Diet and obesity#Portion size

File:World Per Person Energy Consumption.png

The dietary energy supply is the food available for human consumption, usually expressed in kilocalories per person per day. It gives an overestimate of the total amount of food consumed as it reflects both food consumed and food wasted. The per capita dietary energy supply varies markedly between different regions and countries. It has also changed significantly over time.{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/statistics/compendium_2006/list.asp |title=Compendium of food and agriculture indicators – 2006 |work=UN Food and Agriculture Organization |access-date=January 10, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080802131149/http://www.fao.org/statistics/compendium_2006/list.asp |archive-date=August 2, 2008 |url-status=dead }} From the early 1970s to the late 1990s, the average calories available per person per day (the amount of food bought) has increased in all part of the world except Eastern Europe and parts of Africa. The United States had the highest availability with 3654 kilo calories per person in 1996. This increased further in 2002 to 3770.{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/ES/ess/yearbook/vol_1_2/pdf/United-States-of-America.pdf |title=www.fao.org |work=UN Food and Agriculture Organization |access-date=January 10, 2009}} During the late 1990s, Europeans had 3394 kilo calories per person, in the developing areas of Asia there were 2648 kilo calories per person, and in sub-Sahara Africa people had 2176 kilo calories per person.{{cite web |url=http://www.beyond-diet-reviews.com/fao-statistics-division-chartroom/ |title=Calories per capita per day |format=gif |work=UN Food and Agriculture Organization |access-date=January 10, 2009 |archive-date=September 1, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170901012035/http://www.beyond-diet-reviews.com/fao-statistics-division-chartroom/ |url-status=dead }}{{cite web |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/1470965/USDA-frsept99b |title=USDA: frsept99b |work=USDA |access-date=January 10, 2009 |archive-date=June 3, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100603041758/http://www.scribd.com/doc/1470965/USDA-frsept99b |url-status=dead }}

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| caption1 = Change over time of the macronutrient composition of the US male diet

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| caption2 = Change over time of the macronutrient composition of the US female diet

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File:Indicatorslongrun579.gif consumption and the decrease in milk consumption from 1947 to 2001{{cite web |url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/Amberwaves/April04/pdf/indicators.pdf |title=In the Long Run |work=USDA |access-date=February 17, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225181638/http://www.ers.usda.gov/Amberwaves/April04/pdf/indicators.pdf |archive-date=February 25, 2009 |url-status=dead }}]]

From 1971 to 2000, the average daily number of calories which women consumed in the United States increased by 335 calories per day (1542 calories in 1971 and 1877 calories in 2000). For men, the average increase was 168 calories per day (2450 calories in 1971 and 2618 calories in 2000). Most of these extra calories came from an increase in carbohydrate consumption, though there was also an increase in fat consumption over the same time period.{{cite journal | title = Trends in intake of energy and macronutrients—United States, 1971–2000 | journal = MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report | volume = 53 | issue = 4 | pages = 80–2 | date = February 2004 | pmid = 14762332 | url = https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5304a3.htm | author1 = Centers for Disease Control Prevention (CDC) }} The increase in caloric consumption is attributed primarily to the "consumption of food away from home; increased energy consumption from salty snacks, soft drinks, and pizza; and increased portion sizes". Other sources note that the consumption of soft drinks and other sweetened beverages now accounts for almost 25 percent of daily calories in young adults in America.{{cite journal | vauthors = Caballero B | title = The global epidemic of obesity: an overview | journal = Epidemiologic Reviews | volume = 29 | pages = 1–5 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17569676 | doi = 10.1093/epirev/mxm012 | doi-access = free }} As these estimates are based on a person's recall, they may underestimate the amount of calories actually consumed.

As societies become increasingly reliant on energy-dense fast-food meals, the association between fast food consumption and obesity becomes more concerning.{{cite journal | vauthors = Rosenheck R | title = Fast food consumption and increased caloric intake: a systematic review of a trajectory towards weight gain and obesity risk | journal = Obesity Reviews | volume = 9 | issue = 6 | pages = 535–47 | date = November 2008 | pmid = 18346099 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2008.00477.x | doi-access = free }} In the United States, consumption of fast food meals has tripled and calorie intake from fast food has quadrupled between 1977 and 1995.{{cite book |vauthors=Lin BH, Guthrie J, Frazao E |editor=Frazão E |title=Agriculture Information Bulletin No. 750: America's Eating Habits: Changes and Consequences |chapter-url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/aib750/ |year=1999 |publisher=US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service |location=Washington, DC |pages=213–239 |chapter=Nutrient contribution of food away from home |access-date=2009-03-28 |archive-date=2002-06-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020611183104/http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/aib750/ |url-status=dead }} Consumption of sweetened drinks is also believed to be a major contributor to the rising rates of obesity.{{cite journal | vauthors = Olsen NJ, Heitmann BL | title = Intake of calorically sweetened beverages and obesity | journal = Obesity Reviews | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 68–75 | date = January 2009 | pmid = 18764885 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2008.00523.x | s2cid = 28672221 }}

File:Cheeseburger portions.jpg{{ cite web | url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3APortion_Distortion_I_(2004).pdf&page=7|publisher=National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute|date=17 November 2004|title=Portion Distortion I|page=7|via=Wikimedia Commons}}]]

The portion size of many prepackage and restaurant foods has increased in both the United States and Denmark since the 1970s.

Fast food servings, for example, are 2 to 5 times larger than they were in the 1980s. Evidence has shown that larger portions of energy-dense foods lead to greater energy intake and thus to greater rates of obesity.{{cite journal | vauthors = Ledikwe JH, Ello-Martin JA, Rolls BJ | title = Portion sizes and the obesity epidemic | journal = The Journal of Nutrition | volume = 135 | issue = 4 | pages = 905–9 | date = April 2005 | pmid = 15795457 | doi = 10.1093/jn/135.4.905 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Steenhuis IH, Vermeer WM | title = Portion size: review and framework for interventions | journal = The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity | volume = 6 | pages = 58 | date = August 2009 | pmid = 19698102 | pmc = 2739837 | doi = 10.1186/1479-5868-6-58 | doi-access = free }}

A 2010 study published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition closely tracked 373,803 people over a period of 8 years across 10 countries. At its conclusion, the study reported that meat consumption (processed meat, red meat, & poultry) is positively associated with weight gain and increased abdominal obesity in men and women.{{cite journal | vauthors = Vergnaud AC, Norat T, Romaguera D, Mouw T, May AM, Travier N, Luan J, Wareham N, Slimani N, Rinaldi S, Couto E, Clavel-Chapelon F, Boutron-Ruault MC, Cottet V, Palli D, Agnoli C, Panico S, Tumino R, Vineis P, Agudo A, Rodriguez L, Sanchez MJ, Amiano P, Barricarte A, Huerta JM, Key TJ, Spencer EA, Bueno-de-Mesquita B, Büchner FL, Orfanos P, Naska A, Trichopoulou A, Rohrmann S, Hermann S, Boeing H, Buijsse B, Johansson I, Hellstrom V, Manjer J, Wirfält E, Jakobsen MU, Overvad K, Tjonneland A, Halkjaer J, Lund E, Braaten T, Engeset D, Odysseos A, Riboli E, Peeters PH | display-authors = 6 | title = Meat consumption and prospective weight change in participants of the EPIC-PANACEA study | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 92 | issue = 2 | pages = 398–407 | date = August 2010 | pmid = 20592131 | doi = 10.3945/ajcn.2009.28713 | doi-access = free }} In response, the National Cattlemen's Beef Association countered that increased meat consumption may not be associated with fat gain.{{cite journal | vauthors = Astrup A, Clifton P, Layman DK, Mattes RD, Westerterp-Plantenga MS | title = Meat intake's influence on body fatness cannot be assessed without measurement of body fat | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 92 | issue = 5 | pages = 1274–5; author reply 1275–6 | date = November 2010 | pmid = 20844064 | doi = 10.3945/ajcn.110.000661 | doi-access = free }} However, a subsequent response controlled for just abdominal fat across a sample of 91,214 people found that even when controlling for calories and subjects with cancer or smoking cessation, meat consumption is linked with obesity.{{Cite journal | vauthors = Vergnaud AC, Norat T, Romaguera D, Peeters PH |title = Reply to A Astrup et al|journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|date = 2010-11-01|issn = 0002-9165|pages = 1275–1276|volume = 92|issue = 5|doi = 10.3945/ajcn.110.000786 |doi-access = free}} Further population studies, reviews, and meta-analysis studies have corroborated the claim that greater meat consumption is linked to greater rates of obesity,{{cite journal | vauthors = Lin Y, Bolca S, Vandevijvere S, De Vriese S, Mouratidou T, De Neve M, Polet A, Van Oyen H, Van Camp J, De Backer G, De Henauw S, Huybrechts I | display-authors = 6 | title = Plant and animal protein intake and its association with overweight and obesity among the Belgian population | journal = The British Journal of Nutrition | volume = 105 | issue = 7 | pages = 1106–16 | date = April 2011 | pmid = 21144092 | doi = 10.1017/S0007114510004642 | doi-access = free | hdl = 1854/LU-1207545 | hdl-access = free }} especially in regards to red meat and processed meat.{{cite journal | vauthors = Rouhani MH, Salehi-Abargouei A, Surkan PJ, Azadbakht L | title = Is there a relationship between red or processed meat intake and obesity? A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies | journal = Obesity Reviews | volume = 15 | issue = 9 | pages = 740–8 | date = September 2014 | pmid = 24815945 | doi = 10.1111/obr.12172 | s2cid = 43894954 }}

Drinking more sugary beverages (including fruit juices, soft drinks, fruit drinks, sports drinks, energy and enhanced water drinks, sweetened iced tea, and lemonade) increases overall energy intake, and thus increases the risk of metabolic syndrome, obesity, and type 2 diabetes (see the pathophysiology of obesity).{{cite journal | vauthors = Luger M, Lafontan M, Bes-Rastrollo M, Winzer E, Yumuk V, Farpour-Lambert N | title = Sugar-Sweetened Beverages and Weight Gain in Children and Adults: A Systematic Review from 2013 to 2015 and a Comparison with Previous Studies | journal = Obesity Facts | volume = 10 | issue = 6 | pages = 674–693 | year = 2017 | pmid = 29237159 | pmc = 5836186 | doi = 10.1159/000484566 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Hu FB | title = Resolved: there is sufficient scientific evidence that decreasing sugar-sweetened beverage consumption will reduce the prevalence of obesity and obesity-related diseases | journal = Obesity Reviews | volume = 14 | issue = 8 | pages = 606–19 | date = August 2013 | pmid = 23763695 | pmc = 5325726 | doi = 10.1111/obr.12040 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Malik VS, Pan A, Willett WC, Hu FB | title = Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 98 | issue = 4 | pages = 1084–102 | date = October 2013 | pmid = 23966427 | pmc = 3778861 | doi = 10.3945/ajcn.113.058362 }}{{cite book |title=Guideline: Sugars intake for adults and children |series=WHO Guidelines Approved by the Guidelines Review Committee |date=2015 |publisher=World Health Organization |isbn=978-92-4-154902-8 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK285537/}} Children who consume more added sugar in foods and beverages have a higher risk of becoming overweight. By itself, sugar is not a factor causing obesity and metabolic syndrome, but rather – when over-consumed – is a component of unhealthy dietary behavior.{{cite web |url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/42665/1/WHO_TRS_916.pdf?ua=1 |author=Joint WHO/FAO Expert Consultation |year=2003 |title=WHO Technical Report Series 916: Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases |access-date=25 December 2013}} Adults who increase or decrease their free sugar intake increase or decrease their weight.{{cite book |title=Sugars intake for adults and children Guideline |date=2015 |publisher=World Health Organization |isbn=978-92-4-154902-8 |pages= |url=https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/149782/9789241549028_eng.pdf |language=en|quote="Increasing or decreasing free sugars is associated with parallel changes in body weight, and the relationship is present regardless of the level of intake of free sugars."}}

Reviews indicate that governmental health policies should be implemented to discourage intake of sugar-sweetened beverages, and reduce the obesity in children and adults. Obesity has been rising in the 21st century. Other than adding excessive calories, the mechanisms by which high sugar consumption causes obesity are unclear because of limitations in clinical research involving uncontrolled factors, such as overall diet, physical activity, and sedentary lifestyle.{{clarify|reason=does this mean that sugar intake might cause obesity by causing changes in other diet or decreasing physical activity? Or that controlled clinical trials have not been done?|date=November 2021}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Stanhope KL | title = Sugar consumption, metabolic disease and obesity: The state of the controversy | journal = Critical Reviews in Clinical Laboratory Sciences | volume = 53 | issue = 1 | pages = 52–67 | year = 2016 | pmid = 26376619 | pmc = 4822166 | doi = 10.3109/10408363.2015.1084990 }}

Numerous large studies have demonstrated that eating ultraprocessed food has a positive dose-dependent relationship with both abdominal obesity and general obesity in both men and women.{{cite journal | vauthors = Elizabeth L, Machado P, Zinöcker M, Baker P, Lawrence M | title = Ultra-Processed Foods and Health Outcomes: A Narrative Review | journal = Nutrients | volume = 12 | issue = 7 | pages = 1955 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32630022 | pmc = 7399967 | doi = 10.3390/nu12071955 | doi-access = free }} Consuming a diet rich in unprocessed and minimally processed foods is linked with lower obesity risk and less chronic disease. These results are consistent among American,{{cite journal | vauthors = Monteiro CA, Cannon G, Moubarac JC, Levy RB, Louzada ML, Jaime PC | title = The UN Decade of Nutrition, the NOVA food classification and the trouble with ultra-processing | journal = Public Health Nutrition | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 5–17 | date = January 2018 | pmid = 28322183 | doi = 10.1017/S1368980017000234 | pmc = 10261019 | s2cid = 3876969 | doi-access = free }} Canadian,{{cite journal | vauthors = Nardocci M, Leclerc BS, Louzada ML, Monteiro CA, Batal M, Moubarac JC | title = Consumption of ultra-processed foods and obesity in Canada | journal = Canadian Journal of Public Health | volume = 110 | issue = 1 | pages = 4–14 | date = February 2019 | pmid = 30238324 | pmc = 6964616 | doi = 10.17269/s41997-018-0130-x }} Latin American,{{cite book | author = Pan American Health Organization |title=Ultra-processed food and drink products in Latin America: Sales, sources, nutrient profiles, and policy implications |date=17 June 2019 |url=https://iris.paho.org/handle/10665.2/51094 |access-date=15 March 2021 |language=en | isbn = 978-92-75-12032-3}} British,{{cite journal | vauthors = Rauber F, Steele EM, Louzada ML, Millett C, Monteiro CA, Levy RB | title = Ultra-processed food consumption and indicators of obesity in the United Kingdom population (2008-2016) | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 15 | issue = 5 | pages = e0232676 | date = 2020-05-01 | pmid = 32357191 | pmc = 7194406 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0232676 | bibcode = 2020PLoSO..1532676R | doi-access = free }} Australian,{{cite journal | vauthors = Machado PP, Steele EM, Levy RB, da Costa Louzada ML, Rangan A, Woods J, Gill T, Scrinis G, Monteiro CA | display-authors = 6 | title = Ultra-processed food consumption and obesity in the Australian adult population | journal = Nutrition & Diabetes | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 39 | date = December 2020 | pmid = 33279939 | pmc = 7719194 | doi = 10.1038/s41387-020-00141-0 }} French,{{cite journal | vauthors = Beslay M, Srour B, Méjean C, Allès B, Fiolet T, Debras C, Chazelas E, Deschasaux M, Wendeu-Foyet MG, Hercberg S, Galan P, Monteiro CA, Deschamps V, Calixto Andrade G, Kesse-Guyot E, Julia C, Touvier M | display-authors = 6 | title = Ultra-processed food intake in association with BMI change and risk of overweight and obesity: A prospective analysis of the French NutriNet-Sant cohort | journal = PLOS Medicine | volume = 17 | issue = 8 | pages = e1003256 | date = August 2020 | pmid = 32853224 | pmc = 7451582 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pmed.1003256 | doi-access = free }} and Spaniard populations.{{cite journal | vauthors = Sandoval-Insausti H, Jiménez-Onsurbe M, Donat-Vargas C, Rey-García J, Banegas JR, Rodríguez-Artalejo F, Guallar-Castillón P | title = Ultra-Processed Food Consumption Is Associated with Abdominal Obesity: A Prospective Cohort Study in Older Adults | journal = Nutrients | volume = 12 | issue = 8 | page = 2368 | date = August 2020 | pmid = 32784758 | pmc = 7468731 | doi = 10.3390/nu12082368 | doi-access = free }}

Particular processing ingredients used in ultraprocessed foods have been linked with increasing the risk of obesity further. Intake of trans fat from industrial oils has been associated with increased abdominal obesity in men{{cite journal | vauthors = Koh-Banerjee P, Chu NF, Spiegelman D, Rosner B, Colditz G, Willett W, Rimm E | title = Prospective study of the association of changes in dietary intake, physical activity, alcohol consumption, and smoking with 9-y gain in waist circumference among 16 587 US men | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 78 | issue = 4 | pages = 719–27 | date = October 2003 | pmid = 14522729 | doi = 10.1093/ajcn/78.4.719 | doi-access = free }} and increased weight and waist circumference in women.{{cite journal | vauthors = Bendsen NT, Chabanova E, Thomsen HS, Larsen TM, Newman JW, Stender S, Dyerberg J, Haugaard SB, Astrup A | display-authors = 6 | title = Effect of trans fatty acid intake on abdominal and liver fat deposition and blood lipids: a randomized trial in overweight postmenopausal women | journal = Nutrition & Diabetes | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | pages = e4 | date = January 2011 | pmid = 23154296 | pmc = 3302130 | doi = 10.1038/nutd.2010.4 }} These associations were not attenuated when fat intake and calorie intake was accounted for.{{cite journal | vauthors = Micha R, Mozaffarian D | title = Trans fatty acids: effects on cardiometabolic health and implications for policy | journal = Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids | volume = 79 | issue = 3–5 | pages = 147–52 | date = 1 September 2008 | pmid = 18996687 | pmc = 2639783 | doi = 10.1016/j.plefa.2008.09.008 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Kavanagh K, Jones KL, Sawyer J, Kelley K, Carr JJ, Wagner JD, Rudel LL | title = Trans fat diet induces abdominal obesity and changes in insulin sensitivity in monkeys | journal = Obesity | volume = 15 | issue = 7 | pages = 1675–84 | date = July 2007 | pmid = 17636085 | doi = 10.1038/oby.2007.200 | s2cid = 4835948 | doi-access = free }}

Similarly, heavy consumption of fried food is linked to greater obesity risk on a population level.{{cite journal | vauthors = Guallar-Castillón P, Rodríguez-Artalejo F, Fornés NS, Banegas JR, Etxezarreta PA, Ardanaz E, Barricarte A, Chirlaque MD, Iraeta MD, Larrañaga NL, Losada A, Mendez M, Martínez C, Quirós JR, Navarro C, Jakszyn P, Sánchez MJ, Tormo MJ, González CA | display-authors = 6 | title = Intake of fried foods is associated with obesity in the cohort of Spanish adults from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 86 | issue = 1 | pages = 198–205 | date = July 2007 | pmid = 17616781 | doi = 10.1093/ajcn/86.1.198 | doi-access = free }} On a more individual level, the relative risk of fried food consumption and increased weight gain seems to depend on genetic predisposition.{{cite journal |title=Abstract 04: Fried Food Consumption and Genetic Predisposition to Obesity |journal=Circulation |date=25 March 2014 |volume=129 |issue=suppl_1 |pages=A04 |doi=10.1161/circ.129.suppl_1.04 |url=https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/circ.129.suppl_1.04 |access-date=15 March 2021|last1=Qi |first1=Qibin |last2=Chu |first2=Audrey |last3=Kang |first3=Jae |last4=Jensen |first4=Majken |last5=Curhan |first5=Gary |last6=Louis |first6=Pasquale |last7=De Vivo |first7=Immaculata |last8=Chan |first8=Andrew |last9=Choi |first9=Hyon |last10=Tamimi |first10=Rulla |last11=Ridker |first11=Paul |last12=Hunter |first12=David |last13=Willett |first13=Walter |last14=Rimm |first14=Eric |last15=Chasman |first15=Daniel |last16=Hu |first16=Frank |last17=Qi |first17=Lu |url-access=subscription }}

File:Prevalence Of Obesity In The Adult Population By Region.svg

File:Prevalence Of Obesity In The Adult Population (2016).svg

New agricultural technologies have led to an overall reduction in the cost of food relative to household income, especially in high-income countries. In his popular book, "The Omnivore's Dilemma," the journalist Michael Pollan linked the subsidies offered to farmers of corn, soy, wheat, and rice through the U.S. farm bill to over-consumption of calories derived from these crops and to rising obesity rates.{{cite news| vauthors = Pollan M |title=You Are What You Grow|work=New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/22/magazine/22wwlnlede.t.html?ex=1186027200&en=bbe0f6a2c10e3b3c&ei=5070|date= 22 April 2007|access-date= 2007-07-30}} While increased consumption of foods derived from these commodities is correlated with an increase in BMI (at the population level), no current research supports a causal relationship between farm subsidies and obesity.{{cite journal | vauthors = Siegel KR, McKeever Bullard K, Imperatore G, Kahn HS, Stein AD, Ali MK, Narayan KM | title = Association of Higher Consumption of Foods Derived From Subsidized Commodities With Adverse Cardiometabolic Risk Among US Adults | journal = JAMA Internal Medicine | volume = 176 | issue = 8 | pages = 1124–32 | date = August 2016 | pmid = 27379488 | pmc = 6512298 | doi = 10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.2410 }} From a policy perspective, the cost of sugar would actually decrease in the US if the commodity support programs in the farm bill were removed, largely due to the tariffs in the farm bill that restrict the importation of lower-cost sugar available on the global market.{{cite news| vauthors = Aubrey A |title=Does Subsidizing Crops We're Told To Eat Less Of Fatten Us Up?|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2016/07/18/486051480/we-subsidize-crops-we-should-eat-less-of-does-this-fatten-us-up|access-date=6 May 2017|work=NPR.org|date=2016-07-18|language=en}}

Participation by adults in the United States Department of Agriculture Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (i.e. Food Stamps) is positively associated with obesity, waist circumference, elevated fasting glucose, and metabolic syndrome.{{cite journal | vauthors = Leung CW, Willett WC, Ding EL | title = Low-income Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program participation is related to adiposity and metabolic risk factors | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 95 | issue = 1 | pages = 17–24 | date = January 2012 | pmid = 22170370 | pmc = 3238460 | doi = 10.3945/ajcn.111.012294 }}

Evidence does not support the commonly expressed view that some obese people eat little yet gain weight due to a slow metabolism. On average obese people have a greater energy expenditure than normal weight or thin people and actually have higher basal metabolic rates.{{cite book | vauthors = Kushner R |title=Treatment of the Obese Patient (Contemporary Endocrinology) |publisher=Humana Press |location=Totowa, NJ |year=2007 |pages=158 |isbn=978-1-59745-400-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vWjK5etS7PMC&q=measurement+of+metabolism+in+obese+Bessesen&pg=PA121 |access-date=April 5, 2009}}{{cite web| vauthors = Crowe T |title=Monday's medical myth: 'my slow metabolism makes me fat'|url=http://theconversation.com/mondays-medical-myth-my-slow-metabolism-makes-me-fat-4962|access-date=15 November 2013}} This is because it takes more energy to maintain an increased body mass.{{cite journal | vauthors = Adams JP, Murphy PG | title = Obesity in anaesthesia and intensive care | journal = British Journal of Anaesthesia | volume = 85 | issue = 1 | pages = 91–108 | date = July 2000 | pmid = 10927998 | doi = 10.1093/bja/85.1.91 | doi-access = free }} Obese people also underreport how much food they consume compared to those of normal weight.{{cite book| vauthors = Kopelman PG, Caterson ID, Stock MJ, Dietz WH |title=Clinical obesity in adults and children: In Adults and Children|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=2005|isbn=978-1-4051-1672-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u7RvldSr5M0C}} Tests of human subjects carried out in a calorimeter support this conclusion.{{cite web |url=http://www.medicalpost.com/therapeutics/nutrition/article.jsp?content=20080818_121920_25640 |title=mdPassport |access-date=December 31, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090111180437/http://www.medicalpost.com/therapeutics/nutrition/article.jsp?content=20080818_121920_25640 |archive-date=January 11, 2009 |url-status=dead }}

• Abdominal obesity
• Criticism of fast food
• List of countries by dietary calorie intake
• Satiety value

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Category:Risk factors for obesity

Category:Diets