Development of the Commercial Crew Program

Key high-level requirements for the Commercial Crew vehicles include:

• Safely deliver and return four crew members and their equipment to the International Space Station (ISS){{cite web |url=http://commercialcrew.nasa.gov/document_file_get.cfm?docid=107 |title=Commercial Crew Program: Key Driving Requirements Walkthrough |last=Bayt |first=Rob |date=July 26, 2011 |publisher=NASA |access-date=July 27, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328055242/http://commercialcrew.nasa.gov/document_file_get.cfm?docid=107 |archive-date=March 28, 2012 }}{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/660622main_2012.06.18_CCP.pdf |title=Commercial Crew Program – fact sheet |date=February 2012 |publisher=NASA |access-date=July 14, 2012 |archive-date=February 16, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216084029/https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/660622main_2012.06.18_CCP.pdf |url-status=dead }}
• Provide assured crew return in the event of an emergency
• Serve as a 24-hour safe haven in the event of an emergency
• Capable of remaining docked to the station for 210 days

{{See also|Space Shuttle retirement|Artemis program}}

After the retirement of STS in 2011 and the cancellation of the Constellation program, NASA had no domestic vehicles capable of launching astronauts to space.{{cite news |last1=Denise Chow |title=NASA Faces Awkward, Unfortunate Spaceflight Gap |url=https://www.space.com/11387-nasa-future-human-spaceflight-hurdles-nss27.html |access-date=August 10, 2018 |work=Space.com |date=April 14, 2011}} Artemis, NASA's next major human spaceflight initiative, was scheduled to launch an uncrewed qualification flight in 2016, with an Orion spacecraft atop a Space Launch System (SLS) booster. The NASA had no human-qualified spacecraft available, and in any event SLS/Orion would be too expensive for routine flights to the ISS. In the meantime, NASA continued to send astronauts to the ISS on Soyuz spacecraft seats purchased from Russia.{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2016/09/nasa-officials-mulling-the-possibility-of-purchasing-soyuz-seats-for-2019/|title=NASA officials mulling the possibility of purchasing Soyuz seats for 2019|date=September 29, 2016}} The price varied over time, with the batch of seats from 2016 to 2017 costing $70.7 million per passenger per flight.{{cite web|url=http://www.space.com/20897-nasa-russia-astronaut-launches-2017.html|title=NASA to Pay $70 Million a Seat to Fly Astronauts on Russian Spacecraft|website=Space.com|date=April 30, 2013}} Artemis continued to slip, with the first uncrewed test flight scheduled for 2022.{{cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-will-mark-important-step-on-journey-to-mars|title=First Flight With Crew Will Mark Important Step on Journey to Mars|first=Gary|last=Daines|date=December 1, 2016|access-date=December 23, 2016|archive-date=July 28, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728214952/https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-will-mark-important-step-on-journey-to-mars|url-status=dead}}

The CCDev program was initiated to develop safe and reliable commercial ISS crew launch capabilities to replace the Soyuz flights. CCDev followed Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS), an ISS commercial cargo program. CCDev contracts were issued for fixed-price, pay-for-performance milestones.{{cite web |title=Moving Forward: Commercial Crew Development Building the Next Era in Spaceflight |url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/475795main_rendezvous_v4n3.pdf |work=Rendezvous |publisher=NASA |pages=10–17 |year=2010 |access-date= February 14, 2011 |quote="Just as in the COTS projects, in the CCDev project we have fixed-price, pay-for-performance milestones," Thorn said. "There's no extra money invested by NASA if the projects cost more than projected."}} CCDev was implemented in several phases. CCDev 1 contracts were for development of concepts and technologies. CCDev 2 contracts were for actual vehicle designs. CCiCap contracts were for designs of complete end-to-end crew transportation hardware and services. CPC phase 1 contracts were for the development of a full certification plan. Finally CCtCap contracts were awarded for actual demonstration of crewed transportation services, which included development, testing, and production of the required hardware followed by operational flights to the ISS.

File:CST-100 pressure vessel.jpg

Commercial Crew Development {{nowrap|phase 1}} (CCDev 1) consisted of $50 million awarded in 2010 to five US companies to develop human spaceflight concepts and technologies.{{Cite web |url=http://hobbyspace.com/AAdmin/archive/Reference/CCDev_Source_Selection_Statement_signed-1.pdf |title=Selection Statement For Commercial Crew Development |work=JSC-CCDev-1 |date= December 8, 2009 |publisher=NASA |access-date= February 10, 2011}}{{Cite news |url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2010/feb/HQ_C10-004_Commercia_Crew_Dev.html |title=NASA Selects Commercial Firms to Begin Development of Crew Transportation Concepts and Technology Demonstrations for Human Spaceflight Using Recovery Act Funds |date=February 1, 2010 |work=press release |publisher=NASA |access-date=February 2, 2010 |archive-date=February 3, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100203061828/http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2010/feb/HQ_C10-004_Commercia_Crew_Dev.html |url-status=dead }}{{Cite web|url=http://www.aiaa.org/pdf/industry/presentations/Lindenmoyer_C3PO.pdf |title=Commercial Crew and Cargo Program |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100305034240/http://www.aiaa.org/pdf/industry/presentations/Lindenmoyer_C3PO.pdf |archive-date=March 5, 2010 }} NASA awarded development funds to five companies under CCDev 1:

• Blue Origin: $3.7M for a 'pusher' Launch Abort System (LAS) and composite pressure vessels.{{Cite news |url=http://www.newspacejournal.com/2010/02/18/blue-origin-proposes-orbital-vehicle/ |title=Blue Origin proposes orbital vehicle |author=Jeff Foust}}
• Boeing: $18M for development of the CST-100 Starliner{{Citation|url=http://boeing.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=43&item=1054|title=NASA Selects Boeing for American Recovery and Reinvestment Act Award to Study Crew Capsule-based Design}}
• Paragon Space Development Corporation: $1.4M for a plug-and-play environmental control and life support system (ECLSS) Air Revitalization System (ARS) Engineering Development Unit.{{Cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/offices/c3po/partners/ccdev_info.html |title=CCDev Information |date=July 20, 2010 |publisher=NASA |access-date=February 1, 2011 |archive-date=November 9, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181109103152/https://www.nasa.gov/offices/c3po/partners/ccdev_info.html |url-status=dead }}
• Sierra Nevada Corporation: $20M for development of the Dream Chaser{{cite web |url=http://www.sncorp.com/news/press/pr10/snc_ccdev_spacenews.shtml |title=SNC receives largest award of NASA's CCDev Competitive Contract |date=February 1, 2010 |publisher=SNC |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100207081838/http://sncorp.com/news/press/pr10/snc_ccdev_spacenews.shtml |archive-date=February 7, 2010 }}
• United Launch Alliance: $6.7M for an Emergency Detection System (EDS) for human-rating Atlas V{{cite web |url=http://www.ulalaunch.com/site/pages/News.shtml#/45 |title=NASA Selects United Launch Alliance for Commercial Crew Development Program |date=February 2, 2010 |access-date=May 19, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131207160150/http://www.ulalaunch.com/site/pages/News.shtml#/45 |archive-date=December 7, 2013 |url-status=dead }}

File:DragonRider Mock-up - Musk and Bolden.jpg

On April 18, 2011, NASA awarded nearly $270 million to four companies for developing U.S. vehicles that could fly astronauts after the Space Shuttle fleet's retirement.Dean, James. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110511143351/http://space.flatoday.net/2011/04/nasa-awards-270-million-for-commercial.html "NASA awards $270 million for commercial crew efforts"]. space.com, April 18, 2011. Funded proposals:{{cite news |last=Morring |first=Frank Jr. |title=Five Vehicles Vie To Succeed Space Shuttle |url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_generic.jsp?channel=awst&id=news/awst/2011/04/25/AW_04_25_2011_p24-313867.xml&headline=Five%20Vehicles%20Vie%20To%20Succeed%20Space%20Shuttle |newspaper=Aviation Week |date=April 22, 2011 |access-date=February 23, 2011 |quote=the CCDev-2 awards, ... went to Blue Origin, Boeing, Sierra Nevada Corp. and Space Exploration Technologies Inc. (SpaceX). |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111221070704/http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_generic.jsp?channel=awst&id=news%2Fawst%2F2011%2F04%2F25%2FAW_04_25_2011_p24-313867.xml&headline=Five%20Vehicles%20Vie%20To%20Succeed%20Space%20Shuttle |archive-date=December 21, 2011 }}

• Blue Origin: $22 million. Technologies in support of a biconic nose cone design orbital vehicle, including launch abort system liquid oxygen/liquid hydrogen engines.{{cite web|url=http://procurement.ksc.nasa.gov/documents/NNK11MS02S_SAA_BlueOrigin_04-18-2011.pdf |title=Space Act Agreement No. NNK11MS02S Between National Aeronautics and Space Administration and Blue Origin, LLC for Commercial Crew Development Round 2 (CCDev 2) |access-date=December 5, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130215051509/http://procurement.ksc.nasa.gov/documents/NNK11MS02S_SAA_BlueOrigin_04-18-2011.pdf |archive-date=February 15, 2013 }}, p. 2-1[https://www.blueorigin.com/technology " Blue Origin Technology"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180110171630/https://www.blueorigin.com/technology |date=January 10, 2018 }}. Blue Origin. Retrieved February 1, 2016.
• Sierra Nevada Corporation: $80 million. Dream Chaser
• SpaceX: $75 million. Dragon 2 integrated launch abort system{{cite web |title=Taking the next step: Commercial Crew Development Round 2 |url=http://www.spacex.com/updates.php |work=SpaceX Updates webpage |publisher=SpaceX |date=January 17, 2010 |access-date=January 17, 2011 |archive-date=July 27, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727153858/http://www.spacex.com/updates.php |url-status=dead }}
• Boeing: $92.3 million. Additional CST-100 Starliner development[http://moonandback.com/2010/12/14/boeing-submits-proposal-for-2nd-round-of-commercial-crew-dev/ Boeing Submits Proposal for 2nd Round Of Commercial Crew Dev] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190623173754/http://moonandback.com/2010/12/14/boeing-submits-proposal-for-2nd-round-of-commercial-crew-dev/ |date=June 23, 2019 }}. moonandback.com spaceflight news, December 14, 2010, accessed December 27, 2010.

Proposals selected without NASA funding:

• United Launch Alliance: extend development work on human-rating the Atlas V{{cite web |title=NASA Begins Commercial Partnership With United Launch Alliance |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/news/releases/2011/release-20110718.html |publisher=NASA |access-date=July 18, 2011 |archive-date=November 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111234015/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/news/releases/2011/release-20110718.html |url-status=dead }}
• Alliant Techsystems (ATK) and Astrium proposed development of Liberty.{{cite news |last=Malik|first=Tariq |title=Scrapped NASA Rocket May be Resurrected for Commercial Launches |url=http://www.space.com/10792-liberty-rocket-ressurects-scrapped-nasa-ares1.html |access-date=February 10, 2010 |publisher=SPACE.com |date= February 8, 2010}} NASA was to share expertise and technology.{{cite web |url= https://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/space/story/2011-09-13/NASA-atk-liberty-rocket/50386970/1 |title= NASA, private firm may team up on Liberty rocket |access-date= September 13, 2011 |publisher= USA Today}}[http://commercialcrew.nasa.gov/document_file_get.cfm?docid=278 "Commercial Crew Program Forum Presentation"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111020145602/http://commercialcrew.nasa.gov/document_file_get.cfm?docid=278 |date=October 20, 2011 }}, p. 7. commercialcrew.nasa.gov, September 16, 2011.
• Excalibur Almaz Inc. was developing a crewed system with modernized Soviet-era hardware intended for tourism flights to orbit. An unfunded Space Act Agreement to establish a framework to further develop EAI's spacecraft concept for low Earth orbit crew transportation.{{cite web|title=CCP and Excalibur Sign Space Act Agreement|url=http://www.nasa.gov/exploration/commercial/CCP-Excalibur.html|publisher=NASA|access-date=November 18, 2011|archive-date=June 11, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170611000603/https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/commercial/CCP-Excalibur.html|url-status=dead}}{{Cite web|url=http://www.floridatoday.com/article/20111103/NEWS02/311030050/Excalibur-Almaz-NASA-sign-commercial-spaceflight-deal|title="Excalibur Almaz, NASA sign commercial spaceflight deal"}}

Proposals not selected:

• Orbital Sciences proposed the Prometheus lifting-body spaceplane vehicle{{Cite web |url=http://www.orbital.com/NewsInfo/Publications/OrbitalQuarterly_Winter2011.pdf?prid=762#search=%22prometheus%22 |title=The Shape of Things to Come – Orbital's Prometheus™ Space Plane Ready for NASA's Commercial Crew Development Initiative}}
• Paragon Space Development Corporation proposed additional development of the Commercial Crew Transport-Air Revitalization System.{{cite web |title=(press release) Paragon Space Development Corporation Completes All Development Milestones on the NASA Commercial Crew Development Program |url=http://www.paragonsdc.com/docs/CCT-ARS%20Press%20Release.pdf |publisher=Paragon |date=January 31, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715043642/http://www.paragonsdc.com/docs/CCT-ARS%20Press%20Release.pdf |archive-date=July 15, 2011 }}
• t/Space proposed a reusable eight-person crew or cargo transfer spacecraft{{cite web |last=Boyle |first=Alan |title=Let's talk about the final frontier |url=http://cosmiclog.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2011/02/11/6035600-lets-talk-about-the-final-frontier |work=Cosmic Log |publisher=MSNBC |access-date=February 13, 2011 |date=February 11, 2011 |quote=the proposal calls for the development of a spaceship that could be sent into space on a variety of launch vehicles. ... "Up to eight crew, Soyuz-like architecture (recoverable reusable crew element, expendable orbital/cargo module). Incorporates HMX's patented integral abort system (uses OMS/RCS propellant in separate abort engines). Can fly on Atlas 401 [a configuration for the Atlas 5 rocket], F9 [SpaceX's Falcon 9] or Taurus II (enhanced) but with a reduced cargo and crew capability on the latter vehicle. Goal is to be the lowest-price provider on a per-seat basis. Nominal land recovery with water backup." |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110215002006/http://cosmiclog.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2011/02/11/6035600-lets-talk-about-the-final-frontier |archive-date=February 15, 2011 }}
• United Space Alliance proposed to commercially fly the two remaining Space Shuttle vehicles.{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna41397955|title=NASA weighs plan to keep shuttle until 2017 – Technology & science – Space – NBC News|work=NBC News|date=February 3, 2011 }}

File:Dream Chaser pre-drop tests.3.jpg

Commercial Crew integrated Capability (CCiCap) was originally called CCDev 3.{{cite web |url=https://www.fbo.gov/index?s=opportunity&mode=form&id=230715a3035c3af460f542da1ad80562&tab=core&_cview=0 |title=COMMERCIAL CREW INTEGRATED CAPABILITY |date=January 23, 2012 |publisher=NASA |access-date=January 25, 2012}} For this phase of the program, NASA wanted proposals to be complete, end-to-end concepts of operation, including spacecraft, launch vehicles, launch services, ground and mission operations, and recovery. In September 2011, NASA released a draft request for proposals (RFP).{{cite web |url=http://science.house.gov/sites/republicans.science.house.gov/files/documents/hearings/101211_Gerstenmaier.pdf |title=Statement of William H. Gerstenmaier, Associate Administrator for Human Exploration and Operations, National Aeronautics and Space Administration; before the Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics Committee on Science, Space and Technology; U. S. House of Representatives |pages=6–7 |date=October 12, 2011 |access-date=October 12, 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120921125017/http://science.house.gov/sites/republicans.science.house.gov/files/documents/hearings/101211_Gerstenmaier.pdf |archive-date=September 21, 2012 |url-status=dead}} The final RFP was released on February 7, 2012, with proposals due on March 23, 2012.{{cite web |url=http://prod.nais.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/eps/sol.cgi?acqid=149848 |title=CCiCap Solicitation |date=February 7, 2012 |publisher=NASA |access-date=February 11, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130216214755/http://prod.nais.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/eps/sol.cgi?acqid=149848 |archive-date=February 16, 2013 }}{{cite web |url=http://commercialcrew.nasa.gov/document_file_get.cfm?docid=579 |title=Commercial Crew Integrated Capability Pre-Proposal Conference |date=February 14, 2012 |publisher=NASA |access-date=February 14, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130217052232/http://commercialcrew.nasa.gov/document_file_get.cfm?docid=579 |archive-date=February 17, 2013 }} The funded Space Act Agreements were awarded on August 3, 2012, and amended on August 15, 2013.{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/news/releases/2012/release-20120803.html |title= NASA Announces Next Steps in Effort to Launch Americans from U.S. Soil |date= August 3, 2012 |publisher=NASA |access-date= August 3, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120805185336/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/news/releases/2012/release-20120803.htm|archive-date=August 5, 2012|url-status=dead}}{{cite web |date=August 15, 2013 |title=NASA Announces Additional Commercial Crew Development Milestones |url=http://spaceref.biz/2013/08/nasa-announces-additional-commercial-crew-development-milestones.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200918163547/http://spaceref.biz/2013/08/nasa-announces-additional-commercial-crew-development-milestones.html |archive-date=September 18, 2020 |access-date=August 16, 2013 |work=Space Ref |publisher=SpaceRef Interactive Inc.}}

The selected proposals were announced August 3, 2012:

• Sierra Nevada Corporation: $212.5 million. Dream Chaser/Atlas V
• SpaceX: $440 million. Dragon 2/Falcon 9
• Boeing: $460 million. CST-100 Starliner/Atlas V

The first phase of the Certification Products Contract (CPC) involved the development of a certification plan with engineering standards, tests, and analyses.{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/news/releases/2012/release-20121210.html |title=NASA Awards Contracts In Next Step Toward Safely Launching American Astronauts From U.S. Soil |date=December 10, 2012 |publisher=NASA |access-date=December 11, 2012 |archive-date=October 21, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021001939/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/news/releases/2012/release-20121210.html |url-status=dead }} Winners of funding of phase 1 of the CPC, announced on December 10, 2012, were:

• Sierra Nevada Corporation: $10 million
• SpaceX: $9.6 million
• Boeing: $9.9 million

The Commercial Crew Transportation Capability (CCtCap) is the second phase of the CPC and included the final development, testing and verifications to allow crewed demonstration flights to the ISS. NASA issued the draft CCtCap contract's Request For Proposals (RFP) on July 19, 2013, with a response date of August 15, 2013.{{cite news |title=NASA Commercial Crew Transportation Capability Contract CCTCAP Draft RFP |url=https://spaceref.com/status-report/nasa-commercial-crew-transportation-capability-contract-cctcap-draft-rfp/ |date=July 19, 2013 |work=SpaceREF |access-date=July 22, 2013 }} On September 16, 2014, NASA announced that Boeing and SpaceX had received contracts to provide crewed launch services to the ISS. Boeing could receive up to US$4.2 billion, while SpaceX could receive up to US$2.6 billion.{{cite web |title=American Companies Selected to Return Astronaut Launches to American Soil |last=Bolden |first=Charlie |url=http://blogs.nasa.gov/bolden/2014/09/16/american-companies-selected-to-return-astronaut-launches-to-american-soil/ |website=NASA.gov |access-date=September 16, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140916202209/http://blogs.nasa.gov/bolden/2014/09/16/american-companies-selected-to-return-astronaut-launches-to-american-soil/|archive-date=September 16, 2014|url-status=dead}} Dragon was the less expensive proposal, but NASA's William H. Gerstenmaier considered the Boeing Starliner proposal the stronger of the two.{{cite web|url=https://aviationweek.com/space/why-nasa-rejected-sierra-nevadas-commercial-crew-vehicle|title=Why NASA Rejected Sierra Nevada's Commercial Crew Vehicle|work=Aviation Week|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141027174620/http://aviationweek.com/space/why-nasa-rejected-sierra-nevadas-commercial-crew-vehicle|url-status=dead|archive-date=October 27, 2014|access-date=March 3, 2019}} In November 2019 NASA published a first cost per seat estimate: US$55 million for SpaceX's Dragon and US$90 million for Boeing's Starliner. Boeing was also granted an additional $287.2 million above the fixed price contract. Seats on Soyuz had an average cost of US$80 million.{{cite news|url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2019/11/nasa-report-finds-boeing-seat-prices-are-60-higher-than-spacex/|title=NASA report finds Boeing seat prices are 60% higher than SpaceX|date=November 14, 2019}} However, adjusting for the additional cargo carried by Boeing's Starliner inside its crew capsule, the adjusted cost per seat figure is approximately $70 million, which is still higher than SpaceX's Crew Dragon even if the Dragon does not carry the equivalent of a fifth passenger in cargo.{{Cite web|title=Boeing fires back at NASA Inspector General regarding commercial crew report|url=https://spacenews.com/boeing-fires-back-at-nasa-inspector-general-regarding-commercial-crew-report/|date=November 19, 2019|website=SpaceNews.com|language=en-US|access-date=May 25, 2020}} Both the CST-100 Starliner and Crew Dragon were to fly an uncrewed flight, then a crewed certification flight, then up to six operational flights to the ISS.{{cite news |last1=Foust|first1=Jeff |title=NASA Commercial Crew Awards Leave Unanswered Questions |url=http://www.spacenews.com/article/civil-space/41924nasa-commercial-crew-awards-leave-unanswered-questions |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140921132432/http://www.spacenews.com/article/civil-space/41924nasa-commercial-crew-awards-leave-unanswered-questions |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 21, 2014 |access-date=September 21, 2014 |work=Space News |date=September 19, 2014 |quote="We basically awarded based on the proposals that we were given," Kathy Lueders, NASA commercial crew program manager, said in a teleconference with reporters after the announcement. "Both contracts have the same requirements. The companies proposed the value within which they were able to do the work, and the government accepted that."}}{{cite web |title=RELEASE 14-256 NASA Chooses American Companies to Transport U.S. Astronauts to International Space Station |url=http://www.nasa.gov/press/2014/september/nasa-chooses-american-companies-to-transport-us-astronauts-to-international |website=www.nasa.gov |publisher=NASA |access-date=October 29, 2014}}

File:NASA Commercial Crew.jpg

The first flight of the Commercial Crew Program was planned to occur in 2015, but insufficient funding caused delays.{{cite web|url=https://aviationweek.com/defense-space/space/nasa-chief-repeats-commercial-crew-warning|title=NASA Chief Repeats Warnings On Commercial Crew Delays|last=Norris|first=Guy|date=May 31, 2013|website=Aviation Week}}{{cite web |url=http://www.commercialspaceflight.org/2013/05/csf-president-michael-lopez-alegria-statement-on-nasa-contract-extension-with-roscosmos/ |title=CSF President Michael Lopez-Alegria Statement on NASA Contract Extension with Roscosmos |date=May 2, 2013 |publisher=Commercial Spaceflight Federation |access-date=May 2, 2013 |archive-date=April 20, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420224055/http://www.commercialspaceflight.org/2013/05/csf-president-michael-lopez-alegria-statement-on-nasa-contract-extension-with-roscosmos/ |url-status=dead }} As the spacecraft entered the testing and production phase, technical issues also caused delays, especially the parachute system, propulsion, and the launch abort system of both capsules.{{cite web|url=https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-20-005.pdf|title=NASA's management of crew transportation to the International Space Station|publisher=NASA Office of Audits|date=November 14, 2019|page=3}}

In July 2018, a test anomaly was reported in which there was a hypergolic propellant leak due to several faulty abort system valves. Consequentially, the first unpiloted orbital mission was delayed to April 2019, and the first crew launch rescheduled to August 2019.{{cite web|url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/commercialcrew/2018/10/04/nasas-commercial-crew-program-target-test-flight-dates-4/ |title=NASA's Commercial Crew Program Target Test Flight Dates|date=October 4, 2018|access-date=October 5, 2018}}{{cite web |url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/commercialcrew/2019/02/06/|title=Commercial Crew Program – February 6, 2019|website=blogs.nasa.gov|date=February 6, 2019 |access-date=February 6, 2019}} In March 2019, Reuters reported these test flights had been delayed by at least three months,{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-space-boeing/boeing-delays-by-months-test-flights-for-us-human-space-program-sources-idUSKCN1R12QR|title=Boeing delays by months test flights for U.S. human space program: sources|author=Eric M. Johnson|work=Reuters|date=March 20, 2019|access-date=March 22, 2019}} and in April 2019 Boeing announced that the unpiloted orbital mission was scheduled for August 2019.{{cite news|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/04/02/boeing-confirms-delay-of-first-starliner-crew-capsule-test-flight-to-august/|title=Boeing delays first Starliner test flight to August, NASA extends duration of first crew mission|last=Clark|first=Stephen|publisher=Spaceflight Now |date=April 2, 2019|access-date=April 3, 2019}}

{{Main|SpaceX Dragon 2#Explosion during testing}}

On April 20, 2019, an issue arose during a static fire test of Crew Dragon.{{cite web |last1=Bridenstine |first1=Jim |title=NASA has been notified about the results of the @SpaceX Static Fire Test and the anomaly that occurred during the final test. We will work closely to ensure we safely move forward with our Commercial Crew Program. |url=https://twitter.com/JimBridenstine/status/1119754804258062337 |website=TWITTER |access-date=April 21, 2019}} The accident destroyed the capsule which was planned to be used for the In-Flight Abort Test (IFAT).{{cite news|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2017/08/spacex-boeing-home-stretch-commercial-crew-readiness/|title=SpaceX and Boeing in home stretch for Commercial Crew readiness|last=Gebhardt|first=Chris|date=August 11, 2017|access-date=August 17, 2017|publisher=NASASpaceFlight.com}} SpaceX confirmed that the capsule exploded.{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/spacex-crew-dragon-spaceship-test-explosion-2019-5|title=SpaceX confirmed that its Crew Dragon spaceship for NASA was 'destroyed' by a recent test. Here's what we learned about the explosive failure.|last=Mosher|first=Dave|website=Business Insider|access-date=May 6, 2019}} NASA stated that the explosion would delay the planned in-flight abort and crewed orbital tests.{{cite web |url=https://www.journalpioneer.com/news/world/nasa-boss-says-no-doubt-spacex-explosion-delays-flight-program-323465/ |title=NASA boss says no doubt SpaceX explosion delays flight program |date=June 18, 2019 |access-date=June 18, 2019}}

{{Main|Boeing Orbital Flight Test}}

During the first orbital flight test of Starliner in December 2019, the spacecraft reached orbit but was unable to dock with ISS due to a critical software error. Subsequent analysis revealed a second critical software error that could cause the service module to collide with the capsule after separation during the de-orbiting sequence.

{{Main|Crew Dragon Demo-2}}

On May 30, 2020, two astronauts were launched to the ISS with a Crew Dragon as part of Crew Dragon Demo-2. The end and safe landing of Demo-2 on August 2, 2020, marked the first splashdown in 45 years for NASA astronauts since the first Apollo–Soyuz U.S./U.S.S.R international space mission in July 1975, as well as the first splashdown of a crew spacecraft in the Gulf of Mexico.

{{Main|Boeing Orbital Flight Test 2}}

Shortly before the scheduled launch of the second orbital flight test in August 2021, routine pre-launch testing showed that thirteen valves in the propulsion system were inoperable and the launch was scrubbed. The problem required extensive analysis that was still ongoing in October 2021, and NASA and Boeing estimated that a new launch date would be scheduled in the first half of 2022.

{{Main|Boeing Orbital Flight Test 2}}

Boeing Starliner Spacecraft 2 launched as part of the Boeing Orbital Flight Test 2, on May 19, 2022. It successfully docked on May 21, where it stayed for four days.{{Cite web |author1=Josh Dinner |date=May 17, 2022 |title=The science and cargo of Boeing's OFT-2 Starliner test flight to space station |url=https://www.space.com/boeing-starliner-oft2-mission-science-cargo |access-date=May 26, 2022 |website=Space.com |language=en}} On May 25, the spacecraft undocked and landed successfully in the White Sands Missile Range.{{Cite web |last=NASA |date=May 25, 2022 |title=Boeing's Starliner Safely Lands on Earth – Completing Critical Test Flight to Space Station |url=https://scitechdaily.com/?p=173684 |access-date=May 26, 2022 |website=SciTechDaily |language=en-us}}

{{Main|Boeing Crewed Flight Test}}

Days before a planned launch, Boeing announced in June 2023 that it would delay the Crewed Flight Test indefinitely due to issues with the parachute system and wiring harnesses.{{cite news |last1=Berger |first1=Eric |title=Boeing finds two serious problems with Starliner just weeks before launch |url=https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/06/boeing-stands-down-from-starliner-launch-to-address-recently-found-problems/ |work=Ars Technica |date=June 1, 2023 |language=en-us}} The mission entails flying a crew of two NASA astronauts to the International Space Station for a one-week test flight. The Crewed Flight Test successfully launched on June 5, 2024. The Starliner spacecraft docked to the International Space Station the next day after troubleshooting issues with the thrusters on the vehicle.{{cite web |last1=Sheetz |first1=Michael |title=Boeing Starliner docks with ISS, delivering its first NASA crew to space station |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2024/06/06/boeing-starliner-iss-docking.html#:~:text=The%20spacecraft%20docked%20with%20the,to%20the%20orbiting%20research%20laboratory. |website=CNBC |access-date=August 26, 2024 |language=en |date=June 6, 2024}} After more thruster testing, both in space and using another Starliner vehicle on Earth, NASA announced on August 24, 2024, that the two astronauts on the mission, Butch Wilmore and Suni Williams, would not return to Earth on Starliner, but instead fly back on Crew Dragon with the SpaceX Crew-9 mission.{{cite web |last1=Davis |first1=Wes |last2=Liszewski |first2=Andrew |title=NASA will bring the Starliner astronauts home next year on SpaceX's Crew-9 mission |url=https://www.theverge.com/2024/8/24/24226860/boeing-starliner-nasa-barry-wilmore-sunita-williams |website=The Verge |access-date=August 26, 2024 |language=en |date=August 24, 2024}}{{cite web |last1=Sheetz |first1=Michael |last2=Luhn |first2=Michele |title=Boeing Starliner returning empty as NASA turns to SpaceX to bring astronauts back from ISS |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2024/08/24/nasa-boeing-starliner-decision-return-empty-spacex-astronauts-iss.html?&qsearchterm=spacex |website=CNBC |access-date=August 26, 2024 |language=en |date=August 24, 2024}} The Starliner spacecraft successfully landed on the September 7, 2024.{{Cite web |title=Starliner lands safely in New Mexico – Spaceflight Now |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2024/09/07/starliner-lands-safely-in-new-mexico/ |access-date=2025-02-02 |language=en-US}} NASA confirmed on October 15, 2024 that Starliner would not be used for the following two crew rotation missions.{{Cite web |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=2024-10-17 |title=NASA further delays first operational Starliner flight |url=https://spacenews.com/nasa-further-delays-first-operational-starliner-flight/ |access-date=2025-02-02 |website=SpaceNews |language=en-US}} In October 2024, Boeing started exploring part of it’s space business. {{Cite web |title=Boeing looking to sell space business: report {{!}} Fox Business |url=https://www.foxbusiness.com/markets/boeing-looking-sell-space-business-report.amp |access-date=2025-02-02 |website=www.foxbusiness.com}}

File:CCP Budget requests.png

The first flight of the Commercial Crew Program was planned to occur in 2015, but insufficient funding caused delays. For the fiscal year (FY) 2011 budget, US$500 million was requested for the CCDev program, but Congress granted only $270 million.{{cite web |url=http://www.spacenews.com/civil/072110senate-panel-cuts-commercial-crew-adds-funds-for-orion-and-heavy-lift.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120909193900/http://www.spacenews.com/civil/072110senate-panel-cuts-commercial-crew-adds-funds-for-orion-and-heavy-lift.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 9, 2012 |title=Senate Panel Cuts Commercial Crew, Adds Funds for Orion and Heavy Lift |date=July 21, 2010 |publisher=Space News |access-date=April 18, 2012}} For the FY 2012 budget, $850 million was requested and $406 million approved.{{cite web |url=http://spaceflightnow.com/news/n1111/23commercialcrew/|title=Reduced budget threatens delay in private spaceships|last=Clark|first=Stephen |date=November 23, 2011 |publisher=Spaceflightnow |access-date=April 18, 2012}} For the FY 2013 budget, 830 million was requested and $488 million approved.{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/742926main_20130419_heoc_mcalisiter%20=TAGGED.pdf |title=Commercial Spaceflight Update |last=McAlister |first=Phillip |date=April 18, 2013 |publisher=NASA |access-date=August 10, 2013 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304213118/http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/742926main_20130419_heoc_mcalisiter%20=TAGGED.pdf |url-status=dead }} For the FY 2014 budget, $821 million was requested and $696 million approved.{{cite web|url=http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/space/nasa/is-the-relationship-between-nasa-and-private-space-about-to-sour-16441487|title=Is the Relationship Between NASA and Private Space About to Sour?|author=Joe Pappalardo|date=September 16, 2014|work=Popular Mechanics}} In FY 2015, $848 million was requested and $805 million, or 95%, was approved.{{cite news |last1=Clark |first1=Stephen |title=NASA gets budget hike in spending bill passed by Congress |url=http://spaceflightnow.com/2014/12/14/nasa-gets-budget-hike-in-spending-bill-passed-by-congress/ |access-date=December 15, 2014 |work=Spaceflight Now |date=December 14, 2014}} On November 14, 2019, NASA's inspector general published an auditing report listing per-seat prices of $90 million for Starliner and $55 million for Dragon Crew. With these, Boeing's price is higher than what NASA has paid the Russian space corporation, Roscosmos, for Soyuz spacecraft seats to fly US and partner-nation astronauts to the space station. The report also states that NASA agreed to pay an additional $287.2 million above Boeing's fixed prices to mitigate a perceived 18-month gap in ISS flights anticipated in 2019 and to ensure the contractor continued as a second commercial crew provider, without offering similar opportunities to SpaceX.{{cite web |last1=BERGER |first1=ERIC |title=NASA report finds Boeing seat prices are 60% higher than SpaceX |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2019/11/nasa-report-finds-boeing-seat-prices-are-60-higher-than-spacex/?comments=1 |website=Arstechnica |date=November 14, 2019 |access-date=November 14, 2019}} On November 18, 2019, Boeing's Jim Chilton replied that the inspector general's report failed to list Starliner’s positive features and objected to the per seat pricing as they believe the cost is lower than $90 million given its cargo capacity. Boeing's reasoning for the extra funding was due to a later start to its development than SpaceX with comparable deadlines. Boeing also stated it committed to the program.{{cite web |last1=Messier |first1=Doug |title= Boeing Fires Back at Critical NASA IG Report on Starliner |url=http://www.parabolicarc.com/2019/11/18/boeing-fires-back-at-critical-nasa-ig-report-on-starliner/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191119040420/http://www.parabolicarc.com/2019/11/18/boeing-fires-back-at-critical-nasa-ig-report-on-starliner/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 19, 2019 |website=Parabolic Arc |date=November 18, 2019 |access-date= May 13, 2020}} The funding of all commercial crew contractors for each phase of the CCP program is as follows—CCtCap values are maxima and include six post-development operational flights for each vendor.

Each system is required to successfully complete abort testing, an uncrewed orbital flight test, and a crewed orbital flight test to meet NASA's requirements for human-rating certification. The agency did allow the companies to propose how they would complete the required tests, with Boeing opting not to perform an in-flight abort test, which NASA approved.{{Cite web |title=Boeing tests crew capsule escape system – Spaceflight Now |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/11/04/boeing-starliner-pad-abort/ |access-date=August 24, 2024 |language=en-US}}

Crew Dragon completed its flight tests in mid-2020 and began operational flights in November 2020. NASA will decide after September 2024 if Boeing has met its certification requirements after the problems experienced on its crew flight test.{{Cite web |title=NASA Decides to Bring Starliner Spacecraft Back to Earth Without Crew – NASA |url=https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-decides-to-bring-starliner-spacecraft-back-to-earth-without-crew/ |access-date=August 24, 2024 |language=en-US}}

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{{Main|Commercial Crew Program#Missions}}

{{Portal|Spaceflight}}

• Commercial Orbital Transportation Services
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{{Reflist}}

• [http://www.nasa.gov/exploration/commercial/crew/index.html Official NASA Commercial Crew Program page]
• [https://www.nasa.gov/specials/ccp-press-kit/main.html Official NASA Press Kit relating to the Commercial Crew Program]
• [http://www.nasa.gov/exploration/commercial/document_library.html Commercial Crew & Cargo Document Library on NASA.gov] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150721062222/http://www.nasa.gov/exploration/commercial/document_library.html |date=July 21, 2015 }}
• [http://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/news/contracts/CCDev.html CCDev 1 Space Act agreements] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817060305/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/news/contracts/CCDev.html |date=August 17, 2016 }}
• [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dMrlv-YAjTs Partners Mature Spacecraft Designs], NASA video update, January 14, 2014.
• [http://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/files/Boeing-CCtCap-Contract(1).pdf Boeing CCtCap Contract (redacted)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728204210/http://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/files/Boeing-CCtCap-Contract(1).pdf |date=July 28, 2020 }}
• [http://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/files/SpaceX-CCtCap-Contract.pdf SpaceX CCtCap Contract (redacted)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728193508/http://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/files/SpaceX-CCtCap-Contract.pdf |date=July 28, 2020 }}

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