Covert operation#Domestic settings

Under US law, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) must lead covert operations unless the president finds that another agency should do so and informs Congress.{{sfn|Daugherty|2004|p=25}} The CIA's authority to conduct covert action comes from the National Security Act of 1947.{{sfn|Daugherty|2004}} President Ronald Reagan issued Executive Order 12333 titled United States Intelligence Activities in 1984. This order defined covert action as "special activities", both political and military, that the US Government could legally deny. The CIA was also designated as the sole authority under the 1991 Intelligence Authorization Act and in Title 50 of the United States Code Section 413(e).{{sfn|Daugherty|2004}}All Necessary Means: Employing CIA operatives in a Warfighting Role Alongside Special Operations Forces, Colonel Kathryn Stone, Professor Anthony R. Williams (Project Advisor), United States Army War College (USAWC), 7 April 2003, page 7 The CIA must have a "Presidential Finding" issued by the President in order to conduct these activities under the Hughes-Ryan amendment to the 1991 Intelligence Authorization Act.{{sfn|Daugherty|2004|p=25}} These findings are then monitored by the oversight committees in both the US Senate and House of Representatives.{{sfn|Daugherty|2004|p=28}} As a result of this framework, the CIA "receives more oversight from the Congress than any other agency in the federal government", according to one author.{{sfn|Daugherty|2004|p=29}} The Special Activities Division (SAD) is a division of the CIA's Directorate of Operations, responsible for Covert Action and "Special Activities". These special activities include covert political influence and paramilitary operations.

According to a 2018 study by University of Chicago political scientist Austin Carson, covert operations may have the beneficial effect of preventing escalation of disputes into full-blown wars.{{Cite book|last=Carson|first=Austin|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv346p45|title=Secret Wars: Covert Conflict in International Politics|date=2018|volume=157 |publisher=Princeton University Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctv346p45 |jstor=j.ctv346p45|isbn=978-0-691-20412-3 }} He argues that keeping military operations secret can limit escalation dynamics, as well as insulate leaders from domestic pressures while simultaneously allowing them communicating their interest to the adversary in keeping a war contained. He finds that covert operations are frequently detected by other major powers.

A 2024 study found that state denials of covert actions, even when the covert actions were obvious, could have a de-escalatory effect (compared to making the covert action public).{{Cite journal |last1=Bloch |first1=Chase |last2=McManus |first2=Roseanne W. |date=2024 |title=Denying the Obvious: Why Do Nominally Covert Actions Avoid Escalation? |journal=International Organization |volume=78 |issue=3 |pages=600–624 |language=en |doi=10.1017/S0020818324000183 |issn=0020-8183|doi-access=free }}

To go "undercover" (that is, to go on an undercover operation) is to avoid detection by the object of one's observation, and especially to disguise one's own identity (or use an assumed identity) for the purposes of gaining the trust of an individual or organization in order to learn or confirm confidential information, or to gain the trust of targeted individuals to gather information or evidence. Undercover operations are traditionally employed by law enforcement agencies and private investigators; those in such roles are commonly referred to as undercover agents.

{{Redirect|Black ops|other uses|Black Ops (disambiguation){{!}}Black Ops}}

A black operation or "black ops" is a covert or clandestine operation by a government agency, a military unit or a paramilitary organization in which the operation itself is at least partially hidden from the organization or government's own scrutiny.{{cite book|last=Smith|first=W. Thomas Jr.|title=Encyclopedia of the Central Intelligence Agency|year=2003|publisher=Facts on File, Inc.|location=New York|isbn=0-8160-4666-2|page=31}} For example, in the United States, some activities by military and intelligence agencies are funded by a classified "black budget", of which the details, and sometimes even the total, are hidden from the public and from most congressional oversight.{{cite news|url=http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/06_09/c3973050.htm|title=Dirty Secrets Of The "Black Budget"|date=February 27, 2006|work=Business Week|access-date=June 12, 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111231103203/http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/06_09/c3973050.htm|archive-date=December 31, 2011|df=mdy-all}}{{cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/dangerroom/2010/02/pentagons-black-budget-tops-56-billion/|title=Pentagon's Black Budget Tops $56 Billion|last=Shachtman|first=Noah|date=February 1, 2010|magazine=Wired|access-date=June 12, 2012}}

A single such activity may be called a black bag operation; that term is primarily used for surreptitious entries into structures to obtain information for human intelligence operations.{{cite news|url=http://intelnews.org/2008/12/16/04-11/|title=Tallinn government surveillance cameras reveal black bag operation|date=December 16, 2008|work=Intelnews|access-date=3 December 2012}} Such operations have been carried out by the FBI,{{cite news|url=https://abcnews.go.com/blogs/headlines/2007/06/as_part_of_its_/|title=FBI to Boost 'Black Bag' Search Ops|last=Rood|first=Justin|date=June 15, 2007|work=ABC News|access-date=3 December 2012}} CIA,{{cite web|url=http://www.matthewaid.com/post/32043919336/the-cia-code-thief-who-came-in-from-the-cold|title=The CIA Code Thief Who Came in from the Cold|work=matthewald.com|access-date=3 December 2012}} NSA, KGB, Stasi, Mossad, MI6, MI5, ASIS, COMANF, DGSE, AISE, CNI, MSS, VAJA, R&AW, UDU, SVR, FSB, GRU, ISI, BND, BIN and the intelligence services of other states.

Law enforcement has carried out undercover work in a variety of ways throughout the course of history, but Eugène François Vidocq (1775–1857) developed the first organized (though informal) undercover program in France in the early 19th century, from the late First Empire through most of the Bourbon Restoration period of 1814 to 1830. At the end of 1811 Vidocq set up an informal plainclothes unit, the Brigade de la Sûreté ("Security Brigade"), which was later converted to a security police unit under the Prefecture of Police. The Sûreté initially had eight, then twelve, and, in 1823, twenty employees. One year later, it expanded again, to 28 secret agents. In addition, there were eight people who worked secretly for the Sûreté, but instead of a salary, they received licences for gambling halls. A major portion of Vidocq's subordinates comprised ex-criminals like himself.{{cite book|last= Hodgetts|first= Edward A.|title= Vidocq. A Master of Crime|year= 1928|publisher= Selwyn & Blount|location= London}}

Vidocq personally trained his agents, for example, in selecting the correct disguise based on the kind of job. He himself went out hunting for criminals too. His memoirs are full of stories about how he outsmarted crooks by pretending to be a beggar or an old cuckold. At one point, he even simulated his own death.{{citation|surname1= Morton, James|title= The First Detective: The Life and Revolutionary Times of Vidocq |publisher= Ebury Press|isbn= 978-0-09-190337-4|language= de|year= 2004 }}

In England, the first modern police force was established in 1829 by Sir Robert Peel as the Metropolitan Police of London. From the start, the force occasionally employed plainclothes undercover detectives, but there was much public anxiety that its powers were being used for the purpose of political repression. In part due to these concerns, the 1845 official Police Orders required all undercover operations to be specifically authorized by the superintendent. It was only in 1869 that Police commissioner Edmund Henderson established a formal plainclothes detective division.{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=wIf5w6BJOmQC|title= Historical Dictionary of Law Enforcement|author= Mitchel P. Roth, James Stuart Olson|year= 2001|publisher= Greenwood Publishing Group|page= 271|isbn= 978-0-313-30560-3}}

File:Special Irish Branch.jpg detectives on an undercover operation at the London Docks, 1911]]

The first Special Branch of police was the Special Irish Branch, formed as a section of the Criminal Investigation Department of the MPS in London in 1883, initially to combat the bombing campaign that the Irish Republican Brotherhood had begun a few years earlier. This pioneering branch became the first to receive training in counter-terrorism techniques.

Its name was changed to Special Branch as it had its remit gradually expanded to incorporate a general role in counter terrorism, combating foreign subversion and infiltrating organized crime. Law enforcement agencies elsewhere established similar Branches.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1fqAZzIDlgYC|title=Dictionary of Policing|author1=Tim Newburn|author1-link = Tim Newburn|author2=Peter Neyroud|author2-link = Peter Neyroud|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|page=262|isbn=978-1-134-01155-1}}

In the United States, a similar route was taken when the New York City Police Department under police commissioner William McAdoo established the Italian Squad in 1906 to combat rampant crime and intimidation in the poor Italian neighborhoods.{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=OB0wOgBbHHkC|title= Italian Americans in Law Enforcement|author= Anne T. Romano|year= 2010|publisher= Xlibris Corporation|page= 33|isbn= 978-1-4535-5882-9}}{{Self-published inline|certain= yes|date= January 2018}} Various federal agencies began their own undercover programs shortly afterwards – Charles Joseph Bonaparte founded the Bureau of Investigation, the forerunner of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, in 1908.Marx, G. (1988). Undercover: Police Surveillance in America. Berkeley: University of California Press{{cite book|author=Anne T. Romano|title=Italian Americans in Law Enforcement|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=OB0wOgBbHHkC&pg=PA33|access-date= 30 August 2013|date= 11 November 2010|publisher= Xlibris Corporation|isbn= 978-1-4535-5882-9|pages= 33–}}

Secret police forces in the Eastern Bloc also used undercover operatives.

{{cite book

| last1 = Shelley

| first1 = Louise

| author-link1 = Louise Shelley

| chapter = Soviet Undercover Work

| editor1-last = Fijnaut

| editor1-first = Cyrille

| editor2-last = Marx

| editor2-first = Gary T.

| editor2-link = Gary T. Marx

| title = Undercover: Police Surveillance in Comparative Perspective

| date = 12 October 1995

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=TcUkI8A6QW0C

| location = The Hague

| publisher = Martinus Nijhoff Publishers

| publication-date = 1995

| page = 166

| isbn = 9789041100153

| access-date = 3 December 2020

| quote = For most of the Soviet period, the undercover work of the secret police was directed at [...] potential enemies of the state. Particularly in the Stalinist period, a vast network of informers existed throughout the country [...]. Although approximately one out of ten individuals were acknowledged informers, most of the population was compromised in some way through their cooperation with the secret police.

}}

{{Clear}}

Undercover agents may engage in criminal activities as part of their investigation. Joh defined the term authorized criminality to describe this phenomenon, which she restricts primarily to undercover law enforcement officers, excluding confidential informants.{{sfn|Joh|2009|p=157}} These criminal activities are primarily used to "provide opportunities for the suspect to engage in the target crime" and to maintain or bolster their cover identity. However, these crimes must be necessary to advance the investigation otherwise they may be prosecutable like any other crime.{{sfn|Joh|2009|p=165}} The FBI requires that such activities must be sanctioned and necessary for the investigation; they also stipulate that agents may not instigate criminal activity (to avoid entrapment) or participate in violence except for self-defense or the defense of others.{{Bluebook journal | last=Op. Atty' Gen. | title=The Attorney General’S Guidelines on Federal Bureau of Investigation Undercover Operations | pin=12 | url=https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/ag/legacy/2013/09/24/undercover-fbi-operations.pdf | year=2002}} Most other legislation surrounding authorized criminality is not uniform and is a patchwork of federal and state laws.{{sfn|Joh|2009|p=168}}

There are two principal problems that can affect agents working in undercover roles. The first is the maintenance of identity and the second is the reintegration back into normal duty.

Living a double life in a new environment presents many problems. Undercover work is one of the most stressful jobs a special agent can undertake.Girodo, M. (1991). Symptomatic reactions to undercover work. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 179 (10), 626–630. The largest cause of stress identified is the separation of an agent from friends, family and his normal environment. This simple isolation can lead to depression and anxiety. There is no data on the divorce rates of agents, but strain on relationships does occur. This can be a result of a need for secrecy and an inability to share work problems, and the unpredictable work schedule, personality and lifestyle changes and the length of separation can all result in problems for relationships.Marx, G. (1988). Undercover: Police Surveillance in America. Berkeley: University of California Press

Stress can also result from an apparent lack of direction of the investigation or not knowing when it will end. The amount of elaborate planning, risk, and expenditure can pressure an agent to succeed, which can cause considerable stress.Marx, G. (1988). Undercover: Police Surveillance in America. Berkeley: University of California Press. The stress that an undercover agent faces is considerably different from his counterparts on regular duties, whose main source of stress is the administration and the bureaucracy.{{cite journal

|title= Sources of occupational stress in the police

|first1= Jennifer

|last1= Brown

|first2= Elizabeth

|last2= Campbell

|date=October 1990

|volume=4

|issue=4

|pages=305–318

|doi= 10.1080/02678379008256993

|journal= Work & Stress

}} As the undercover agents are removed from the bureaucracy, it may result in another problem. The lack of the usual controls of a uniform, badge, constant supervision, a fixed place of work, or (often) a set assignment could, combined with their continual contact with the organized crime, increase the likelihood for corruption.

This stress may be instrumental in the development of drug or alcohol abuse in some agents. They are more prone to the development of an addiction as they suffer greater stress than other police, they are isolated, and drugs are often very accessible. Police, in general, have very high alcoholism rates compared to most occupational groups, and stress is cited as a likely factor. The environment that agents work in often involves a very liberal exposure to the consumption of alcohol,Girodo, M. (1991). Drug corruptions in undercover agents: Measuring the risks. Behavioural Science and the Law, 9, 361–370. which in conjunction with the stress and isolation could result in alcoholism.

There can be some guilt associated with going undercover due to betraying those who have come to trust the officer. This can cause anxiety or even, in very rare cases, sympathy with those being targeted. This is especially true with the infiltration of political groups, as often the agent will share similar characteristics with those they are infiltrating like class, age, ethnicity or religion. This could even result in the conversion of some agents.

The lifestyle led by undercover agents is very different compared to other areas in law enforcement, and it can be quite difficult to reintegrate back into normal duties. Agents work their own hours, they are removed from direct supervisory monitoring, and they can ignore the dress and etiquette rules.Girodo, M. (1991). Personality, job stress, and mental health in undercover agents. Journal of Social Behaviour and Personality, 6 (7), 375–390. So resettling back into the normal police role requires the shedding of old habits, language and dress. After working such free lifestyles, agents may have discipline problems or exhibit neurotic responses. They may feel uncomfortable, and take a cynical, suspicious or even paranoid world view and feel continually on guard.

Other risks include capture, death and torture.

{{Distinguish|Plain dress}}

Undercover agents should not be confused with law enforcement officers who wear plainclothes{{mdash}}that is, to wear civilian clothing, instead of wearing a uniform, to avoid detection or identification as a law enforcement officer. However, plainclothes police officers typically carry normal police equipment and normal identification. Police detectives are assigned to wear plainclothes by not wearing the uniform typically worn by their peers. Police officers in plainclothes must identify themselves when using their police powers; however, they are not always required to identify themselves on demand and may lie about their status as a police officer in some situations (see sting operation).

Sometimes, police might drive an unmarked vehicle or a vehicle which looks like a taxi.{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gs4T19m8a18 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/gs4T19m8a18 |archive-date=2021-12-21 |url-status=live |title=Unmarked Police Cars Responding Compilation: Sirens NYPD Police Taxi, Federal Law Enforcement, FDNY |last=Code3Paris |date=24 July 2017 |via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}

• In May 2007, ABC News, and later The Daily Telegraph, reported that United States president George W. Bush had authorized the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to undertake "black operations" in Iran in order to promote regime change as well as to sabotage Iran's nuclear program.{{cite news|url=https://abcnews.go.com/blogs/headlines/2007/05/bush_authorizes/|title=Bush Authorizes New Covert Action Against Iran|last=Ross|first=Brian|author2=Esposito, Richard|date=May 22, 2007|work=ABC News|access-date=June 7, 2012}}{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1552784/Bush-sanctions-black-ops-against-Iran.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1552784/Bush-sanctions-black-ops-against-Iran.html |archive-date=January 12, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Bush sanctions 'black ops' against Iran|last=Shipman|first=Tim|date=May 27, 2007|work=The Daily Telegraph|access-date=June 7, 2012}}{{cbignore}} ABC News was subsequently criticized for reporting the secret operation, with 2008 presidential candidate Mitt Romney saying he was "shocked to see the ABC News report regarding covert action in Iran", but ABC said the CIA and the George W. Bush administration knew of their plans to publish the information and raised no objections.{{cite news|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/abc-news-comes-under-fire-for-iran-report/ |title=ABC News Comes Under Fire For Iran Report |last=Montopoli |first=Brian |date=May 23, 2007 |work=CBS News |access-date=January 26, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110218002320/http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-500486_162-2842625-500486.html |archive-date=February 18, 2011 }}
• In June the same year, the CIA declassified secret records—part of a collection of highly guarded documents called the "Family Jewels"—detailing illegal domestic surveillance, assassination plots, kidnapping, and other "black" operations undertaken by the CIA from the 1950s to the early 1970s. CIA Director General Michael Hayden explained why he released the documents, saying that they provided a "glimpse of a very different time and a very different agency".{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/jun/22/usa.simontisdall|title=CIA to release cold war 'black files'|last=Tisdall |first=Simon|date=June 22, 2007|work=The Guardian|access-date=June 7, 2012}}

{{div col|colwidth=22em}}

• America Undercover, television series
• Black project
• Bob Lambert, undercover police officer
• Central Intelligence Agency
• Church Committee
• Counterintelligence
• Counterintelligence Field Activity
• Cover (intelligence gathering)
• Covert policing in the United Kingdom
• Covert Warfare
• Detective
• Donnie Brasco, undercover federal agent
• Espionage
• Federal Bureau of Investigation
• Filibuster (military)
• HUMINT (clandestine (operational techniques))
• Manhunt (military)
• MI5
• Military intelligence
• Operation Cyclone
• Paul Manning, undercover police officer
• Secret identity
• SO10
• Special agent
• Spy fiction
• Spy film
• Task Force Falcon
• Vice squad

{{div col end}}

{{reflist}}

• {{cite book|first=William J.|last=Daugherty|title=Executive Secrets: Covert Action and the Presidency|publisher=University of Kentucky Press|year=2004}}
• {{cite journal

|last=Joh

|first=Elizabeth

|date=2009

|title=Breaking The Law To Enforce It: Undercover Police Participation in Crime

|journal=Stanford Law Review

|url=https://www.stanfordlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2010/03/Joh.pdf

}}

• [https://fas.org/sgp/crs/intel/m011806.pdf Statutory Procedures Under Which Congress Is To Be Informed of U.S. Intelligence Activities, Including Covert Actions by Alfred Cumming, 18 January 2006 (HTML)] – Congressional Research Service
• {{cite book|title=Confessions of an Undercover Cop|author=Channel 4|date=2011|url=http://www.filmsforaction.org/watch/confessions-of-an-undercover-cop-2011/}} Documentary about Mark Kennedy (policeman).
• {{cite news|title=Mark Kennedy: Confessions of an undercover cop |

work=The Guardian|author= Hattenstone, Simon|date= 25 March 2011|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/mar/26/mark-kennedy-undercover-cop-environmental-activist}}

• {{cite news|author1=Jeans, Chris (Director and Producer) |author2=Russell, Mike (Narrator)|title=Confessions of an Undercover Cop|work=America Undercover|date=1988|url=https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/463502/confessions-of-an-undercover-cop|publisher=HBO}} Documentary featuring the work of ex-cop Mike Russell, whose undercover work for the New Jersey State Police led to the arrests of over 41 members of the Genovese crime family, and of corrupt prison officials and a state senator
• Johnson, Loch K. The third option: covert action and American foreign policy (Oxford University Press, 2022).
• {{cite book|title=Undercover Cop: How I Brought Down the Real-Life Sopranos |author1=Russell, Mike |author2= Picciarelli, Patrick W.|publisher= Thomas Dunne Books |date= 6 August 2013|isbn=978-1-250-00587-8|edition=First}}
• {{cite book|title=The Decoy Man: The Extraordinary Adventures of an Undercover Cop|author= Whited, Charles|publisher= Playboy Press/Simon & Schuster|date= 1973|asin=B0006CA0QG|author-link= Charles Whited}}

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20090116203108/http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/feb/raw.htm RAW and Bangladesh]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20080908051027/http://thewall.civiblog.org/rsf/hershstmt12006.html Richard Hersh Statement to House Judiciary Democratic Congressional Briefing], 20 January 2006 (HTML) via thewall.civiblog.org
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20080908050045/http://thewall.civiblog.org/rsf/nsabrieftranscript12006.html Full Transcript, House Judiciary Democratic Membership Briefing "Constitution in Crisis: Domestic Surveillance and Executive Power"] 20 January 2006 (HTML) via thewall.civiblog.org
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20070707201837/http://thewall.civiblog.org/rsf/big_brother_talons_on_you.html "Big Brother is Watching You Part 1 – 902 MI Group TALON Project Summary, Spreadsheet, Rep. Wexler response, and News Coverage collection] (includes Shane Harris's "TIA Lives On") via thewall.civiblog.org
• [https://archive.today/20110724191036/http://snoc.shacknet.nu/ Steath Network Operations Centre] – Covert Communication Support System

{{DEFAULTSORT:Covert operation}}

Category:Military intelligence collection

Category:Intelligence operations by type

Category:Covert organizations

Category:Secrecy

Category:Law enforcement terminology

Category:Spies by role

Category:Passing (sociology)