Cystic fibrosis and race

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an autosomal recessive and monogenetic disorder. It is caused by mutations in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene.{{Cite journal |last1=Ratjen |first1=Felix |last2=Bell |first2=Scott C. |last3=Rowe |first3=Steven M. |last4=Goss |first4=Christopher H. |last5=Quittner |first5=Alexandra L. |last6=Bush |first6=Andrew |date=2015-05-14 |title=Cystic fibrosis |journal=Nature Reviews. Disease Primers |volume=1 |pages=15010 |doi=10.1038/nrdp.2015.10 |issn=2056-676X |pmc=7041544 |pmid=27189798}} The CFTR protein (Figure 1) serves to move chloride ions to the surface of cells to ensure proper hydration. When this protein becomes dysfunctional, the chloride ions are not present to thin out the viscous mucus that forms. This thickened mucus causes many problems in various organs of the body.

File:Cystic fibrosis manifestations.png

People with cystic fibrosis may experience salty skin, persistent coughing, lung infections such as pneumonia and bronchitis, and wheezing and shortness of breath. Cystic fibrosis can also cause poor weight gain and growth, nasal polyps, chronic sinus infections, clubbing or enlargement of fingers and toes, infertility in males, and rectal prolapse.{{Cite web |title=About Cystic Fibrosis|url=https://www.cff.org/intro-cf/about-cystic-fibrosis |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=Cystic Fibrosis Foundation |language=en}} Cystic fibrosis may also lead to arthropathies.{{Cite journal |last1=Roehmel |first1=Jobst F. |last2=Kallinich |first2=Tilmann |last3=Staab |first3=Doris |last4=Schwarz |first4=Carsten |date=2019-02-01 |title=Clinical manifestations and risk factors of arthropathy in cystic fibrosis |journal=Respiratory Medicine |language=en |volume=147 |pages=66–71 |doi=10.1016/j.rmed.2019.01.003 |pmid=30704701 |s2cid=73437549 |issn=0954-6111|doi-access=free }} These symptoms and co-morbidities can ultimately lead to nutritional deficits and highly decreased quality of life.{{Cite journal |last1=Patel |first1=Dhiren |last2=Shan |first2=Albert |last3=Mathews |first3=Stacy |last4=Sathe |first4=Meghana |date=2022-02-28 |title=Understanding Cystic Fibrosis Comorbidities and Their Impact on Nutritional Management |journal=Nutrients |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=1028 |doi=10.3390/nu14051028 |issn=2072-6643 |pmc=8912424 |pmid=35268004|doi-access=free }}

Compared to white patients, black patients have more severe pulmonary imaging findings and display more respiratory symptoms at diagnosis. Similarly, black and hispanic patients have overall worse pulmonary function than white patients that is often present earlier in life. Though this may be the case, these symptoms can be misdiagnosed as other health issues and treated as such.

To be diagnosed with CF, patients must meet certain criteria. These criteria may include showing a combination of the signs and symptoms above and/or have a family member with CF and/or test positive for the mutation during genetic screening.

Individuals must have at least one clinical feature:

• meconium ileus (bowel obstruction when meconium in intestine is too thick)
• diarrhea and failure to thrive
• recurrent respiratory infections
• nasal polyps
• rectal prolapse
• male infertility
• electrolyte depletion

Or CF diagnosis in family member, or positive newborn screening test, plus one or both of the following:

• chloride channel dysfunction (positive sweat test or abnormal transepithelial potential difference)
• known disease-causing mutations on chromosome 7 in trans

Though these symptoms may present themselves in underrepresented minorities, there remains the misconception among doctors that underrepresented minorities rarely have the disease.{{Cite journal |last1=Mutesa |first1=L. |last2=Bours |first2=V. |date=2009-07-22 |title=Diagnostic Challenges of Cystic Fibrosis in Patients of African Origin |journal=Journal of Tropical Pediatrics |volume=55 |issue=5 |pages=281–286 |doi=10.1093/tropej/fmp064 |pmid=19625487 |issn=0142-6338}} This results in under-diagnosis in these populations. Also, in developing countries, such as in Africa, where HIV, protein energy malnutrition,{{Cite journal |last1=Schönfeldt |first1=Hettie Carina |last2=Gibson Hall |first2=Nicolette |date=2012-02-22 |title=Dietary protein quality and malnutrition in Africa |journal=British Journal of Nutrition |volume=108 |issue=S2 |pages=S69–S76 |doi=10.1017/S0007114512002553 |pmid=23107550 |issn=0007-1145|doi-access=free |hdl=2263/20602 |hdl-access=free }} and chronic pulmonary infections are prominent, it can be difficult for clinicians to rightly diagnose patients with CF. Proper diagnosis can also be affected when patients show a positive test but do not display symptoms or display symptoms but do not show positive diagnostic tests. For this reason, it is very important to continue to monitor patients in both categories, especially those of the latter while treating the symptoms that may be disguised as another disease.

In many western countries, prenatal and newborn genetic screening is available. This has been correlated with decreased incidence as patients and their families are able to seek treatment early on. These screening methods may include measuring serum immunoreactive trypsin (iRT) and CFTR mutation analysis.{{Citation |last1=Rock |first1=Michael J. |title=Chapter 59 - Neonatal Screening for Cystic Fibrosis |date=2006-01-01 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780721636955500638 |work=Kendig's Disorders of the Respiratory Tract in Children (Seventh Edition) |pages=861–865 |editor-last=Chernick |editor-first=Victor |place=Philadelphia |publisher=W.B. Saunders |doi=10.1016/b978-0-7216-3695-5.50063-8 |isbn=978-0-7216-3695-5 |access-date=2022-12-09 |last2=Farrell |first2=Philip M. |editor2-last=Boat |editor2-first=Thomas F. |editor3-last=Wilmott |editor3-first=Robert W. |editor4-last=Bush |editor4-first=Andrew}}{{Citation |last=Pletcher |first=Beth A. |title=Chapter 14 - Pulmonary Manifestations of Genetic Diseases |date=2009-01-01 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9781416030317000140 |work=Pulmonary Manifestations of Pediatric Diseases |pages=295–338 |editor-last=Turcios |editor-first=Nelson L. |place=Philadelphia |publisher=W.B. Saunders |doi=10.1016/b978-1-4160-3031-7.00014-0 |isbn=978-1-4160-3031-7 |access-date=2022-12-09 |editor2-last=Fink |editor2-first=Robert J.}}

CFTR mutation classification systems typically include six classes{{Cite journal |last1=Ikpa |first1=Pauline T. |last2=Bijvelds |first2=Marcel J. C. |last3=de Jonge |first3=Hugo R. |date=2014-07-01 |title=Cystic fibrosis: Toward personalized therapies |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S135727251400051X |journal=The International Journal of Biochemistry & Cell Biology |series=Cystic Fibrosis: From o-mics to cell biology, physiology, and therapeutic advances |volume=52 |pages=192–200 |doi=10.1016/j.biocel.2014.02.008 |pmid=24561283 |issn=1357-2725}} where classes I-III tend to have more severe symptoms than classes IV-VI.

1. Protein production mutations (Class I)
2. Protein processing mutations (Class II)
3. Gating mutations (Class III)
4. Conduction mutations (Class IV)
5. Insufficient CFTR transcript mutations (Class V)
6. Reduced protein stability and increased turnover of CFTR at the cell surface (Class VI)

IRT and CFTR mutation analyses are always confirmed with what is known as a sweat test which will show elevated levels of chloride in sweat of CF patients.{{Cite journal|last1=Gokdemir |first1=Yasemin |last2=Karadag |first2=Bulent Taner |date=2021 |title=Sweat Testing and Recent Advances |journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics |volume=9 |page=649904 |doi=10.3389/fped.2021.649904 |issn=2296-2360 |pmc=8129525 |pmid=34017807|doi-access=free}} However, this is not a perfect system and many children end up with an inconclusive diagnosis and need to be monitored for symptoms that may not show up until much later in life.{{Cite journal|last=Munck |first=Anne |date=2020-03-12 |title=Inconclusive Diagnosis after Newborn Screening for Cystic Fibrosis |journal=International Journal of Neonatal Screening |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=19 |doi=10.3390/ijns6010019 |issn=2409-515X |pmc=7422971 |pmid=33073016|doi-access=free}} Also, in some states such as New Jersey, there is only one mutation on the CFTR screening panel (F508del). Because 12.9% of CF patients in the United States do not have this specific mutation, they cannot be diagnosed using this particular screening method. This value can be even larger when narrowing in on minority populations (see race and ethnicity).{{Cite journal|last1=McGarry |first1=Meghan E. |last2=Gibb |first2=Elizabeth R. |last3=Oates |first3=Gabriela R. |last4=Schechter |first4=Michael S. |date=2022-06-01 |title=Left behind: The potential impact of CFTR modulators on racial and ethnic disparities in cystic fibrosis |journal=Paediatric Respiratory Reviews |volume=42 |pages=35–42 |doi=10.1016/j.prrv.2021.12.001 |pmid=35277357 |pmc=9356388 |issn=1526-0542}} Upon analysis of the 2020 Cystic Fibrosis Foundation Patient Registry, the detection rate of CFTR mutation variants in known CF patients was highest in white patients at a false negative rate of only 3–5%.

Since the CFTR mutation is autosomal recessive, the most significant risk factor is family history. The disease only manifests itself when a child inherits CFTR mutations from both parents. Children who inherit a mutation from one parent are considered carriers and can pass it on to their children. With this being the case, mutations may be family and region specific (See Race, ethnicity, and geographic location). In regard to sex, CF occurs in occurs in males and females; however, women are more likely to display worse symptoms and outcomes.{{Cite journal |last=Healey |first=Natalie |date=2020-07-29 |title=The gender gap in cystic fibrosis |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=583 |issue=7818 |pages=S10–S11 |doi=10.1038/d41586-020-02110-0|bibcode=2020Natur.583S..10H |s2cid=220843285 |doi-access=free }} This is particularly relevant in regard to Peudomonas aeruginosa{{Citation |last=D'Agata |first=Erika |title=221 - Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Other Pseudomonas Species |date=2015-01-01 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9781455748013002216 |work=Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases (Eighth Edition) |pages=2518–2531.e3 |editor-last=Bennett |editor-first=John E. |place=Philadelphia |publisher=W.B. Saunders |language=en |isbn=978-1-4557-4801-3 |access-date=2022-12-09 |editor2-last=Dolin |editor2-first=Raphael |editor3-last=Blaser |editor3-first=Martin J.}} respiratory infections.{{Cite journal |last1=Harness-Brumley |first1=Cayce L. |last2=Elliott |first2=Alan C. |last3=Rosenbluth |first3=Daniel B. |last4=Raghavan |first4=Deepa |last5=Jain |first5=Raksha |date=2014-12-01 |title=Gender Differences in Outcomes of Patients with Cystic Fibrosis |journal=Journal of Women's Health |volume=23 |issue=12 |pages=1012–1020 |doi=10.1089/jwh.2014.4985 |issn=1540-9996 |pmc=4442553 |pmid=25495366}} Age-wise, most people are diagnosed by the age of 2; however, the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation Patient Registry shows that more than half of the CF population is age 18 or older in the United States.

Cystic fibrosis occurs in all races, but may be most prevalent in white people of Northern European ancestry.{{Cite web |title=Cystic fibrosis - Symptoms and causes |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cystic-fibrosis/symptoms-causes/syc-20353700 |access-date=2022-11-18 |publisher=Mayo Clinic}} CF incidence in other populations may be underreported as there are hundreds of CFTR mutations that can manifest the disease and not all have been identified. Though there has been a decrease in incidence in more developed countries due to prenatal genetic screening,{{Cite web |title=CF Foundation Estimates Increase in CF Population|url=https://www.cff.org/news/2022-07/cf-foundation-estimates-increase-cf-population |access-date=2022-11-18 |publisher=Cystic Fibrosis Foundation |date=28 July 2022}}{{Cite journal|last1=Scotet |first1=Virginie |last2=L'Hostis |first2=Carine |last3=Férec |first3=Claude |date=2020-05-26 |title=The Changing Epidemiology of Cystic Fibrosis: Incidence, Survival and Impact of the CFTR Gene Discovery |journal=Genes |volume=11 |issue=6 |pages=589 |doi=10.3390/genes11060589 |issn=2073-4425 |pmc=7348877 |pmid=32466381|doi-access=free}} the prevalence is expected to increase as people are able to live longer with the disease.

F508del is the most common mutation across all cystic fibrosis patients.{{Cite web |title=Featured Review: Drugs for correcting the basic defect in the most common cystic fibrosis-causing gene variant |url=https://www.cochrane.org/news/featured-review-drugs-correcting-basic-defect-most-common-cystic-fibrosis-causing-gene-variant |access-date=2022-11-18 |publisher=Cochrane}} However, it is not the most common mutation found in specific geographical locations.

Since a popular method of identification is genetic testing for this particular mutation, the identification frequency is lower in underrepresented population.

African descendants display the most genetic diversity across the human population. For CF patients of African descent, this means that they are more likely to harbor less common CFTR mutations. Some mutations that are unique to Africa are 2766del8, 1670delC, Y1109x, and A204T.

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Treatment is most effective with early diagnosis. As CF is a complicated ailment, patients must often use a combination of therapies.

Clearing the airways of mucus can help decrease the incidence of infection in the lung and improve lung function. The most common airway clearance techniques include deep coughing, active breathing therapy, autogenic drainage, and positive expiratory pressure.{{Citation needed|date=December 2022}}

There are several available inhaled medications such as bronchodilators and mucus thinners. These are medications that are delivered as a mist or aerosol and inhaled through a nebulizer. They may also include antibiotics.{{Citation needed|date=December 2022}}

File:Bronchodilators.png

Antibiotics are used to fight bacterial infections which CF patients are very likely to develop due to thickened mucus. They are often taken daily by CF patients. It is recommended that inhaled antibiotics be taken only when the airway has been clear so that the drug can reach the affected area easily.{{Citation needed|date=December 2022}}

Pancreatic enzyme supplements serve to improve pancreatic function by increasing the absorption of essential nutrients. They are taken with meals. Multivitamins as supplements are also recommended for CF patients.{{cite journal |last1=Borowitz |first1=Drucy |last2=Wegman |first2=Theresa |last3=Harris |first3=Margaret |title=Preventive Care for Patients With Chronic Illness: Multivitamin Use in Patients With Cystic Fibrosis |journal=Clinical Pediatrics |date=December 1994 |volume=33 |issue=12 |pages=720–725 |doi=10.1177/000992289403301203 |pmid=7874824 |s2cid=43047336 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/epdf/10.1177/000992289403301203 |access-date=10 December 2022 |language=en |issn=0009-9228}}

File:Elexacaftor tezacaftor ivacaftor mechanism of action.png

A personalized fitness plan can aid in airway clearance, improve energy, increase lung function, and help the overall health of the patient. {{cite journal |last1=Ward |first1=Nathan |last2=Morrow |first2=Scott |last3=Stiller |first3=Kathy |last4=Holland |first4=Anne E. |title=Exercise as a substitute for traditional airway clearance in cystic fibrosis: a systematic review |journal=Thorax |date=1 August 2021 |volume=76 |issue=8 |pages=763–771 |doi=10.1136/thoraxjnl-2020-215836 |pmid=33443204 |s2cid=229357310 |url=https://thorax.bmj.com/content/76/8/763.abstract |access-date=10 December 2022 |language=en |issn=0040-6376|doi-access=free }}

CFTR modulators target the mutated CFTR protein.{{Cite journal |last1=Habib |first1=Al-Rahim R. |last2=Kajbafzadeh |first2=Majid |last3=Desai |first3=Sameer |last4=Yang |first4=Connie L. |last5=Skolnik |first5=Kate |last6=Quon |first6=Bradley S. |date=2019-05-10 |title=A Systematic Review of the Clinical Efficacy and Safety of CFTR Modulators in Cystic Fibrosis |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=7234 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-43652-2 |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=6510767 |pmid=31076617|bibcode=2019NatSR...9.7234H }}{{Cite journal |last=Lopes-Pacheco |first=Miquéias |date=2020 |title=CFTR Modulators: The Changing Face of Cystic Fibrosis in the Era of Precision Medicine |journal=Frontiers in Pharmacology |volume=10 |page=1662 |doi=10.3389/fphar.2019.01662 |pmid=32153386 |pmc=7046560 |issn=1663-9812|doi-access=free }} Thus far, there are some approved CFTR modulators for specific mutations. One such drug is elexacaftor/tezacaftor/ivacaftor. However, the cost of CFTR modulators is high.{{Cite journal |last1=Goetz |first1=Danielle M. |last2=Savant |first2=Adrienne P. |date=December 2021 |title=Review of CFTR modulators 2020 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ppul.25627 |journal=Pediatric Pulmonology |language=en |volume=56 |issue=12 |pages=3595–3606 |doi=10.1002/ppul.25627 |pmid=34407318 |s2cid=237216168 |issn=8755-6863}} In addition to the high cost, the available CFTR modulators may not be as effective in minority populations.{{Cite journal |last1=McGarry |first1=Meghan E. |last2=McColley |first2=Susanna A. |date=June 2021 |title=Cystic Fibrosis Patients of Minority Race and Ethnicity Less Likely Eligible for CFTR Modulators Based on CFTR Genotype |journal=Pediatric Pulmonology |volume=56 |issue=6 |pages=1496–1503 |doi=10.1002/ppul.25285 |issn=8755-6863 |pmc=8137541 |pmid=33470563}} In fact, while 92.4% of white patients are eligible for treatment with CFTR modulators, only 69.7% and 75.6% of Hispanic patients are eligible.

Communities with large black and hispanic populations are also most likely to have lower quality/less available healthcare.{{Cite web |date=2019-12-19 |title=Racism, Inequality, and Health Care for African Americans |url=https://tcf.org/content/report/racism-inequality-health-care-african-americans/ |access-date=2022-12-09 |website=The Century Foundation |language=en}} This means that the risk of mistakes being made in screening and diagnosis are more likely to happen in these areas. The clinics and hospitals are often understaffed and rushing through samples can cause inaccurate screening results.{{Cite journal |last1=Rock |first1=Michael J. |last2=Levy |first2=Hara |last3=Zaleski |first3=Christina |last4=Farrell |first4=Philip M. |date=December 2011 |title=Factors Accounting for a Missed Diagnosis of Cystic Fibrosis After Newborn Screening |journal=Pediatric Pulmonology |volume=46 |issue=12 |pages=1166–1174 |doi=10.1002/ppul.21509 |issn=8755-6863 |pmc=4469987 |pmid=22081556 }} Furthermore, the cystic fibrosis screening tests for CFTR present false negative results most often in black and hispanic babies.{{Cite journal |last1=Rho |first1=Jason |last2=Ahn |first2=Chul |last3=Gao |first3=Ang |last4=Sawicki |first4=Gregory S. |last5=Keller |first5=Ashley |last6=Jain |first6=Raksha |date=2018-10-15 |title=Disparities in Mortality of Hispanic Patients with Cystic Fibrosis in the United States. A National and Regional Cohort Study |journal=American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine |language=en |volume=198 |issue=8 |pages=1055–1063 |doi=10.1164/rccm.201711-2357OC |issn=1073-449X |pmc=6221571 |pmid=29742360}} This happens because the CFTR variants most tested for are those that are largely found in white populations.{{Cite news |last=Murez |first=Cara |date=October 31, 2022 |title=Cystic Fibrosis Screening Often Misses Black, Hispanic Babies |work=U.S. News HealthDay |location=University of California, San Francisco |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/health-news/articles/2022-10-31/cystic-fibrosis-screening-often-misses-black-hispanic-babies#:~:text=In%20known%20cystic%20fibrosis%20patients,to%2097%25%20in%20white%20patients. |access-date=November 7, 2022}} Also, as previously mentioned, one of the most common methods of diagnosis is using the sweat test. However, this test has a disproportionate rate of false negatives in areas with less healthcare access. The presence of implicit biases in healthcare also contribute to this.{{Cite journal |last1=McGarry |first1=Meghan E. |last2=Williams |first2=Wadsworth A. |last3=McColley |first3=Susanna A. |date=November 2019 |title=The Demographics of Adverse Outcomes in Cystic Fibrosis |journal=Pediatric Pulmonology |volume=54 |issue=Suppl 3 |pages=S74–S83 |doi=10.1002/ppul.24434 |issn=8755-6863 |pmc=6857719 |pmid=31715087}}{{Cite web |title=Implicit Bias and Racial Disparities in Health Care |url=https://www.americanbar.org/groups/crsj/publications/human_rights_magazine_home/the-state-of-healthcare-in-the-united-states/racial-disparities-in-health-care/ |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=www.americanbar.org |language=en}} Additionally, availability of genetic screening options in developing countries and areas of lower socioeconomic status has proven to be difficult both because of financial and resource burden.{{Cite journal |last1=da Silva Filho |first1=Luiz Vicente Ribeiro Ferreira |last2=Zampoli |first2=Marco |last3=Cohen-Cymberknoh |first3=Malena |last4=Kabra |first4=Sushil K. |date=2021-06-01 |title=Cystic fibrosis in low and middle-income countries (LMIC): A view from four different regions of the world |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.prrv.2020.07.004 |journal=Paediatric Respiratory Reviews |volume=38 |pages=37–44 |doi=10.1016/j.prrv.2020.07.004 |pmid=32826173 |s2cid=221240158 |issn=1526-0542}} Altogether, this means that black and hispanic families are more likely to be diagnosed later on and therefore do not receive timely and as effective treatment.{{Citation needed|date=December 2022}}

It is still up for debate on whether the overall prognosis of CF is improving. In areas where genetic screening is available, clinicians are able to identify and provide treatment for CF early on. In areas where this is not available, many patients are not diagnosed until later in life and display worse symptoms and poorer management of symptoms.{{Cite journal |last1=DiMango |first1=Emily |last2=Simpson |first2=Kaitlyn |last3=Menten |first3=Elizabeth |last4=Keating |first4=Claire |last5=Fan |first5=Weijia |last6=Leu |first6=Cheng-Shiun |date=2021-07-31 |title=Health Disparities among adults cared for at an urban cystic fibrosis program |journal=Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases |volume=16 |issue=1 |page=332 |doi=10.1186/s13023-021-01965-4 |pmid=34332588 |pmc=8325847 |issn=1750-1172 |doi-access=free }} This is often in areas where there is a high density of underrepresented groups.{{Cite journal |last1=McBennett |first1=Kimberly A. |last2=Davis |first2=Pamela B. |last3=Konstan |first3=Michael W. |date=February 2022 |title=Increasing life expectancy in cystic fibrosis: Advances and challenges |journal=Pediatric Pulmonology |volume=57 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=S5–S12 |doi=10.1002/ppul.25733 |issn=8755-6863 |pmc=9004282 |pmid=34672432}} With the reduced access to healthcare, minority populations experience worse outcomes, even after taking low socioeconomic status into account. Although hispanic patients are more likely than white patients to have milder CFTR mutations (those from Classes IV-VI), they suffer worse outcomes.

In addition to focusing on improving detection and diagnosis, understanding CF microorganisms, and developing new treatments, optimizing current treatments, and evaluating long-term antimicrobial use, the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation is currently{{When|date=December 2022}} striving for more equity and timeliness in cystic fibrosis newborn screening.{{Cite web |title=CF Foundation Continues Working Toward Equity and Timeliness in Cystic Fibrosis Newborn Screening |url=https://www.cff.org/news/2022-09/newborn-screening-equity-timeliness |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=Cystic Fibrosis Foundation |date=29 September 2022 |language=en}} Cystic Fibrosis Research Institute has implemented strategies to increase awareness in underrepresented populations.{{Cite web |title=Diversity and Inclusion |url=https://www.cfri.org/advocacy/diversity-and-inclusion/ |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=Cystic Fibrosis Research Institute |date=17 December 2021 |language=en-US}} Though there is ongoing research about cystic fibrosis in underrepresented populations, many of the studies leave much to be desired and are not performed to the standards of studies conducted in white patients.{{Citation needed|date=December 2022}}{{Editorializing|date=December 2022}}

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Category:Race and health