Design#Design process

People who produce designs are called designers. The term 'designer' usually refers to someone who works professionally in one of the various design areas. Within the professions, the word 'designer' is generally qualified by the area of practice (for example: a fashion designer, a product designer, a web designer, or an interior designer), but it can also designate other practitioners such as architects and engineers (see below: Types of designing). A designer's sequence of activities to produce a design is called a design process, with some employing designated processes such as design thinking and design methods. The process of creating a design can be brief (a quick sketch) or lengthy and complicated, involving considerable research, negotiation, reflection, modeling, interactive adjustment, and re-design.

Designing is also a widespread activity outside of the professions of those formally recognized as designers. In his influential book The Sciences of the Artificial, the interdisciplinary scientist Herbert A. Simon proposed that, "Everyone designs who devises courses of action aimed at changing existing situations into preferred ones."{{cite book |last1=Simon |first1=Herbert A. |title=The Sciences of the Artificial |date=1969 |edition=first |publisher=M.I.T. Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |page=54 |url=https://archive.org/details/sciencesofartifi00simo/page/54}} According to the design researcher Nigel Cross, "Everyone can – and does – design," and "Design ability is something that everyone has, to some extent, because it is embedded in our brains as a natural cognitive function."{{Cite book |last=Cross |first=Nigel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F4SUVT1XCCwC |title=Design Thinking: Understanding How Designers Think and Work |date=2011 |publisher=Berg |isbn=978-1-84788-846-4 |pages=3 & 140 |language=en}}

{{main|Design history}}

The study of design history is complicated by varying interpretations of what constitutes 'designing'. Many design historians, such as John Heskett, look to the Industrial Revolution and the development of mass production.Heskett, John (1963) Industrial Design. Thames & Hudson. Others subscribe to conceptions of design that include pre-industrial objects and artefacts, beginning their narratives of design in prehistoric times. Originally situated within art history, the historical development of the discipline of design history coalesced in the 1970s, as interested academics worked to recognize design as a separate and legitimate target for historical research.{{Cite journal |last=Margolin |first=Victor |date=April 1, 2009 |title=Design in History |journal=Design Issues |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=94–105 |doi=10.1162/desi.2009.25.2.94 |s2cid=57562456 |issn=0747-9360 |eissn=1531-4790|doi-access=free }} Early influential design historians include German-British art historian Nikolaus Pevsner and Swiss historian and architecture critic Sigfried Giedion.

In Western Europe, institutions for design education date back to the nineteenth century. The Norwegian National Academy of Craft and Art Industry was founded in 1818, followed by the United Kingdom's Government School of Design (1837), and Konstfack in Sweden (1844). The Rhode Island School of Design was founded in the United States in 1877. The German art and design school Bauhaus, founded in 1919, greatly influenced modern design education.{{Cite book |last=Naylor |first=Gillian |title=The Bauhaus Reassessed |date=1985 |publisher=Herbert Press |isbn=0906969301}}

Design education covers the teaching of theory, knowledge, and values in the design of products, services, and environments, with a focus on the development of both particular and general skills for designing. Traditionally, its primary orientation has been to prepare students for professional design practice, based on project work and studio, or atelier, teaching methods.

There are also broader forms of higher education in design studies and design thinking. Design is also a part of general education, for example within the curriculum topic, Design and Technology. The development of design in general education in the 1970s created a need to identify fundamental aspects of 'designerly' ways of knowing, thinking, and acting, which resulted in establishing design as a distinct discipline of study.{{cite journal |last1=Cross |first1=Nigel |title=Design as a Discipline: Designerly Ways of Knowing |journal= Design Studies |date=1982 |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=221–227 |doi=10.1016/0142-694X(82)90040-0 |url= https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0142-694X%2882%2990040-0|url-access=subscription }}

Substantial disagreement exists concerning how designers in many fields, whether amateur or professional, alone or in teams, produce designs.{{Cite journal |last=Coyne |first=Richard |date=1990 |title=Logic of design actions |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0950-7051(90)90103-o |journal=Knowledge-Based Systems |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=242–257 |doi=10.1016/0950-7051(90)90103-o |issn=0950-7051 |access-date=2020-10-01 |archive-date=2022-08-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220827204830/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/095070519090103O?via%3Dihub |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }} Design researchers Dorst and Dijkhuis acknowledged that "there are many ways of describing design processes," and compare and contrast two dominant but different views of the design process: as a rational problem-solving process and as a process of reflection-in-action. They suggested that these two paradigms "represent two fundamentally different ways of looking at the world{{snd}} positivism and constructionism."{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0142-694X(94)00012-3 |title=Comparing paradigms for describing design activity |journal=Design Studies |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=261–274 |year=1995 |last1=Dorst |first1=Kees |last2=Dijkhuis |first2=Judith |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0142-694X%2894%2900012-3|url-access=subscription }} The paradigms may reflect differing views of how designing should be done and how it actually is done, and both have a variety of names. The problem-solving view has been called "the rational model," "technical rationality" and "the reason-centric perspective." The alternative view has been called "reflection-in-action," "coevolution" and "the action-centric perspective."

The rational model was independently developed by Herbert A. Simon,Newell, A., and Simon, H. (1972) Human problem solving, Prentice-Hall, Inc.Simon, H.A. (1996) [https://books.google.com/books?id=k5Sr0nFw7psC The sciences of the artificial] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217052045/http://books.google.com/books?id=k5Sr0nFw7psC&printsec=frontcover |date=2013-12-17 }}, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, USA. p. 111. {{ISBN|0-262-69191-4}}. an American scientist, and two German engineering design theorists, Gerhard Pahl and Wolfgang Beitz.Pahl, G., and Beitz, W. (1996) [https://books.google.com/books?id=8fuhesYeJmkC Engineering design: A systematic approach] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217052518/http://books.google.com/books?id=8fuhesYeJmkC&printsec=frontcover |date=2013-12-17 }}, Springer-Verlag, London. {{ISBN|3-540-19917-9}}. It posits that:

1. Designers attempt to optimize a design candidate for known constraints and objectives.
2. The design process is plan-driven.
3. The design process is understood in terms of a discrete sequence of stages.

The rational model is based on a rationalist philosophy and underlies the waterfall model, systems development life cycle, and much of the engineering design literature.Pahl, G., Beitz, W., Feldhusen, J., and Grote, K.-H. (2007 ) [https://books.google.com/books?id=qsKNwB2gL5wC Engineering design: A systematic approach] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217050322/http://books.google.com/books?id=qsKNwB2gL5wC&printsec=frontcover |date=2013-12-17 }}, (3rd ed.), Springer-Verlag, {{ISBN|1-84628-318-3}}. According to the rationalist philosophy, design is informed by research and knowledge in a predictable and controlled manner.{{Cite book |last=Mielnik |first=Anna |url=https://suw.biblos.pk.edu.pl/downloadResource%26mId%3D2650996 |title=Under the power of reason |publisher=Krakow University of Technology |access-date=2022-08-27 |archive-date=2022-08-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220827204829/https://suw.biblos.pk.edu.pl/downloadResource%26mId%3D2650996 |url-status=live}}

Typical stages consistent with the rational model include the following:{{Cite journal |last1=Condrea |first1=Ionut |url=https://media.proquest.com/media/hms/PFT/1/MNTnI?_s=zo3qVt0Rq8V3x%2FgZKecWt8ICAzY%3D |title=Elaboration of the initial requirements in the design activities |last2=Botezatu |first2=C. |last3=Slătineanu |first3=L. |last4=Oroian |first4=B. |journal=IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering |date=February 2021 |volume=1037 |issue=1 |page=012002 |doi=10.1088/1757-899X/1037/1/012002 |bibcode=2021MS&E.1037a2002S |s2cid=234019940|doi-access=free }}

• Pre-production design
• Design brief – initial statement of intended outcome.
• Analysis – analysis of design goals.
• Research – investigating similar designs in the field or related topics.
• Specification – specifying requirements of a design for a product (product design specification)Cross, N., (2006). T211 Design and Designing: Block 2, p. 99. Milton Keynes: The Open University. or service.
• Problem solving – conceptualizing and documenting designs.
• Presentation – presenting designs.
• Design during production.
• Development – continuation and improvement of a design.
• Product testing – in situ testing of a design.
• Post-production design feedback for future designs.
• Implementation – introducing the design into the environment.
• Evaluation and conclusion – summary of process and results, including constructive criticism and suggestions for future improvements.
• Redesign – any or all stages in the design process repeated (with corrections made) at any time before, during, or after production.

Each stage has many associated best practices.Ullman, David G. (2009) The Mechanical Design Process, Mc Graw Hill, 4th edition {{ISBN|0-07-297574-1}}

The rational model has been widely criticized on two primary grounds:

1. Designers do not work this way – extensive empirical evidence has demonstrated that designers do not act as the rational model suggests.
2. Unrealistic assumptions – goals are often unknown when a design project begins, and the requirements and constraints continue to change.{{cite journal |doi=10.1145/1005937.1005943 |url=http://www.deepdyve.com/lp/association-for-computing-machinery/life-cycle-concept-considered-harmful-WXRCv45NVM |author1=McCracken, D.D. |author2=Jackson, M.A. |title=Life cycle concept considered harmful |journal=ACM SIGSOFT Software Engineering Notes |volume=7 |issue=2 |year=1982 |pages=29–32 |s2cid=9323694 |access-date=2012-03-25 |archive-date=2012-08-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812035944/http://www.deepdyve.com/lp/association-for-computing-machinery/life-cycle-concept-considered-harmful-WXRCv45NVM |url-status=live|doi-access=free }}

The action-centric perspective is a label given to a collection of interrelated concepts, which are antithetical to the rational model. It posits that:

1. Designers use creativity and emotion to generate design candidates.
2. The design process is improvised.
3. No universal sequence of stages is apparent – analysis, design, and implementation are contemporary and inextricably linked.

The action-centric perspective is based on an empiricist philosophy and broadly consistent with the agile approach and methodical development. Substantial empirical evidence supports the veracity of this perspective in describing the actions of real designers. Like the rational model, the action-centric model sees design as informed by research and knowledge.{{Cite web |last1=Faste |first1=Trygve |last2=Faste |first2=Haakon |date=2012-08-15 |title=Demystifying "design research": design is not research, research is design |url=https://www.idsa.org/sites/default/files/Faste.pdf |access-date=2022-08-19 |website=Industrial Designers Society of America |archive-date=2022-08-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220819163610/https://www.idsa.org/sites/default/files/Faste.pdf |url-status=live}}

At least two views of design activity are consistent with the action-centric perspective. Both involve these three basic activities:

• In the reflection-in-action paradigm, designers alternate between "framing", "making moves", and "evaluating moves". "Framing" refers to conceptualizing the problem, i.e., defining goals and objectives. A "move" is a tentative design decision. The evaluation process may lead to further moves in the design.
• In the sensemaking–coevolution–implementation framework, designers alternate between its three titular activities. Sensemaking includes both framing and evaluating moves. Implementation is the process of constructing the design object. Coevolution is "the process where the design agent simultaneously refines its mental picture of the design object based on its mental picture of the context, and vice versa".

The concept of the design cycle is understood as a circular time structure,Fischer, Thomas "Design Enigma. A typographical metaphor for enigmatic processes, including designing", in: T. Fischer, K. De Biswas, J.J. Ham, R. Naka, W.X. Huang, Beyond Codes and Pixels: Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Computer-Aided Architectural Design Research in Asia, p. 686 which may start with the thinking of an idea, then expressing it by the use of visual or verbal means of communication (design tools), the sharing and perceiving of the expressed idea, and finally starting a new cycle with the critical rethinking of the perceived idea. Anderson points out that this concept emphasizes the importance of the means of expression, which at the same time are means of perception of any design ideas.Anderson, Jane (2011) Architectural Design, Basics Architecture 03, Lausanne, AVA academia, p. 40. {{ISBN|978-2-940411-26-9}}.

Philosophy of design is the study of definitions, assumptions, foundations, and implications of design. There are also many informal 'philosophies' for guiding design such as personal values or preferred approaches.

Some of these values and approaches include:

• Critical design uses designed artefacts as an embodied critique or commentary on existing values, morals, and practices in a culture. Critical design can make aspects of the future physically present to provoke a reaction.{{cite web |last=Lab |first=MIT Media |date=16 July 2015 |title=Introducing the Media Lab Award |work=Medium |url=https://medium.com/@medialab/introducing-the-media-lab-award-795ac9e7a8d9}}{{cite book |last1=Dunne |first1=Anthony |url=https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/speculative-everything |title=Speculative Everything: Design, Fiction, and Social Dreaming |last2=Raby |first2=Fiona |date=6 December 2013 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-01984-2 |language=en |access-date=12 December 2021}}{{Cite journal |last=Malpass |first=Matt |date=Spring 2015 |title=Criticism and Function in Critical Design Practice |url=http://ualresearchonline.arts.ac.uk/7921/1/DESI3102_pp59-pp71_vB.pdf |journal=Design Issues |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=59–71 |doi=10.1162/DESI_a_00322 |s2cid=57571804}}
• Ecological design is a design approach that prioritizes the consideration of the environmental impacts of a product or service, over its whole lifecycle.{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1332789897 |title=The Routledge companion to ecological design thinking : healthful ecotopian visions for architecture and urbanism |date=2023 |first=Mitra |last=Kanaani |isbn=978-1-003-18318-1 |location=New York, NY |oclc=1332789897 |access-date=2022-08-19 |archive-date=2022-08-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220827204829/https://www.worldcat.org/title/1332789897 |url-status=live}}{{Cite book |last1=van der Ryn |first1=Sim |title=An Introduction to Ecological Design |last2=Cowan |first2=Stuart |publisher=Island Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-1-59726-140-1 |location=Washington, D.C.}} Ecodesign research focuses primarily on barriers to implementation, ecodesign tools and methods, and the intersection of ecodesign with other research disciplines.Schäfer M, Löwer M. Ecodesign—A Review of Reviews. Sustainability. 2021; 13(1):315. doi.org/10.3390/su13010315{{Cite journal |last=Lewis |first=Tania |date=April 2008 |title=Transforming citizens? Green politics and ethical consumption on lifestyle television |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10304310701864394 |journal=Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=227–240 |doi=10.1080/10304310701864394 |s2cid=144299069|url-access=subscription }}
• Participatory design (originally co-operative design, now often co-design) is the practice of collective creativity to design, attempting to actively involve all stakeholders (e.g. employees, partners, customers, citizens, end-users) in the design process to help ensure the result meets their needs and is usable.{{cite journal |last1=Sanders |first1=Elizabeth B.-N. |last2=Stappers |first2=Pieter Jan |date=2008 |title=Co-creation and the new landscape of design|journal=CoDesign |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=5–18 |doi=10.1080/15710880701875068 |doi-access=free}} Recent research suggests that designers create more innovative concepts and ideas when working within a co-design environment with others than they do when creating ideas on their own.{{cite journal |last1=Mitchell |first1=Val |last2=Ross |first2=Tracy |last3=Sims |first3=Ruth |last4=Parker |first4=Christopher J. |date=2015 |title=Empirical investigation of the impact of using co-design methods when generating proposals for sustainable travel solutions |url=https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/18877 |journal=CoDesign |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=205–220 |doi=10.1080/15710882.2015.1091894 |doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal |last1=Trischler |first1=Jakob |last2=Pervan |first2=Simon J. |last3=Kelly |first3=Stephen J. |last4=Scott |first4=Don R. |year=2018 |title=The Value of Codesign |journal=Journal of Service Research |volume=21 |pages=75–100 |doi=10.1177/1094670517714060 |doi-access=free}}
• Scientific design refers to industrialised design based on scientific knowledge.{{cite journal |last1=Cross |first1=Nigel |title=Science and design methodology: A review |journal=Research in Engineering Design |date=1 June 1993 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=63–69 |doi=10.1007/BF02032575 |s2cid=110223861 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%252FBF02032575 |access-date=16 April 2021 |language=en |issn=1435-6066 |archive-date=19 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419101156/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF02032575 |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }} Science can be used to study the effects and need for a potential or existing product in general and to design products that are based on scientific knowledge. For instance, a scientific design of face masks for COVID-19 mitigation may be based on investigations of filtration performance, mitigation performance,{{cite news |title=Face shields, masks with valves ineffective against COVID-19 spread: study |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-09-shields-masks-valves-ineffective-covid-.html |access-date=8 October 2020 |work=phys.org |language=en |archive-date=17 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117012058/https://phys.org/news/2020-09-shields-masks-valves-ineffective-covid-.html |url-status=live}}{{cite journal |last1=Verma |first1=Siddhartha |last2=Dhanak |first2=Manhar |last3=Frankenfield |first3=John |title=Visualizing droplet dispersal for face shields and masks with exhalation valves |journal=Physics of Fluids |date=1 September 2020 |volume=32 |issue=9 |pages=091701 |doi=10.1063/5.0022968 |pmid=32952381 |pmc=7497716 |arxiv=2008.00125 |bibcode=2020PhFl...32i1701V |issn=1070-6631 |doi-access=free}} thermal comfort, biodegradability and flow resistance.{{cite news |title=Face masks slow spread of COVID-19; types of masks, length of use matter |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-11-masks-covid-length.html |access-date=9 December 2020 |work=phys.org |language=en |archive-date=23 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211023065428/https://phys.org/news/2020-11-masks-covid-length.html |url-status=live }}{{cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Sanjay |last2=Lee |first2=Heow Pueh (李孝培) |title=The perspective of fluid flow behavior of respiratory droplets and aerosols through the facemasks in context of SARS-CoV-2 |journal=Physics of Fluids |date=1 November 2020 |volume=32 |issue=11 |pages=111301 |doi=10.1063/5.0029767 |pmid=33281434 |pmc=7713871 |arxiv=2010.06385 |bibcode=2020PhFl...32k1301K |issn=1070-6631}}
• Service design is a term that is used for designing or organizing the experience around a product and the service associated with a product's use. The purpose of service design methodologies is to establish the most effective practices for designing services, according to both the needs of users and the competencies and capabilities of service providers.{{Cite web |last1=Segelström |first1=Fabian |last2=Raijmakers |first2=Bas |last3=Holmlid |first3=Stefan |date=January 2009 |title=Thinking and Doing Ethnography in Service Design |url=http://www.ida.liu.se/~steho87/iasdr/SegelstromRaijmakersHolmlid.pdf |access-date=2018-02-27 |publisher=Linköping University, Department of Computer and Information Science}}{{Cite journal |last1=Buur |first1=Jacob |last2=Binder |first2=Thomas |last3=Brandt |first3=Eva |date=2000-01-01 |title=Taking Video beyond 'Hard Data' in User Centred Design |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242609565 |journal=Participatory Design Conference}}{{Cite journal |last=Holmlid |first=Stefan |date=2007-05-27 |title=Creative Arts |url=https://jorz.art/ |journal=Nordes |series=Nordes 2007: Design Inquiries |volume=1 |issue=2 |doi=10.21606/nordes.2007.031 |isbn=9781912294466 |issn=1604-9705 |s2cid=109110352 |via=nordes.org in proceedings from Nordic Design Research Conference, Design Inquiries |doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal |last1=Sophia |first1=Parker |last2=Heapy |first2=Joe |date=2006-07-01 |title=The Journey to the Interface, how public service design can connect users to reform |url=http://socialinnovation.typepad.com/files/journey-to-the-interface.pdf |journal=Demos}}
• Sociotechnical system design, a philosophy and tools for participative designing of work arrangements and supporting processes – for organizational purpose, quality, safety, economics, and customer requirements in core work processes, the quality of peoples experience at work, and the needs of society.
• Transgenerational design, the practice of making products and environments compatible with those physical and sensory impairments associated with human aging and which limit major activities of daily living.
• User-centered design, which focuses on the needs, wants, and limitations of the end-user of the designed artefact. One aspect of user-centered design is ergonomics.

File:Brionvega RR126, Pier Giacomo Castiglioni - MNAM.jpg {{ill|RR 126|it}} radiogram designed by Achille and Pier Giacomo Castiglioni]]

The boundaries between art and design are blurry, largely due to a range of applications both for the term 'art' and the term 'design'. Applied arts can include industrial design, graphic design, fashion design, and the decorative arts which traditionally includes craft objects. In graphic arts (2D image making that ranges from photography to illustration), the distinction is often made between fine art and commercial art, based on the context within which the work is produced and how it is traded.

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{{Columns-list|colwidth=15em|

• Applied arts
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• Experience design
• Fashion design
• Floral design
• Game design
• Graphic design
• Information architecture
• Information design
• Industrial design
• Instructional design
• Interaction design
• Interior design
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• Lighting design
• Modular design
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• Organization design
• Process design
• Product design
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• Sound design
• Spatial design
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• Systems modeling
• Type design
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• Vexillography
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}}

{{Columnslist|colwidth=30em|

• Design competition
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• Design thinking
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• Evidence-based design
• Global Design Database
• List of design awards
• Outline of design
• Universal design
• Visual design elements and principles

}}

{{reflist|30em|refs=

Beck, K., Beedle, M., van Bennekum, A., Cockburn, A., Cunningham, W., Fowler, M., Grenning, J., Highsmith, J., Hunt, A., Jeffries, R., Kern, J., Marick, B., Martin, R.C., Mellor, S., Schwaber, K., Sutherland, J., and Thomas, D. (2001) [http://www.agilemanifesto.org/ Manifesto for agile software development] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210327170434/http://www.agilemanifesto.org/ |date=2021-03-27 }}.

Bourque, P., and Dupuis, R. (eds.) (2004) [http://webyes.com.br/wp-content/uploads/ebooks/book_SWEBOK.pdf Guide to the software engineering body of knowledge] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120124015740/http://webyes.com.br/wp-content/uploads/ebooks/book_SWEBOK.pdf |date=2012-01-24 }} (SWEBOK). IEEE Computer Society Press, {{ISBN|0-7695-2330-7}}.

{{Cite book |title=The Design of Design: Essays from a Computer Scientist |last=Brooks |first=F. P |publisher=Pearson Education |year=2010 |isbn=9780321702067 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0qG4TQi-e-4C}}

Cross, N., Dorst, K., and Roozenburg, N. (1992) Research in design thinking, Delft University Press, Delft. {{ISBN|90-6275-796-0}}.

{{Cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0142-694X(01)00009-6 |title=Creativity in the design process: Co-evolution of problem–solution |journal=Design Studies |volume=22 |issue=5 |pages=425–437 |year=2001 |last1=Dorst |first1=Kees |last2=Cross |first2=Nigel |url=http://oro.open.ac.uk/3278/1/Creativity_-_coevolution.pdf |access-date=2019-11-02 |archive-date=2019-10-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029080256/http://oro.open.ac.uk/3278/1/Creativity_-_coevolution.pdf |url-status=live}}

{{cite journal |last1=Huppatz |first1=D. J. |title=Globalizing Design History and Global Design History |journal=Journal of Design History |date=2015 |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=182–202 |doi=10.1093/jdh/epv002 |jstor=43831904 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43831904 |issn=0952-4649|url-access=subscription }}

Ralph, P. (2010) "Comparing two software design process theories". International Conference on Design Science Research in Information Systems and Technology (DESRIST 2010), Springer, St. Gallen, Switzerland, pp. 139–153. {{doi|10.1007/978-3-642-13335-0_10}}.

Royce, W.W. (1970) [http://www-scf.usc.edu/~csci201/lectures/Lecture11/royce1970.pdf "Managing the development of large software systems: Concepts and techniques,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002080351/http://www-scf.usc.edu/~csci201/lectures/Lecture11/royce1970.pdf |date=2020-10-02 }} Proceedings of Wescon.

Schön, D.A. (1983) The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action, Basic Books, USA. {{ISBN|978-0465068784}}

{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0959-8022(99)00009-0|author1=Truex, D. |author2=Baskerville, R. |author3=and Travis, J. |title=Amethodical systems development: The deferred meaning of systems development methods|journal=Accounting, Management and Information Technologies |volume=10|issue=1|pages=53–79|year=2000}}

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• Margolin, Victor. [https://books.google.com/books?id=A5EKMQAACAAJ World History of Design]. New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015. (2 vols) {{isbn|9781472569288}}.
• Raizman, David Seth (12 November 2003). [https://books.google.com/books?id=fkZJAQAAIAAJ The History of Modern Design]. Pearson. {{isbn|978-0131830400}}.

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Category:Design studies

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