Cryptoeconomics

Cryptoeconomics is an evolving economic paradigm for a cross-disciplinary approach to the study of digital economies and decentralized finance (DeFi) applications.{{Cite web |title=MIT Cryptoeconomics Lab |url=https://mitsloan.mit.edu/cryptoeconomics-lab/welcome-mit-cryptoeconomics-lab |access-date=2022-08-07 |website=MIT Sloan |language=en |archive-date=2022-06-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220622202204/https://mitsloan.mit.edu/cryptoeconomics-lab/welcome-mit-cryptoeconomics-lab |url-status=dead }}{{Cite web |title=Cryptoeconomics - Wikiversity |url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Cryptoeconomics |access-date=2022-08-07 |website=en.wikiversity.org |language=en}}{{cite journal |last1=Brekke |first1=Jaya Klara |title=Hacker-engineers and Their Economies: The Political Economy of Decentralised Networks and ‘Cryptoeconomics’ |journal=New Political Economy |date=2021 |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=646–659 |doi=10.1080/13563467.2020.1806223}} Cryptoeconomics integrates concepts and principles from traditional economics, cryptography, computer science, and game theory disciplines.{{Cite book |last1=Berg |first1=Chris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ok6rDwAAQBAJ&dq=cryptoeconomics&pg=PT9 |title=Understanding the Blockchain Economy: An Introduction to Institutional Cryptoeconomics |last2=Davidson |first2=Sinclair |last3=Potts |first3=Jason |date=2019 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |isbn=978-1-78897-500-1 |language=en}} Just as traditional economics provides a theoretical foundation for traditional financial (a.k.a., Centralized Finance or CeFi) services, cryptoeconomics provides a theoretical foundation for DeFi services bought and sold via fiat cryptocurrencies, and executed by smart contracts.

Definitions and goals

The term cryptoeconomics was coined by the Ethereum community during its formative years (2014-2015),{{Cite journal |last1=Brekke |first1=Jaya |last2=Alsindi |first2=Wassim |date=2021 |title=Cryptoeconomics |journal=Internet Policy Review |volume=10 |issue=2 |doi=10.14763/2021.2.1553 |s2cid=242297787 |url=https://policyreview.info/glossary/cryptoeconomics |language=en|doi-access=free }} but was initially inspired by the application of economic incentives in the original Bitcoin protocol in 2008.{{Cite web |last=Nakamoto |first=S. |date=2008 |title=Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System |url=https://bitcoin.org/bitcoin.pdf |url-status= |website=Bitcoin.org}} Although the phrase is typically attributed to Vitalik Buterin, the earliest public documented usage is a 2015 talk by Vlad Zamfir entitled “What is Cryptoeconomics?”{{Citation |title=What Is Cryptoeconomics? |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9lw3s7iGUXQ |language=en |access-date=2022-08-06}} Zamfir's view of cryptoeconomics is relatively broad and academic: “… a formal discipline that studies protocols that govern the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services in a decentralized digital economy. Cryptoeconomics is a practical science that focuses on the design and characterization of these protocols”. Alternatively, in a 2017 talk, Buterin's view is more narrow and pragmatic: “… a methodology for building systems that try to guarantee certain kinds of information security properties”.{{Citation |title=Introduction to Cryptoeconomics - Vitalik Buterin |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pKqdjaH1dRo |language=en |access-date=2022-08-06}}

Cryptoeconomics may be considered an evolution of digital economics, which in turn evolved from traditional economics (commonly divided into microeconomics and macroeconomics). Consequently, traditional economic concepts regarding production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services also apply to cryptoeconomics. For example, these include Adam Smith's three basic laws of economics: Law of Supply and Demand, Law of Self Interest, and Law of Competition.{{Cite web |title=Who Was Adam Smith? |url=https://www.investopedia.com/updates/adam-smith-economics/ |access-date=2022-08-05 |website=Investopedia |language=en}} They also include more modern economic concepts, such as fiat money theory and Modern Monetary Theory.

History

The intellectual and historical roots of cryptoeconomics lie in the political ideology of crypto-anarchy.{{cite journal |last1=Nabben |first1=Kelsie |title=Cryptoeconomics as governance: an intellectual history from “Crypto Anarchy” to “Cryptoeconomics” |journal=Internet Histories |date=2023 |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=254–276 |doi=10.1080/24701475.2023.2183643 |doi-access=free}}

The rise of altcoins, particularly the Ethereum project, marked a significant milestone in cryptoeconomics. In 2015, Ethereum pioneered the integration of smart contracts into its blockchain, enabling a wide range of DeFi applications.{{Citation needed|date=December 2022}}

Subdisciplines

Similar to how traditional economics is divided into macroeconomics (regional, national, and international economics) and microeconomics (individual and enterprise economics) subdisciplines, cryptoeconomics can be divided into crypto-macreconomics and crypto-microeconomics subdisciplines.

= Crypto-macroeconomics =

Crypto-macroeconomics is concerned with the regional, national, and international regulation of cryptocurrencies and DeFi transactions. The Group of Seven governments' interest in cryptocurrencies became evident in August 2014, when the United Kingdom Treasury commissioned a study of cryptocurrencies and their potential role in the UK economy, and issued its final report in January 2021.{{cite web |title=UK regulatory approach to cryptoassets and stablecoins: Consultation and call for evidence |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/950206/HM_Treasury_Cryptoasset_and_Stablecoin_consultation.pdf |access-date=1 October 2021 |publisher=HM Treasury}} In June 2021, El Salvador became the first country to accept Bitcoin as legal tender.{{cite web |date=10 June 2021 |title=Bitcoin legal tender in El Salvador, first country ever |url=https://en.mercopress.com/2021/06/10/bitcoin-legal-tender-in-el-salvador-first-country-ever |website=Mercopress}} In August 2021, Cuba followed with a legal resolution to recognize and regulate cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin.{{cite web |date=27 August 2021 |title=Cuba's central bank now recognizes cryptocurrencies such as bitcoin |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/08/27/cubas-central-bank-now-recognizes-cryptocurrencies-like-bitcoin.html |website=CNBC}} However, in September 2021, the government of China, the single largest market for cryptocurrency, declared all cryptocurrency transactions illegal, completing a crackdown on cryptocurrency that had previously banned the operation of intermediaries and miners within China.{{Cite news |date=24 September 2021 |title=China declares all crypto-currency transactions illegal |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-58678907 |access-date=24 September 2021}}

= Crypto-microeconomics =

Crypto-microeconomics is concerned with the individual and enterprise usages of cryptocurrencies and DeFi transactions. A strong majority of USA adults have heard about major cryptocurrencies (Bitcoin, Ether), and 16% say they personally have invested in, traded, or otherwise used one.{{Cite web |last=Andrew Perrin |title=16% of Americans say they have ever invested in, traded or used cryptocurrency |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/11/11/16-of-americans-say-they-have-ever-invested-in-traded-or-used-cryptocurrency/ |access-date=2022-08-06 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US}} More than 300 million people use cryptocurrency worldwide, and approximately 46 million Americans have invested in Bitcoin.{{Cite web |date=2022-08-04 |title=Cryptocurrency Statistics 2022: How Many People Use Crypto? |url=https://earthweb.com/cryptocurrency-statistics/ |access-date=2022-08-06 |language=en-US}}

Criticisms and controversies

Bitcoin, along with other cryptocurrencies, has been described as an economic bubble by many economists, including Robert Shiller,{{Cite news |last=Shiller |first=Robert |date=1 March 2014 |title=In Search of a Stable Electronic Currency |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/02/business/in-search-of-a-stable-electronic-currency.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141024120222/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/02/business/in-search-of-a-stable-electronic-currency.html |archive-date=24 October 2014}} Joseph Stiglitz,{{Cite news |last=Costelloe |first=Kevin |date=29 November 2017 |title=Bitcoin 'Ought to Be Outlawed,' Nobel Prize Winner Stiglitz Says |publisher=Bloomberg |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-11-29/bitcoin-ought-to-be-outlawed-nobel-prize-winner-stiglitz-says-jal10hxd |url-status=live |access-date=5 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612224313/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-11-29/bitcoin-ought-to-be-outlawed-nobel-prize-winner-stiglitz-says-jal10hxd |archive-date=12 June 2018 |quote=It doesn't serve any socially useful function.}} Richard Thaler,{{Cite news |date=22 January 2018 |title=Economics Nobel prize winner, Richard Thaler: "The market that looks most like a bubble to me is Bitcoin and its brethren" |publisher=ECO Portuguese Economy |url=https://econews.pt/2018/01/22/economics-nobel-prize-winner-richard-thaler-the-market-that-looks-most-like-a-bubble-to-me-is-bitcoin-and-its-brethren/ |url-status=live |access-date=7 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612140603/https://econews.pt/2018/01/22/economics-nobel-prize-winner-richard-thaler-the-market-that-looks-most-like-a-bubble-to-me-is-bitcoin-and-its-brethren/ |archive-date=12 June 2018}} Paul Krugman,{{Cite news |last=Krugman |first=Paul |date=29 January 2018 |title=Bubble, Bubble, Fraud and Trouble |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/29/opinion/bitcoin-bubble-fraud.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180604124251/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/29/opinion/bitcoin-bubble-fraud.html |archive-date=4 June 2018}} and Nouriel Roubini.{{cite web |date=2 February 2018 |title=Bitcoin biggest bubble in history, says economist who predicted 2008 crash |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/feb/02/bitcoin-biggest-bubble-in-history-says-economist-who-predicted-2008-crash |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141424/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/feb/02/bitcoin-biggest-bubble-in-history-says-economist-who-predicted-2008-crash |archive-date=12 June 2018 |website=TheGuardian.com}} In addition, Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies have been criticized for the amount of electricity required for cryptocurrency “mining” (blockchain transaction validation),{{Cite news |last1=Huang |first1=Jon |last2=O'Neill |first2=Claire |last3=Tabuchi |first3=Hiroko |author-link=Hiroko Tabuchi |date=3 September 2021 |title=Bitcoin Uses More Electricity Than Many Countries. How Is That Possible? |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2021/09/03/climate/bitcoin-carbon-footprint-electricity.html |access-date=16 January 2022 |issn=0362-4331}} and for their being used to purchase illegal goods.{{Cite news |date=29 September 2012 |title=Monetarists Anonymous |newspaper=The Economist |publisher=The Economist Newspaper Limited |url=http://www.economist.com/node/21563752 |url-status=live |access-date=21 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020192331/http://www.economist.com/node/21563752 |archive-date=20 October 2013}}{{cite web |last=Ball, James |date=22 March 2013 |title=Silk Road: the online drug marketplace that officials seem powerless to stop |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/mar/22/silk-road-online-drug-marketplace |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012012106/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/mar/22/silk-road-online-drug-marketplace |archive-date=12 October 2013 |access-date=20 October 2013 |website=theguardian.com |publisher=Guardian News and Media Limited}}

References

External links

{{YouTube|GQR1xjQn5Pg|Cryptoeconomics In 30 Minutes by Vitalik Buterin (Devcon5)}}
[https://mitsloan.mit.edu/centers-initiatives/cryptoeconomics-lab/welcome-mit-cryptoeconomics-lab MIT Cryptoeconomics Lab]
[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Cryptoeconomics Wikiversity - Cryptoeconomics]