Cowrie#Ritual use

{{Paraphyletic group

| auto = yes

| name = Cowrie
Cowry

| image = Cypraea caputserpentis.jpg

| image_caption = Cowries are generally seen on rocky areas of the sea bed.

| parent = Cypraeidae

}}

File:Cypraea chinensis with fully extended mantle.jpg) with fully extended mantle]]

File:Different cowries.jpg

Cowrie or cowry ({{plural form|cowries}}) is the common name for a group of small to large sea snails in the family Cypraeidae.

Cowrie shells have held cultural, economic, and ornamental significance in various cultures. The cowrie was the shell most widely used worldwide as shell money. It is most abundant in the Indian Ocean, and was collected in the Maldive Islands, in Sri Lanka, along the Indian Malabar coast, in Borneo and on other East Indian islands, in Maluku in the Pacific, and in various parts of the African coast from Ras Hafun, in Somalia, to Mozambique. Cowrie shell money was important in the trade networks of Africa, South Asia, and East Asia.

In the United States and Mexico, cowrie species inhabit the waters off Central California to Baja California (the chestnut cowrie is the only cowrie species native to the eastern Pacific Ocean off the coast of the United States; further south, off the coast of Mexico, Central America and Peru, Little Deer Cowrie habitat can be found; and further into the Pacific from Central America, the Pacific habitat range of Money Cowrie can be reached {{Cite journal|last1=Koerper |first1=Henry C. |last2=Whitney-Desautels |first2=Nancy |url=http://www.pcas.org/vol35n23/3523koerper2.pdf|date=1999|title=A Cowry Shell Artifact from Bolsa Chica : An Example of Prehistoric Exchange|journal=Pacific Coast Archaeological Society Quarterly|volume=35|issue=2 & 3|pages=|access-date=10 August 2022}}) as well as the waters south of the Southeastern United States.{{cite web |author=The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia| url=https://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/ecology/animals/invertebrates/cowrie | title=Cowrie |publisher= Columbia University Press|website=Infoplease.com}}

Some species in the family Ovulidae are also often referred to as cowries. In the British Isles the local Trivia species (family Triviidae, species Trivia monacha and Trivia arctica) are sometimes called cowries. The Ovulidae and the Triviidae are other families within Cypraeoidea, the superfamily of cowries and their close relatives.

Etymology

The word cowrie comes from Hindi {{Lang|hi|कौडि}} ({{Transliteration|hi|kaudi}}), which is itself derived from Sanskrit {{Lang|sa|कपर्द}} ({{Transliteration|sa|kaparda}}).{{cite web

| title = Cowri

| website= Dictionary.com

| url = http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/cowrie

| access-date = 25 September 2013}}{{Cite book |url=https://www.oed.com/dictionary/cowrie_n?tab=etymology |title=Oxford English Dictionary |date=July 2023 |publisher=Oxford University Press |at=cowrie (n.), Etymology |doi=10.1093/OED/4018863654}}

The term porcelain derives from the old Italian term for the cowrie shell ({{Lang|it|porcellana}}) due to their similar appearance.{{Cite web|url=https://www.oed.com/start;jsessionid=4BEE04619E2BE3897A1C9666D83E7F96?authRejection=true&url=%2Fview%2FEntry%2F147941%3FredirectedFrom%3Dporcelain|title=Home : Oxford English Dictionary|website=Oed.com|access-date=10 August 2022|archive-date=10 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220810185817/https://www.oed.com/start;jsessionid=4BEE04619E2BE3897A1C9666D83E7F96?authRejection=true&url=%2Fview%2FEntry%2F147941%3FredirectedFrom%3Dporcelain|url-status=dead}}

Shell description

File:Cypraea-moneta-001.jpg]]

File:Cowrie shells.jpg

The shells of cowries are usually smooth and shiny and more or less egg-shaped. The round side of the shell is called the Dorsal Face, whereas the flat under side is called the Ventral Face, which shows a long, narrow, slit-like opening (aperture), which is often toothed at the edges. The narrower end of the egg-shaped cowrie shell is the anterior end, and the broader end of the shell is called the posterior. The spire of the shell is not visible in the adult shell of most species, but is visible in juveniles, which have a different shape from the adults.

Nearly all cowries have a porcelain-like shine, with some exceptions such as Hawaii's granulated cowrie, Nucleolaria granulata. Many have colorful patterns. Lengths range from {{Convert|5|mm|abbr=on|sigfig=1}} for some species up to {{Convert|19|cm|abbr=on}} for the Atlantic deer cowrie, Macrocypraea cervus.

Human use

=Monetary use=

Cowrie shells, especially Monetaria moneta, were used for centuries as currency by native Africans. (The money cowrie was almost impossible to counterfeit until the late 19th Century.{{cite book |last1=Hogendorn |first1=Jan |url=https://www.cambridge.org/jp/universitypress/subjects/history/regional-history-after-1500/shell-money-slave-trade?format=PB&isbn=9780521541107 |title=The Shell Money of the Slave Trade | Regional history after 1500 |last2=Johnson |first2=Marion |date=September 2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521541107 |series=African Studies Series 49}}) Starting over three thousand years ago, cowrie shells, or copies of the shells, were used as Chinese currency.[http://www.cowry.org/archive/NSN306CY.HTM#C "Money Cowries"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090405172236/http://www.cowry.org/archive/NSN306CY.HTM#C|date=2009-04-05}} by Ardis Doolin in Hawaiian Shell News, NSN #306, June 1985 They were also used as means of exchange in India.

The Classical Chinese character for money (貝) originated as a stylized drawing of a Maldivian cowrie shell.{{Cite book |author=Xu Shen |author-link=Xu Shen |url=http://zhongwen.com/cgi-bin/zipux2.cgi?b5=%A8%A9 |title=cgi-bin/zipux2.cgi?b5=%A8%A9 |publisher=Dover Publications |publication-place=Yale press |translator=L.Davrout |contribution=Shuowen Jiezi |format=zhongwen.com |access-date=2012-05-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225100252/http://zhongwen.com/cgi-bin/zipux2.cgi?b5=%A8%A9 |archive-date=2021-02-25 |url-status=dead}}{{Cite journal |last=Bertsch |first=Wolfgang |date=Autumn 2000 |title=The Use of Maldivian Cowries as Money According to an 18th Century Portuguese Dictionary on World Currencies |url=https://www.orientalnumismaticsociety.org/archive/ONS_165.pdf |journal=Oriental Numismatic Society Newsletter |volume=165 |pages=18 |via=Oriental Numismatic Society Archive}} Words and characters concerning money, property or wealth usually have this as a radical. Before the Spring and Autumn period the cowrie was used as a type of trade token awarding access to a feudal lord's resources to a worthy vassal.{{citation needed|date=August 2014}}

After the 1500s, the shell's use as currency became even more common. Western nations, chiefly through the slave trade, introduced huge numbers of Maldivian cowries in Africa.{{cite journal|author1=Janice E. Weaver|location=Drake University|title=Jan Hogendorn and Marion Johnson. The Shell Money of the Slave Trade. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/african-studies-review/article/abs/jan-hogendorn-and-marion-johnson-the-shell-money-of-the-slave-trade-cambridge-cambridge-university-press-1986/4A5EC59DD8F214A81F5655182D06149A|date=September 1988|journal=African Studies Review|volume=31 |issue=2|publisher=African Studies Association, Cambridge University Press |publication-date=23 May 2014|doi=10.2307/524433|jstor=524433 |access-date=29 April 2015 |url-access=subscription}} In parts of British West Africa, cowries remained accepted for tax payments until the early 20th centuries, and their use as currency in unregulated environments persisted until the 1960s.{{cite book |author=Eric Helleiner |title=The Making of National Money: Territorial Currencies in Historical Perspective |location=Ithaca and London |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=2003}}{{rp|172, 208}} The national currency of Ghana introduced in 1965, the cedi, was named after cowrie shells.

=Ritual use=

Cowrie shells are used in divination amongst the Yoruba people of West Africa (cf. Ifá and the annual customs of Dahomey of Benin).

The indigenous Ojibwe people of North America use cowrie shells which are called miigis shells or whiteshells in Midewiwin ceremonies, and the Whiteshell Provincial Park in Manitoba, Canada is named after this type of shell.{{cite book|title=Truth and Reconciliation in Canadian Schools|author=Pamela Rose Toulouse|publisher=Portage & Main Press|year=2018|page=65|isbn=9781553797463}} There is some debate{{By whom|date=April 2025}} about how the Ojibwe traded for or found these shells, so far inland and so far north, very distant from the natural habitat. Oral stories and birch bark scrolls seem to indicate that the shells were found in the ground, or washed up on the shores of lakes or rivers. Finding the cowrie shells so far inland could indicate the previous use of them by an earlier group in the area, who may have obtained them through an extensive trade network in the past.{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}}

In Eastern India, particularly in West Bengal, it is given as a token price for the ferry ride of the departed soul to cross the river "Vaitarani". Cowries are used during cremation. Cowries are also used in the worship of Goddess Laxmi.

In Brazil, as a result of the Atlantic slave trade from Africa, cowrie shells (called búzios) are also used to consult the Orixás divinities and hear their replies.

Cowrie shells were among the devices used for divination by the Kaniyar Panicker astrologers of Kerala, India.{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D27KRLsFNnAC&pg=PA254 |first=T. K. Gopal |last=Panikkar |title=Malabar and its folk |page=257 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=1995 |orig-year=1900 |edition=2nd reprinted |isbn=978-81-206-0170-3}}

In certain parts of Africa, cowries were prized charms, and they were said to be associated with fecundity, sexual pleasure and good luck.{{cite book|last1=Tresidder|first1=Jack|title=The Hutchinson Dictionary of Symbols|date=1997|publisher=Helicon|location=London|isbn=1-85986-059-1|page=53}} It is also used in the treatment of certain diseases such as rashes and ringworm when it is burnt into ashes.{{Cite journal |last1=Ameade |first1=Evans Paul Kwame |last2=Dayah |first2=Barnabas |last3=Kouame |first3=Lovis Nsoua Abina |last4=Edmond |first4=Saavielung Yaganomo |last5=Abraham |first5=Bodong |last6=James |first6=Balansuah Bayuo |last7=Stephen |first7=Gmawurim |last8=Abagna |first8=Linda Adobagna |last9=Adom |first9=Emmanuel |date=2023-05-19 |title=Current Uses of Cowries in Traditional Medicine After their Disuse as Currency-A Cross-Sectional Study in Ghana |url=https://crimsonpublishers.com/index.php |journal=Advances in Complementary & Alternative Medicine |language=English |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=727–732}}

In Pre-dynastic Egypt and Neolithic Southern Levant, cowrie shells were placed in the graves of young girls.{{Cite journal |last=Golani |first=Amir |date=2014 |title=Cowrie Shells and their Imitations as Ornamental Amulets in Egypt and the Near East |url=https://www.academia.edu/10613327 |journal=Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranea |pages=71–94}} The modified Levantine cowries were discovered ritually arranged around the skull in female burials. During the Bronze Age, cowries became more common as funerary goods, also associated with burials of women and children.Kovács 2008: 17 The cowroid was an Egyptian seal-amulet imitating the cowrie shell. Their imitations in stone or faience appear in the early 2nd millennium B.C.

=Jewelry=

File:Шейное украшение чувашской девушки. XIX в. Чуваши низовой группы.jpg necklace made from silver coins, cowrie shells, and beads]]

Cowrie shells are also worn as jewelry or otherwise used as ornaments or charms. In Mende culture, cowrie shells are viewed as symbols of womanhood, fertility, birth and wealth.[https://archive.org/details/radiancefromwate00boon/page/219 Radiance from the Waters: Ideals of Feminine Beauty in Mende Art] by Sylvia Ardyn Boone. Yale University Press, 1986. Its underside is supposed, by one modern ethnographic author, to represent a vulva or an eye.{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/pss/1257370 | jstor=1257370 | title=Cowrie Shells as Amulets in Europe | last1=Hildburgh | first1=W. L. | journal=Folklore | date=1942 | volume=53 | issue=4 | pages=178–195 | doi=10.1080/0015587X.1942.9717654 | url-access=subscription }}

On the Fiji Islands, a shell of the golden cowrie or bulikula, Cypraea aurantium, was drilled at the ends and worn on a string around the neck by chieftains as a badge of rank.[https://web.archive.org/web/20080324021830/http://www.stampsfiji.com/fijian.htm Cowries as a badge of rank in Fiji.] (archived) The women of Tuvalu use cowrie and other shells in traditional handicrafts.{{cite web| last =Tiraa-Passfield | first = Anna |title= The uses of shells in traditional Tuvaluan handicrafts| publisher= SPC Traditional Marine Resource Management and Knowledge Information Bulletin #7|date = September 1996|url= http://www.spc.int/DigitalLibrary/Doc/FAME/InfoBull/TRAD/7/TRAD7_02_Tiraa.pdf| access-date=8 February 2014}}

=Games and gambling=

Cowrie shells are sometimes used in a way similar to dice, e.g., in board games like Pachisi and Ashta Chamma. A number of shells (6 or 7 in Pachisi) are thrown, with those landing aperture upwards indicating the actual number rolled.{{citation needed|date=August 2014}}

In Nepal cowries are used for a gambling game, where 16 pieces of cowries are tossed by four different bettors (and sub-bettors under them). This game is usually played at homes and in public during the Hindu festival of Tihar{{cite web |title=Tihar |url=http://www.yetitrailadventure.com/nepal/tihar.html |website=Yeti Trial Adventure|access-date=22 October 2014}} or Deepawali. In the same festival these shells are also worshiped as a symbol of Goddess Lakshmi and wealth.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}}

=Other=

Large cowrie shells such as that of a Cypraea tigris have been used in Europe in the recent past as a darning egg over which sock heels were stretched. The cowrie's smooth surface allows the needle to be positioned under the cloth more easily. {{citation needed|date=August 2014}}

In the 1940s and 1950s, small cowry shells were used as a teaching aid in infant schools e.g counting, adding, subtracting.

File:A print from 1845 shows cowry shells being used as money by an Arab trader.jpg|Print from 1845 shows cowrie shells being used as money by an Arab trader.

File:Antiquities of the southern Indians, particularly of the Georgia tribes (1873) (14777393065).jpg|Antiquities of Native Americans, particularly of the Georgia tribes (1873)

File:Cowrie shells - sozhi roll of 3.jpg|Cowrie shells used as dice, showing a roll of 3

References

External links

{{commonscat-inline}}
[https://web.archive.org/web/20090414110124/http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/cowries/ Cowrie Genomic Database Project]
[https://web.archive.org/web/20060527111331/http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/classification/path/Cypraea.html#Cypraea Genus Cypraea on Animal Diversity Web]
[http://www.cowry.org/ cowry.org – studying Hawaii's cowries]
[http://www.beautifulcowries.net Beautifulcowries] – a gallery of images of cowries
{{Cite Collier's|wstitle=Cowry|year=1921 |short=x}}
{{Cite Americana|wstitle=Cowry|year=1920 |short=x}}
"miigis" at Wiktionary

Category:Cypraeidae

Category:Mollusc common names