/10413200600830315|issn=1041-3200}}

}}

{{Wiktionary|Confidence|confidence}}

{{wikiquote}}

• {{annotated link|Assertiveness}}
• {{annotated link|Confidence trick|aka=Confidence game}}
• {{annotated link|Dunning–Kruger effect}}
• {{annotated link|Emotional bias}}
• {{annotated link|Grandiose delusions}}
• {{annotated link|Haughtiness}}
• {{annotated link|Hubris}}
• {{annotated link|Icarus complex}}
• {{annotated link|Inner critic}}
• {{annotated link|Law of attraction (New Thought)|Law of attraction}}
• {{annotated link|Low self-esteem}}
• {{annotated link|Narcissism}}
• {{annotated link|Security}}
• {{annotated link|Self-serving bias}}
• {{annotated link|Shyness}}
• {{annotated link|Vanity}}

{{Reflist}}

{{Narcissism}}

{{Virtues}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Emotions

Category:Narcissism

Category:Positive psychology

eo:Fido

fi:Luottamus