Convivencia

Convivencia often refers to the interplay of cultural ideas between the three religious groups and ideas of religious tolerance. James Carroll invokes this concept and indicates that it played an important role in bringing the classics of Greek philosophy to Europe, with translations from Greek to Arabic to Hebrew and Latin.Carroll, James (2001), Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews, Chapter 33. Houghton Mifflin, Co., Boston. Jerrilynn Dodds references this concept in the spatial orientation seen in architecture that draws on building styles seen in synagogues and mosques.{{Cite book|title=The arts of intimacy : Christians, Jews, and Muslims in the making of Castilian culture|last=Denise.|first=Dodds, Jerrilynn|date=2008|publisher=Yale University Press|others=Menocal, Maria Rosa., Balbale, Abigail Krasner.|isbn=9780300142143|location=New Haven|oclc=213407379}}

A good example of Convivencia was the city of Córdoba, Andalusia during the 9th and 10th centuries, when it was part of Al-Andalus (Muslim-ruled Spain). At that time, Cordoba was considered one of the most important cities in the world. Christians and Jews took part in the royal court and contributed to the city's rich intellectual and cultural life. Yale professor María Rosa Menocal, highlights how Cordoba's libraries were a symbol of its advanced society-not just in terms of scholarship, but also as a sign of overall social well-being. The city became a meeting point for knowledge, culture, and different religious traditions.Menocal, María Rosa (2002), "The Ornament of the World: how Muslims, Jews, and Christians created a culture of tolerance in medieval Spain", Little, Brown, Boston.

James L. Heft, the Alton Brooks Professor of Religion at USC, describes Convivencia as one of the “rare periods in history” when the three religions did not either keep “their distance from one another, or were in conflict.” During most of their co-existing history, they have been “ignorant about each other” or “attacked each other.”{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160911193129/http://ifacs.com/the-necessity-of-inter-faith-diplomacy-the-catholicmuslim-dialogue/ James L. Heft, “The Necessity of Inter-Faith Diplomacy: The Catholic/Muslim Dialogue”]}} The First Sheridan-Campbell Lecture Given at the Mediterranean Academy of Diplomatic Studies, Malta, May 20, 2011.

File:Christian, Muslim and Jewish grave-markers from Lisbon.jpg, showing Christian crosses, Muslim pentagrams and Jewish Stars of David. (Museu de Lisboa)]]

Islamic rule in the Iberian Peninsula began in the early 700s, when Arab armies took control and named the region Al-Andalus. For a time, it was united under the Caliphate of Cordoba, but after the death of its ruler Al-Hakam II in 976, the Caliphate began to break apart into several smaller Muslim states. In the 11th and 12th centuries, two North African Muslim groups-the Almoravids and later the Almohads-briefly reunited parts of Al-Andalus. However, during this same period, Christian Kingdom in the north began pushing south, gradually reclaiming land in what is known as the Reconquista. By the 1200s, Muslim rule was reduced to just the Emirate of Granada, in the south governed by the Nasrid dynasty, which lasted until 1492.Mills, K., Taylor, W. B., & Lauderdale, G. S. (2002). Colonial Latin America: A documentary history. Wilmington, Del: Scholarly Resources.

{{main|Expulsion of the Moriscos}}

{{main|Expulsion of the Jews from Spain}}

The Almohad Muslim dynasty forced Christians and Jews to convert, and forced Muslims into their interpretation of the faith.{{cite journal |last1=Fierro |first1=Maribel |title=Conversion, ancestry and universal religion: the case of the Almohads in the Islamic West (sixth/twelfth–seventh/thirteenth centuries) |journal=Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies |date=2010 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=155–173 |doi=10.1080/17546559.2010.495289 |s2cid=159552569 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17546559.2010.495289|url-access=subscription }} Among those who chose exile rather than conversion or death was the Jewish philosopher Maimonides.{{cite web |last1=Seeskin |first1=Kenneth |title=Maimonides |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/maimonides/ |publisher=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=22 January 2021}}

While the Reconquista was ongoing, Muslims and Jews who came under Christian control were allowed to practise their religion to some degree. This ended in the late 15th century with the fall of Granada in 1492. Even before this event, the Spanish Inquisition had been established in 1478. In 1492, with the Alhambra decree, those Jews who had not converted to Catholicism were expelled. Many Jews settled in Portugal, where they were expelled in 1497.{{cite book|last=Lowenstein|first=Steven|title=The Jewish Cultural Tapestry: International Jewish Folk Traditions|year=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=36|isbn=9780195313604|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EWToS3VyqVMC&q=jewish+cultural+tapestry}}

Following a failed revolt in Granada in 1499, the Muslims in Granada and in the Crown of Castile were forced to convert, face death, or be expelled. This happened as the treaty assuring religious freedom at the time of Granada's surrender in 1492 was seen as voided by the rebellion. Between 1500 and 1502 all remaining Muslims of Granada and Castile were converted.{{cite book|last1=Kidner|first1=Frank|last2=Bucur|first2=Maria|last3=Mathisen|first3=Ralph|last4=McKee|first4=Sally|last5=Weeks|first5=Theodore|title=Making Europe: The Story of the West|date=2013|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=9781285415185|pages=376|edition=2}} In 1525, Muslims in Aragon were similarly forced to convert. The Muslim communities who converted became known as Moriscos. Still they were suspected by the old Christians of being crypto-Muslims and so between 1609 and 1614 their entire population of 300,000 was forcibly expelled. All these expulsions and conversions resulted in Catholic Christianity becoming the sole sanctioned religion in the Iberian Peninsula.{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}}

As Anna Akasoy has summarized in a review article, Menocal "argues that the narrow-minded forces that brought about its end were external", both from the North African Muslim Almoravids and Almohads, and Christian northerners.{{Cite journal|last=Akasoy|first=Anna|date=August 2010|title=Convivencia and its discontents: Interfaith life in Al-Andalus|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies|volume=42|issue=3|pages=489–99|doi=10.1017/S0020743810000516|s2cid=162536839|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-middle-east-studies/article/abs/convivencia-and-its-discontents-interfaith-life-in-alandalus/1B36E1C27D9B659F1598699C9C1587AD|url-access=subscription}}

• Converso (Jewish converts to Catholism)
• Moors (Muslims in Al-Andalus)
• Morisco (Muslim converts to Catholism)
• Mozarab (Christians in Al-Andalus)
• Mudéjar (Muslims in Christendom)
• Muwallad (Christian converts to Islam)
• Sephardim (Jews in Iberia)

The idea of convivencia has had supporters and detractors from the time Castro first proposed it. Hussein Fancy has summarized the underlying assumptions on both sides of the debate: "The convivencia debates were never about political ideologies or partisan politics, as they are often construed, but rather," as Ryan Szpiech{{Cite encyclopedia|last=Szpiech|first=Ryan|date=2013|editor-last=Akbari|editor-first=Suzanne|editor2-last=Mallette|editor2-first=Karla|title=The Convivencia Wars|encyclopedia=A Sea of Languages: Rethinking the Arabic Role in Medieval Literary History|publisher=University of Toronto Press|pages=135–61|doi=10.3138/9781442663398-011 |isbn=978-1-4426-6339-8}} has argued, "about fundamental and unresolved methodological and philosophical issues. While Castro appealed to philosophical interpretivism, [Claudio] Sánchez-Albornoz appealed to scientific positivism."{{Cite journal|last=Hussein|first=Fancy|date=2019|title=The new convivencia|journal=Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies|volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=295–305 |doi=10.1080/17546559.2019.1605242|s2cid=159673280 }}

David Nirenberg challenged the significance of the age of "convivencia," claiming that far from a "peaceful convivencia" his own work "demonstrates that violence was a central and systemic aspect of the coexistence of majority and minority in medieval Spain, and even suggests that coexistence was in part predicated on such violence".Nirenberg, David, Communities of violence • Persecution of Minorities in the Middle ages. Princeton University Press, 1996. P. 9.

Some critics of the concept of Convivencia point to the execution of the Martyrs of Córdoba during the 850s as a challenge.

Mark Cohen, professor of Near Eastern studies at Princeton University, in his Under Crescent and Cross, calls the idealized interfaith utopia a myth that was first promulgated by Jewish historians such as Heinrich Graetz in the 19th century as a rebuke to Christian countries for their treatment of Jews.{{cite book |last= Cohen |first= Mark R. |title= Under Crescent and Cross |publisher= Princeton University Press |date=October 1995 |isbn= 0-691-01082-X}} This myth was met with what Cohen calls the "counter-myth" of the "neo-lachrymose conception of Jewish-Arab history" by Bat Yeor and others, which also "cannot be maintained in the light of historical reality".{{cite journal |last1=Lasker |first1=Daniel J. |last2=Cohen |first2=Mark R. |title=Under Crescent and Cross. The Jews in the Middle Ages |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review |date=July 1997 |volume=88 |issue=1/2 |pages=76 |doi=10.2307/1455066|jstor=1455066 }} Cohen aims to present a correction to both these "myths".

The Spanish medievalist {{ill|Eduardo Manzano Moreno|es}} wrote that the concept of convivencia has no support in the historical record [“el concepto de convivencia no tiene ninguna apoyatura histórica“]. He further states that there is scarcely any information available on the Jewish and Christian communities during the Caliphate of Cordoba, and that this may come as a shock in view of the huge clout of the convivencia meme [“... quizá pueda resultar chocante teniendo en cuenta el enorme peso del tópico convivencial.”] According to Manzano, Castro's conception "was never converted into a specific and well-documented treatment of al-Andalus, perhaps because Castro never succeeded in finding in the Arabist bibliography materials suitable for incorporation into his interpretation.”[http://www.awraq.es/blob.aspx?idx=5&nId=96&hash=ac20943d589408c5a0a3cd2c1e0908a4], Qurtuba: Algunas reflexiones críticas sobre el califato de Córdoba y el mito de la convivencia [Qurtuba: Some Critical Reflections on the Caliphate of Cordova and the Convivencia Myth], by Eduardo Manzano Moreno, Awraq n.° 7. 2013, pp 226-246

Aaron Hughes adds that "contemporary ecumenicists appeal to the 'Golden Age' of tolerance" in the 10th and 11th centuries in Córdoba under Muslim rule, but, for the most part, they are not interested in what actually happened among the Jews, Christians, and Muslims. Rather, they mention "tolerance", a concept that "would have had little or no meaning" at that time.

{{cite book|last1=Hughes|first1=Aaron W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0K3Ia1rQCZEC|title=Abrahamic Religions: On the Uses and Abuses of History|date=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199934645|page=7|quote=[...] when contemporary ecumenicists appeal to the 'Golden Age' of tolerance witnessed in a place such as tenth- and eleventh-century Cordoba in Muslim Spain, they are rarely interested in the particulars of the interactions among these three religions 'on the ground.' On the contrary,they make appeals to categories that carry much valence in the modern world (such as 'tolerance'), but that clearly would have had little or no meaning in the time in question.|author-link1=Aaron W. Hughes|access-date=6 Jan 2019}}

{{Portal|Spain|History|Middle Ages|Islam|Christianity|Judaism}}

• Al-Andalus (Moorish-governed Iberia)
• Pablo Alvaro (a Jewish convert to Catholicism)
• Bishop Bodo (a Catholic convert to Judaism)
• Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain
• Islamic Golden Age
• Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula
• Muslim conquests

• Ariel, Yaakov: [https://ejournals.bc.edu/ojs/index.php/scjr/article/download/1588/1440 “Was there a Golden Age of Christian-Jewish Relations?”] Presentation at a Conference at Boston College, April 2010.
• Catlos, Brian. The Victors and the Vanquished • Christians and Muslims of Catalonia and Aragon, 1050–1300, 2004. {{ISBN|0-521-82234-3}}.
• Esperanza Alfonso, Islamic culture through Jewish eyes : al-Andalus from the tenth to twelfth century ; 2007, {{ISBN|978-0-415-43732-5}}.
• Fernández-Morera, Darío : "The Myth of the Andalusian Paradise" ; in: the Intercollegiate Review, Fall 2006, pp. 23–31.
• Mann, Vivian B., Glick, Thomas F., Dodds, & Jerrilynn Denise, Convivencia: Jews, Muslims, and Christians in Medieval Spain. G. Braziller, 1992. {{ISBN|0-8076-1286-3}}.
• O'Shea, Stephen. Sea of Faith: Islam and Christianity in the Medieval Mediterranean World. Walker & Company, 2006. {{ISBN|0-8027-1517-6}}.
• Pick, Lucy. Conflict and Coexistence: Archbishop Rodrigo and the Muslims and Jews of Medieval Spain. Oxbow Books, 2004. {{ISBN|0-472-11387-9}}.
• María Rosa Menocal, Ornament of the World • How Muslims, Jews, and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain, 2003. {{ISBN|0-316-56688-8}}.
• Boum, Aomar. The Performance of Convivencia: Communities of Tolerance and the Reification of Toleration. Religion Compass 6/3 (2012): 174–184, 10.1111/j.1749-8171.2012.00342.x

{{Reflist}}

• Sarah-Mae Thomas. [https://web.archive.org/web/20150316225023/http://fountainmagazine.com/Issue/detail/the-convivencia-july-2013 The Convivencia in Islamic Spain] July - August 2013
• Rageh Omaar [https://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/documentaries/features/islamic-history-europe.shtml An Islamic History of Europe.] Video documentary of 90 minutes for BBC Four, 2005.
• Catherine Bott. [http://www.fred-label.com/index.php?mode=product&id=1 Convivencia.] Music CD of Spanish and Moorish songs from the period.
• [http://proyectos.cchs.csic.es/convivencia/ Convivencia.] International research project.
• [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y7_GT2yqUAQ Cities of Light] is a 6 min video about collaboration between Spanish Jewish, Muslim and Christian scientists in 12th century Spain. It features the works of Maimonides (Jewish philosopher) and Averroes (Muslim philosopher).

{{Historiography}}{{Spain topics |collapsed}}

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Category:Religion in al-Andalus

Category:History of al-Andalus

Category:Jewish Spanish history

Category:Historiography of Spain

Category:Islam and other religions

Category:Religious pluralism