Digital contact tracing
{{Distinguish|Printed circuit board{{!}}PCB electrical test}}
{{short description|Method of contact tracing using mobile devices}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020|cs1-dates=y}}
File:A schematic of app-based COVID-19 contact tracing (Fig. 4 from Ferretti et al. 2020).jpgs in high-traffic areas where GPS is too coarse. Individual A requests a SARS-COV-2 test (using the app) and their positive test result triggers instant notification to users who have been in close contact. The app advises isolation for the case (individual A) and quarantine of their contacts.{{Cite journal|last1=Ferretti|first1=Luca|last2=Wymant|first2=Chris|last3=Kendall|first3=Michelle|last4=Zhao|first4=Lele|last5=Nurtay|first5=Anel|last6=Abeler-Dörner|first6=Lucie|last7=Parker|first7=Michael|last8=Bonsall|first8=David|last9=Fraser|first9=Christophe|date=2020-03-31|title=Quantifying SARS-CoV-2 transmission suggests epidemic control with digital contact tracing|journal=Science|volume=368|issue=6491|pages=eabb6936|language=en|doi=10.1126/science.abb6936|issn=0036-8075|pmid=32234805|pmc=7164555|doi-access=free}}|alt=]]
Digital contact tracing is a method of contact tracing relying on tracking systems, most often based on mobile devices, to determine contact between an infected patient and a user.{{Cite journal |title=Digital contact tracing technologies in epidemics: a rapid review |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews}} It came to public prominence in the form of COVID-19 apps during the COVID-19 pandemic.{{Cite web|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2020-04-17/5-questions-the-governments-coronavirus-contact-tracing-app/12151264|title=Five questions we need answered about the government's coronavirus contact tracing app|last=Bogle|first=Ariel|date=2020-04-17|website=ABC News|language=en-AU|access-date=2020-04-18|archive-date=2020-04-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418021750/https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2020-04-17/5-questions-the-governments-coronavirus-contact-tracing-app/12151264|url-status=live}}{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/seouls-radical-experiment-in-digital-contact-tracing|title=Seoul's Radical Experiment in Digital Contact Tracing|last=Kim|first=Max S.|magazine=The New Yorker|date=17 April 2020|language=en|access-date=2020-04-18|archive-date=2020-04-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418215219/https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/seouls-radical-experiment-in-digital-contact-tracing|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|url=https://qz.com/1838625/how-bluetooth-could-power-a-global-experiment-in-contact-tracing/|title=How Bluetooth could bring digital contact tracing for Covid-19 to billions|last=Shendruk|first=Amrita Khalid, Amanda|website=Quartz|date=16 April 2020 |language=en|access-date=2020-04-18|archive-date=2020-04-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200417190116/https://qz.com/1838625/how-bluetooth-could-power-a-global-experiment-in-contact-tracing/|url-status=live}} Since the initial outbreak, many groups have developed nonstandard protocols designed to allow for wide-scale digital contact tracing, most notably BlueTrace and Exposure Notification.{{Cite web|last1=Bay|first1=Jason|last2=Kek|first2=Joel|last3=Tan|first3=Alvin|last4=Sheng Hau|first4=Chai|last5=Yongquan|first5=Lai|last6=Tan|first6=Janice|last7=Anh Quy|first7=Tang|date=2020-04-09|title=BlueTrace: A privacy-preserving protocol for community-driven contact tracing across borders|url=https://bluetrace.io/static/bluetrace_whitepaper-938063656596c104632def383eb33b3c.pdf|url-status=live|access-date=12 April 2020|website=Government Technology Agency|archive-date=2020-04-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200420142854/https://bluetrace.io/static/bluetrace_whitepaper-938063656596c104632def383eb33b3c.pdf}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.apple.com/covid19/contacttracing|title=Privacy-Preserving Contact Tracing|website=Apple|access-date=2020-04-19|archive-date=2020-04-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200417231038/https://www.apple.com/covid19/contacttracing/|url-status=live}}
When considering the limitations of mobile devices, there are two competing ways to trace proximity: GPS and Bluetooth; each with their own drawbacks. Additionally, the protocols can either be centralized or decentralized, meaning contact history can either be processed by a central health authority, or by individual clients in the network. On 10 April 2020, Google and Apple jointly announced that they would integrate functionality to support such Bluetooth-based apps directly into their Android and iOS operating systems.{{Cite journal|last=Sharon|first=Tamar|title=Blind-sided by privacy? Digital contact tracing, the Apple/Google API and big tech's newfound role as global health policy makers|journal=Ethics and Information Technology|year=2021 |volume=23 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=45–57 |doi=10.1007/s10676-020-09547-x |pmid=32837287 |pmc=7368642 }}
History
Digital contact tracing has existed as a concept since at least 2007,{{Cite journal|last=Bahri|first=Shamshul|date=2007-01-01|title=Enhancing quality of data through automated SARS contact tracing method using RFID technology|journal=International Journal of Networking and Virtual Organisations|volume=4|issue=2|pages=145–162|doi=10.1504/IJNVO.2007.013540|issn=1470-9503}}{{Cite book|last1=Altuwaiyan|first1=Thamer|last2=Hadian|first2=Mohammad|last3=Liang|first3=Xiaohui|title=2018 IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC) |chapter=EPIC: Efficient Privacy-Preserving Contact Tracing for Infection Detection |date=May 2018|location=Kansas City, MO|publisher=IEEE|pages=1–6|doi=10.1109/ICC.2018.8422886|isbn=978-1-5386-3180-5|s2cid=51878832|doi-access=free}} and it was proven to be effective in the first empirical investigation using Bluetooth data in 2014.{{Cite journal|last1=Farrahi|first1=Katayoun|last2=Emonet|first2=Rémi|last3=Cebrian|first3=Manuel|date=2014-05-01|title=Epidemic Contact Tracing via Communication Traces|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=9|issue=5|pages=e95133|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0095133|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4006791|pmid=24787614|bibcode=2014PLoSO...995133F|doi-access=free}}{{cite web|title=Digital contact tracing might be our best shot|url=https://www.mpg.de/14983121/tracing-app-interview-cebrian-english|access-date=2020-08-20 |archive-date=2020-07-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726000516/https://www.mpg.de/14983121/tracing-app-interview-cebrian-english|url-status=live}} However, it was largely held back by the necessity of widespread adoption.{{Cite news|last1=Huang|first1=Yasheng|url=https://hbr.org/2020/04/how-digital-contact-tracing-slowed-covid-19-in-east-asia|title=How Digital Contact Tracing Slowed Covid-19 in East Asia|date=2020-04-15|work=Harvard Business Review|access-date=2020-04-22|last2=Sun|first2=Meicen|issn=0017-8012|last3=Sui|first3=Yuze|archive-date=2020-04-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422020144/https://hbr.org/2020/04/how-digital-contact-tracing-slowed-covid-19-in-east-asia|url-status=live}} A 2018 patent application by Facebook discussed a Bluetooth proximity-based trust method.{{Cite patent|title=Proximity-based trust|pubdate=2019-07-18|country=WO|number=2019139630|assign=Facebook Inc.|inventor1-last=Sathya|inventor1-first=Sai Sri|inventor2-last=Raskar|inventor2-first=
Ramesh}} The concept came to prominence during the COVID-19 pandemic, where it was deployed on a wide scale for the first time through multiple government and private COVID-19 apps.{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/25/coronavirus-singapore-to-make-contact-tracing-tech-open-source.html|title=Singapore says it will make its contact tracing tech freely available to developers|last=Choudhury|first=Saheli Roy|date=2020-03-25|website=CNBC|language=en|access-date=2020-04-22|archive-date=2020-04-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422060358/https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/25/coronavirus-singapore-to-make-contact-tracing-tech-open-source.html|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/australia-looks-to-go-harder-with-use-of-covid-19-contact-tracing-app/|title=Australia looks to 'go harder' with use of COVID-19 contact tracing app|last=Barbaschow|first=Asha|website=ZDNet|language=en|access-date=2020-04-22|archive-date=2020-04-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200415083126/https://www.zdnet.com/article/australia-looks-to-go-harder-with-use-of-covid-19-contact-tracing-app/|url-status=live}} Many countries, however, saw poor adoption, with the exception of Singapore's digital contact tracing app, TraceTogether, which saw an adoption rate of about 92%.{{Cite news |date=2021-05-11 |title=More than 1,100 users have deregistered from TraceTogether: Vivian |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/more-than-1100-users-have-deregistered-from-tracetogether-vivian |access-date=2024-03-25 |work=The Straits Times |language=en |issn=0585-3923}} COVID-19 apps tend to be voluntary rather than mandatory,{{Cite web |url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/QANDA_20_869 |title=Coronavirus: a common approach for safe and efficient mobile tracing apps across the EU |access-date=2020-10-07 |archive-date=2020-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200929082924/https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/qanda_20_869 |url-status=live }}[https://www.law.kuleuven.be/citip/blog/europes-plan-for-contact-tracing-apps-against-covid-19/ Europe’s plan for contact tracing apps against COVID-19] which may also have an impact on the rate of adoption. Israel was the only country in the world to use its internal security agency (Shin Bet) to track citizens' geolocations to slow the spread of the virus.{{Cite journal|last=Marciano|first=Avi|title=Israel's mass surveillance during COVID-19: A missed opportunity|url=https://ojs.library.queensu.ca/index.php/surveillance-and-society/article/view/14543|journal=Surveillance & Society|year=2021|volume=19|pages=85–88|doi=10.24908/ss.v19i1.14543|doi-access=free|access-date=2021-03-09 |archive-date=2021-03-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210306112645/https://ojs.library.queensu.ca/index.php/surveillance-and-society/article/view/14543|url-status=live}} However, cellphone-based location tracking proved to be insufficiently accurate, as scores of Israeli citizens were falsely identified as carriers of COVID-19 and subsequently ordered to self-quarantine.{{Cite news|title=400,000 Israelis Were Wrongly Quarantined by Shin Bet Tracking, Top Court Says|language=en|work=Haaretz|url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-400-000-israelis-were-wrongly-quarantined-by-shin-bet-tracking-top-court-says-1.9459603|access-date=2021-12-19}} In an attempt to contain the spread of the Omicron Variant, Israel reinstated the use of Shin Bet counterterrorism surveillance measures for a limited period of time.{{Cite web|last=Cahane|first=Amir|date=December 16, 2021|title=The Collapsed Bridge Loan: Israel's Shin Bet Location Tracking of Omicron Carriers|url=https://www.lawfaremedia.org/article/collapsed-bridge-loan-israels-shin-bet-location-tracking-omicron-carriers|url-status=live|website=Lawfare|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240113133929/https://www.lawfaremedia.org/article/collapsed-bridge-loan-israels-shin-bet-location-tracking-omicron-carriers |archive-date=13 January 2024 }}
Apps were often met with overwhelming criticism about concerns with the data health authorities were collecting.{{Cite news|last=Taylor|first=Josh|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/17/australias-coronavirus-contact-tracing-app-what-we-know-so-far|title=Australia's coronavirus contact tracing app: what we know so far|date=2020-04-21|work=The Guardian|access-date=2020-04-22|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=2020-04-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422174805/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/17/australias-coronavirus-contact-tracing-app-what-we-know-so-far|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|url=https://7news.com.au/lifestyle/health-wellbeing/government-developing-coronavirus-app-tracetogether-that-will-use-gps-to-track-you-c-977853|title=The GPS tracking app the government wants YOU to download so COVID lockdown can be lifted|date=2020-04-15|website=7NEWS.com.au|language=en|access-date=2020-04-22}}{{Cite web|url=https://australiancybersecuritymagazine.com.au/privacy-recommendations-for-australias-use-of-contact-tracing-mobile-apps-like-tracetogether/|title=Privacy recommendations for Australia's use of contact tracing mobile apps like TraceTogether|website=australiancybersecuritymagazine.com.au|date=6 April 2020|access-date=2020-04-22|archive-date=2020-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200416223238/https://australiancybersecuritymagazine.com.au/privacy-recommendations-for-australias-use-of-contact-tracing-mobile-apps-like-tracetogether/|url-status=live}} Experts also criticized protocols like the Pan-European Privacy-Preserving Proximity Tracing and BlueTrace for their centralized contact log processing, that meant the government could determine who you had been in contact with.{{Cite news|url=https://www.tagesspiegel.de/wissen/welche-technologie-soll-es-sein-das-gefaehrliche-chaos-um-die-corona-app/25755338.html|title=Das gefährliche Chaos um die Corona-App|newspaper=Der Tagesspiegel Online|date=20 April 2020 |language=de|access-date=2020-04-20|archive-date=2020-04-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200421233051/https://www.tagesspiegel.de/wissen/welche-technologie-soll-es-sein-das-gefaehrliche-chaos-um-die-corona-app/25755338.html|url-status=live|last1=Dalg |first1=Paul |last2=Rusch |first2=Lina |last3=Schröder |first3=Miriam |last4=Voß |first4=Oliver }}{{Cite web|url=https://www.zeit.de/zustimmung?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.zeit.de%2Fdigital%2Fdatenschutz%2F2020-04%2Fcorona-app-initiative-pepp-pt-datenschutz-warnung-forscher|title=ZEIT ONLINE {{!}} Lesen Sie zeit.de mit Werbung oder imPUR-Abo. Sie haben die Wahl.|website=www.zeit.de|access-date=2020-04-20|archive-date=2020-04-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200420154006/https://www.zeit.de/zustimmung?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.zeit.de%2Fdigital%2Fdatenschutz%2F2020-04%2Fcorona-app-initiative-pepp-pt-datenschutz-warnung-forscher|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.sueddeutsche.de/digital/coronavirus-pepp-pt-dp-3t-smartphone-app-streit-1.4882612|title=Corona-App: Streit um Pepp-PT entbrannt|last=Zeitung|first=Süddeutsche|website=Süddeutsche.de|date=20 April 2020 |language=de|access-date=2020-04-20|archive-date=2020-04-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200420221801/https://www.sueddeutsche.de/digital/coronavirus-pepp-pt-dp-3t-smartphone-app-streit-1.4882612|url-status=live}}{{Cite news|last=Hern|first=Alex|date=2020-04-20|title=Digital contact tracing will fail unless privacy is respected, experts warn|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/20/coronavirus-digital-contact-tracing-will-fail-unless-privacy-is-respected-experts-warn|access-date=2020-04-20|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=2020-04-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200420123233/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/20/coronavirus-digital-contact-tracing-will-fail-unless-privacy-is-respected-experts-warn|url-status=live}}
MIT SafePaths published the earliest paper, 'Apps Gone Rogue',{{cite arXiv|last1=Raskar|first1=Ramesh|last2=Schunemann|first2=Isabel|last3=Barbar|first3=Rachel|last4=Vilcans|first4=Kristen|last5=Gray|first5=Jim|last6=Vepakomma|first6=Praneeth|last7=Kapa|first7=Suraj|last8=Nuzzo|first8=Andrea|last9=Gupta|first9=Rajiv|last10=Berke|first10=Alex|last11=Greenwood|first11=Dazza|date=2020-03-19|title=Apps Gone Rogue: Maintaining Personal Privacy in an Epidemic|class=cs.CR|eprint=2003.08567}} on a decentralized GPS algorithm{{Cite magazine|title=Phones Could Track the Spread of Covid-19. Is It a Good Idea?|language=en-us|magazine=Wired|url=https://www.wired.com/story/phones-track-spread-covid19-good-idea/|access-date=2020-08-16|issn=1059-1028|archive-date=2020-04-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200409204755/https://www.wired.com/story/phones-track-spread-covid19-good-idea/|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|title=This MIT and Harvard-built app could slow the spread of coronavirus|url=https://futurism.com/coronavirus-app-mit-safe-paths|access-date=2020-08-16|website=Futurism|date=18 March 2020 |language=en|archive-date=2020-08-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200811191809/https://futurism.com/coronavirus-app-mit-safe-paths|url-status=live}} as well as the pitfalls of previous methods. MIT SafePaths was also the first to release a privacy-preserving Android and iOS GPS app.{{Cite web|last=Linder|first=Courtney|date=2020-03-18|title=This MIT App Tracks the Spread of Coronavirus While Protecting Your Privacy|url=https://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/apps/a31742763/covid-19-app-private-kit-safe-paths/|access-date=2020-08-16|website=Popular Mechanics|language=en-US|archive-date=2020-08-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200815053339/https://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/apps/a31742763/covid-19-app-private-kit-safe-paths/|url-status=live}}
Covid Watch was the first organization to develop{{Cite web|date=2020-03-17|title=Covid Watch iOS TCN Testflight App|url=https://testflight.apple.com/join/gtAh2Xeu|access-date=2020-03-17|website=Apple TestFlight|language=en|archive-date=2020-06-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200603101641/https://testflight.apple.com/join/gtAh2Xeu|url-status=live}} and open source{{Cite web|title=First implementation of anonymous exposure alert protocol|url=https://github.com/covid19risk/covidwatch-ios/commit/b520d1486d9d898dadeb15dd94fbbb16c0e1d6a1|access-date=2020-03-17|website=GitHub|language=en}}{{Cite web|date=2020-03-17|title=Covid Watch Github|url=https://github.com/covid19risk/|access-date=2020-03-17|website=Github|language=en|archive-date=2020-03-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325193839/https://github.com/covid19risk|url-status=live}} an anonymous, decentralized Bluetooth digital contact tracing protocol, publishing their white paper on the subject on 20 March 2020.{{Cite web|url=https://www.krellinst.org/csgf/about-doe-csgf/news-events/white-covid-watch/|title=Fellow Working to Devise COVID-19 Alert Application|last=CSGF|first=DOE|date=2020-03-31|website=DOE Computational Science Graduate Fellowship|language=en|access-date=2020-03-31|archive-date=2020-04-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200410061117/https://www.krellinst.org/csgf/about-doe-csgf/news-events/white-covid-watch|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|date=2020-04-06|title=Private Contact Tracing Protocols Compared: DP-3T and CEN|url=https://www.zfnd.org/blog/private-contact-tracing-protocols-compared/|website=Zcash Foundation|language=en|access-date=2020-06-29 |archive-date=2020-06-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200627200235/https://www.zfnd.org/blog/private-contact-tracing-protocols-compared/|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|date=2020-03-20|title=Covid Watch White Paper|url=https://www.covid-watch.org/article/|access-date=2020-03-20|website=Covid Watch|language=en|archive-date=2021-10-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211015150522/https://blog.covidwatch.org/en/covid-watch-whitepaper-using-crowdsourced-data-to-slow-virus-spread|url-status=dead}}{{Cite web|last=Rivest|first=Ron|title=MIT PACT|url=https://pact.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/The-PACT-protocol-specification-ver-0.1.pdf|access-date=2020-04-22 |archive-date=2020-04-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418212902/https://pact.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/The-PACT-protocol-specification-ver-0.1.pdf|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|last=Case|first=Nicky|title=Comic|url=https://ncase.me/contact-tracing/|website=ncase.me|access-date=2020-07-03 |archive-date=2020-07-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200703073629/https://ncase.me/contact-tracing/|url-status=live}} The group was founded as a research collaboration between Stanford University and the University of Waterloo.{{Cite web|last=University|first=Stanford|date=2020-04-09|title=Stanford researchers help develop privacy-focused coronavirus alert app|url=https://news.stanford.edu/2020/04/09/stanford-researchers-help-develop-privacy-focused-coronavirus-alert-app/|access-date=2020-04-09|website=Stanford News|language=en|archive-date=2020-04-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200409223628/https://news.stanford.edu/2020/04/09/stanford-researchers-help-develop-privacy-focused-coronavirus-alert-app/|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|last=Waterloo|first=University of|date=2020-04-20|title=Coming into contact with COVID|url=https://uwaterloo.ca/stories/coming-contact-covid/|access-date=2020-04-20|website=Waterloo Stories|language=en|archive-date=2020-04-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200425025953/https://uwaterloo.ca/stories/coming-contact-covid|url-status=live}} The protocol they developed, the CEN Protocol, later renamed the TCN Protocol, was first released on 17 March 2020{{Cite web|date=2020-04-13|title=What privacy-preserving coronavirus tracing apps need to succeed|url=https://venturebeat.com/2020/04/13/what-privacy-preserving-coronavirus-tracing-apps-need-to-succeed/|access-date=2020-04-18|website=VentureBeat|language=en-US|archive-date=2020-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200416100043/https://venturebeat.com/2020/04/13/what-privacy-preserving-coronavirus-tracing-apps-need-to-succeed/|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|date=2020-03-31|title=One victim of COVID-19 pandemic may be privacy rights|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/03/29/world/coronavirus-pandemic-privacy-rights//|access-date=2020-03-31|website=JapanTimes|language=en-US|archive-date=2020-03-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200330161044/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/03/29/world/coronavirus-pandemic-privacy-rights/|url-status=live}} and presented at Stanford HAI's COVID-19 and AI virtual conference on April 1.{{Cite web|url=https://hai.stanford.edu/resources-covid-19-and-ai-virtual-conference/|title=Stanford HAI COVID-19 and AI Virtual Conference|date=2020-04-01|website=Stanford HAI|language=en|access-date=2020-04-01|archive-date=2020-05-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509173258/https://hai.stanford.edu/resources-covid-19-and-ai-virtual-conference|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l5q8HuH82WE&list=PLYLBSCrrqNXxhUFJJtKauxr5HItq4a3gu&index=16&t=0s/|title=Tracking COVID-19 Using Crowdsourced Data: Tina White|date=2020-04-01|website=Stanford HAI|language=en|access-date=2020-04-01|archive-date=2020-07-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200707160008/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l5q8HuH82WE&list=PLYLBSCrrqNXxhUFJJtKauxr5HItq4a3gu&index=16&t=0s%2F|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|url=https://venturebeat.com/2020/04/02/surveillance-ai-and-saving-lives-top-agenda-at-coronavirus-conference/|title=Surveillance, AI, and saving lives top agenda at coronavirus conference|date=2020-04-02|website=Stanford HAI|language=en|access-date=2020-04-02|archive-date=2020-04-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200403001252/https://venturebeat.com/2020/04/02/surveillance-ai-and-saving-lives-top-agenda-at-coronavirus-conference/|url-status=live}}
NOVID is the first digital contact tracing app which primarily uses Ultrasound. Their ultrasound technology yields much higher accuracy than Bluetooth-based apps, and they are {{as of?|date=July 2023}} the only app with sub-meter contact tracing accuracy.{{Cite web|url=https://www.novid.org|title=NOVID Sub-meter Contact Tracing Accuracy|website=novid}}
Methodologies
= Bluetooth proximity tracing =
Bluetooth, more specifically Bluetooth Low Energy, is used to track encounters between two phones.{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/story/apple-google-contact-tracing-strengths-weaknesses/|title=Is Apple and Google's Covid-19 Contact Tracing a Privacy Risk?|magazine=Wired|access-date=2020-04-18|language=en|issn=1059-1028|archive-date=2020-04-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418020625/https://www.wired.com/story/apple-google-contact-tracing-strengths-weaknesses/|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/4/15/21222161/apple-google-bluetooth-contact-tracing-system-coronavirus-health|title=Google and Apple's COVID-19 tracking system can't save lives all on its own|last=Wetsman|first=Nicole|date=2020-04-15|website=The Verge|language=en|access-date=2020-04-18|archive-date=2020-04-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418201125/https://www.theverge.com/2020/4/15/21222161/apple-google-bluetooth-contact-tracing-system-coronavirus-health|url-status=live}}{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-tracing-apps-expla-idUSKCN21W2I8|title=Explainer: How smartphone apps can help 'contact trace' the new coronavirus|date=2020-04-14|work=Reuters|access-date=2020-04-18|language=en|archive-date=2020-04-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418122132/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-tracing-apps-expla-idUSKCN21W2I8|url-status=live}} Typically, Bluetooth is used to transmit anonymous, time-shifting identifiers to nearby devices. Receiving devices then commit these identifiers to a locally stored contact history log. Given epidemiological recommendations, devices store inputs only of the encountered devices for a fixed time, exceeding a threshold (e.g., more than 15 min) at a certain distance (e.g., less than 2 meters). {{Cite journal|title=Survey of Decentralized Solutions with Mobile Devices for User Location Tracking, Proximity Detection, and Contact Tracing in the COVID-19 Era|journal=Data|year=2020|doi=10.3390/data5040087|doi-access=free|last1=Shubina|first1=Viktoriia|last2=Holcer|first2=Sylvia|last3=Gould|first3=Michael|last4=Lohan|first4=Elena Simona|volume=5|issue=4|page=87|hdl=10234/190241|hdl-access=free}}
Bluetooth protocols with encryption are perceived to have less privacy problems and have lower battery usage than GPS-based schemes.{{Rp|table. 1}} Because a user's location is not logged as part of the protocols, the system is unable to track patients who may have become infected by touching a surface an ill patient has also touched. Another serious concern is the potential inaccuracy of Bluetooth at detecting contact events.{{Cite news|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/countries-around-world-are-rolling-out-contact-tracing-apps-contain-coronavirus-how|title=COVID-19 contact tracing apps are coming to a phone near you. How will we know whether they work?|date=2020-05-22|work=Science|access-date=2020-05-22|language=en|archive-date=2020-05-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200522002544/https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/05/countries-around-world-are-rolling-out-contact-tracing-apps-contain-coronavirus-how|url-status=live}}{{Cite news|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2243137-bluetooth-may-not-work-well-enough-to-trace-coronavirus-contacts/
|title=Bluetooth may not work well enough to trace coronavirus contacts|date=2020-05-12
|work=New Scientist|access-date=2020-05-22|language=en}} Potential challenges for high received signal strength fluctuations in BLE proximity tracing are line-of-sight vs. non-line-of-sight conditions, various BLE advertising channels, different device placements, possible WiFi interference. {{Cite journal|title=On the High Fluctuations of Received Signal Strength Measurements with BLE Signals for Contact Tracing and Proximity Detection|journal=IEEE Sensors Journal|year=2021|doi=10.1109/JSEN.2021.3095710|last1=Flueratoru|first1=Laura|last2=Shubina|first2=Viktoriia|last3=Niculescu|first3=Dragos|last4=Lohan|first4=Elena Simona|volume=22 |issue=6 |pages=5086–5100|s2cid=237976681|doi-access=free}}
= Location tracking =
Location tracking can be achieved via cell phone tower networks or using GPS. Cell phone tower network-based location tracking has the advantage of eliminating the need to download an app. Location tracking enables calculating user position with certain levels of accuracy in 2D or 3D. The first contact tracing protocol of this type was deployed in Israel.{{Cite news|last=Holmes|first=Oliver|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/17/israel-to-track-mobile-phones-of-suspected-coronavirus-cases|title=Israel to track mobile phones of suspected coronavirus cases|date=2020-03-17|work=The Guardian|access-date=2020-04-01|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=2020-04-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200409221059/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/17/israel-to-track-mobile-phones-of-suspected-coronavirus-cases|url-status=live}} The accuracy is however typically not sufficient for meaningful contact tracing.
Smartphone GPS logging solutions are more private than Bluetooth based solutions because the smartphone can passively record the GPS values. The concern with Bluetooth-based solutions is that the smartphone will continuously emit an RF signal every 200ms, which can be spied on. On the other hand, digital contact tracing solutions that force users to release their location trails to a central system without encryption can lead to privacy problems.{{cite web|url=https://www.aclu.org/report/aclu-white-paper-limits-location-tracking-epidemic|title=ACLU White Paper: The Limits of Location Tracking in an Epidemic|publisher=American Civil Liberties Union|language=en|access-date=2020-04-10|archive-date=2020-04-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200410204838/https://www.aclu.org/report/aclu-white-paper-limits-location-tracking-epidemic|url-status=live}}
= GEO-QR code tagging =
Another method of tracking is assigning a venue or a place to a QR code and having the people scan the QR code by their mobiles to tag their visits. By this method, people voluntarily check in and check out from the location and they have control on their privacy, and they need not download or install any app. Should a positive COVID-19 case be identified later, such systems can detect any possible encounter within the venue or place between the positive case individual and others who might have visited and tagged their visits to the venue at the same time. Such method have been used in Malaysia by Malaysian government and also in Australia and New Zealand by private sector under QR-code visitor check-in systems.{{Cite web|url=https://www.marketwatch.com/press-release/novidic-offers-efficient-contact-tracing-solutions-during-covid-19-pandemic-2020-07-27|title=NOVIDIC Offers Efficient Contact Tracing Solutions During Covid-19 Pandemic|website=MarketWatch}}{{Dead link|date=February 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} In Australia{{Cite web|url=https://www.coronavirus.vic.gov.au/register-to-use-vic-gov-qr-code-service|title=Register to use the Victorian Government QR code service|website=Coronavirus Victoria}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.nsw.gov.au/covid-19/covid-safe/customer-record-keeping/your-obligations|title=Customer record keeping - your obligations|website=NSW Government|date=21 July 2021}} and New Zealand,{{Cite web|url=https://www.health.govt.nz/our-work/diseases-and-conditions/covid-19-novel-coronavirus/covid-19-resources-and-tools/nz-covid-tracer-app/nz-covid-tracer-qr-codes#who|title=NZ COVID Tracer QR codes|website=NZ Ministry of Health|access-date=2021-09-10 |archive-date=2021-09-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210910015947/https://www.health.govt.nz/our-work/diseases-and-conditions/covid-19-novel-coronavirus/covid-19-resources-and-tools/nz-covid-tracer-app/nz-covid-tracer-qr-codes#who|url-status=dead}} respective local governments have later sought to centralize contact tracing by requiring businesses to use the state's QR-code system.
= Ultrasound =
Using ultrasound is another way to record contacts. Smartphones emit ultrasound signals which are detected by other smartphones. NOVID, which is the only digital contact tracing app with sub-meter contact tracing accuracy, primarily uses Ultrasound.
= CCTV with facial recognition =
CCTV with facial recognition can also be used to detect confirmed cases and those breaking control measures.{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicef.org/mena/sites/unicef.org.mena/files/2020-06/WP2020-01.pdf|title=Digital contact tracing and surveillance during COVID-19|access-date=2020-09-29 |archive-date=2020-10-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027162059/https://www.unicef.org/mena/sites/unicef.org.mena/files/2020-06/WP2020-01.pdf|url-status=live}} The systems may or may not store identifying data or use a central database.{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-52529981 |title=Coronavirus France: Camera's to monitor masks and social distancing |work=BBC News |date=4 May 2020 |access-date=2020-09-29 |archive-date=2020-10-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021201905/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-52529981 |url-status=live }}
Reporting centralization
One of the largest privacy concerns raised about protocols such as BlueTrace or PEPP-PT is the usage of centralised report processing.{{Cite web|title=Privacy Norms and the Pandemic|url=https://blog.mozilla.org/blog/2020/04/22/privacy-norms-and-the-pandemic|last=Surman|first=Mark|website=The Mozilla Blog|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-27|archive-date=2020-04-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200428133939/https://blog.mozilla.org/blog/2020/04/22/privacy-norms-and-the-pandemic/|url-status=live}}{{Cite news|title=Projekt Pepp-PT: Den Tracing-App-Entwicklern laufen die Partner weg - DER SPIEGEL - Netzwelt|url=https://www.spiegel.de/netzwelt/apps/pepp-pt-in-corona-krise-den-tracing-app-entwicklern-laufen-die-partner-weg-a-017f50eb-c1e2-4097-8182-53708ca6db59|last=SPIEGEL|first=DER|newspaper=Der Spiegel|date=20 April 2020 |language=de|access-date=2020-04-20|archive-date=2021-07-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210704122813/https://www.spiegel.de/netzwelt/apps/pepp-pt-in-corona-krise-den-tracing-app-entwicklern-laufen-die-partner-weg-a-017f50eb-c1e2-4097-8182-53708ca6db59|url-status=live}} In a centralised report processing protocol a user must upload their entire contact log to a health authority administered server, where the health authority is then responsible for matching the log entries to contact details, ascertaining potential contact, and ultimately warning users of potential contact.
Alternatively, anonymous decentralized report processing protocols, while still having a central reporting server, delegate the responsibility to process logs to clients on the network. Tokens exchanged by clients contain no intrinsic information or static identifiers. Protocols using this approach, such as TCN and DP-3T, have the client upload a number from which encounter tokens can be derived by individual devices.{{Cite web|title=PEPP-PT vs DP-3T: The coronavirus contact tracing privacy debate kicks up another gear|url=https://tech.newstatesman.com/security/pepp-pt-vs-dp-3t-the-coronavirus-contact-tracing-privacy-debate-kicks-up-another-gear|date=2020-04-20|website=NS Tech|language=en-GB|access-date=2020-05-08|archive-date=2020-05-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509024958/https://tech.newstatesman.com/security/pepp-pt-vs-dp-3t-the-coronavirus-contact-tracing-privacy-debate-kicks-up-another-gear|url-status=live}} Clients then check these tokens against their local contact logs to determine if they have come in contact with an infected patient.{{Cite web|title=DP-3T whitepaper|url=https://github.com/DP-3T/documents/blob/master/DP3T%20White%20Paper.pdf|website=GitHub|access-date=2020-04-22|archive-date=2020-04-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200421123719/https://github.com/DP-3T/documents/blob/master/DP3T%20White%20Paper.pdf|url-status=live}} Inherent in the fact the government does not process nor have access to contact logs, this approach has major privacy benefits. However, this method also presents some issues, primarily the lack of human in the loop reporting, leading to a higher occurrence of false positives; and potential scale issues, as some devices might become overwhelmed with a large number of reports. Anonymous decentralised reporting protocols are also less mature than their centralized counterparts as governments were initially much more keen to adopt centralized surveillance systems.{{Cite web|title=TraceTogether - behind the scenes look at its development process|url=https://www.tech.gov.sg/media/technews/tracetogether-behind-the-scenes-look-at-its-development-process|website=www.tech.gov.sg|date=25 March 2020 |language=en|access-date=2020-04-12|archive-date=2020-04-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412125435/https://www.tech.gov.sg/media/technews/tracetogether-behind-the-scenes-look-at-its-development-process|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|title=Initial commit · TCNCoalition/TCN@1b68b92|url=https://github.com/TCNCoalition/TCN/commit/1b68b920db1fb42709c7c8eb28c3d5e10c76fc3c|website=GitHub|language=en|access-date=2020-04-18|archive-date=2020-06-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200603142924/https://github.com/TCNCoalition/TCN/commit/1b68b920db1fb42709c7c8eb28c3d5e10c76fc3c|url-status=live}}
Ephemeral IDs
Ephemeral IDs, also known as EphIDs, Temporary IDs{{Cite web|title=Contact tracing apps - can we trust the tech?|url=https://platform.deloitte.com.au/articles/contact-tracing-apps-can-we-trust-the-tech|last=Valk|first=Robert|website=platform.deloitte.com.au|language=en|access-date=2020-05-21|archive-date=2020-08-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200811131900/https://platform.deloitte.com.au/articles/contact-tracing-apps-can-we-trust-the-tech|url-status=live}} or Rolling Proximity IDs,{{Cite web|title=An Overview to the Bluetooth Contact Tracing protocol by Apple & Google|url=https://medium.com/macoclock/an-overview-to-the-bluetooth-contact-tracing-protocol-by-apple-google-9c03a2c1e30a|last=OpenCovidTrace|date=2020-04-30|website=Medium|language=en|access-date=2020-05-21|archive-date=2020-05-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523185103/https://medium.com/macoclock/an-overview-to-the-bluetooth-contact-tracing-protocol-by-apple-google-9c03a2c1e30a|url-status=live}} are the tokens exchanged by clients during an encounter to uniquely identify themselves. These IDs regularly change, generally ever 20 minutes, and are not constituted by plain text personally identifiable information. The variable nature of a client's identifier is needed for the prevention of tracking by malicious third parties who, by observing static identifiers over a large geographical area over time, could track users and deduce their identity. Because EphIDs are not static, there is theoretically no way a third party could track a client for a period longer than the lifetime of the EphID. There may, however, still be incidental leakage of static identifiers, such as was the case on the BlueTrace apps TraceTogether and COVIDSafe{{Cite web|title=COVIDSafe Android App - BLE Privacy Issues|url=https://docs.google.com/document/d/1u5a5ersKBH6eG362atALrzuXo3zuZ70qrGomWVEC27U/preview?usp=embed_facebook|website=Google Docs|language=en|access-date=2020-05-07|archive-date=2020-08-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200831025025/https://docs.google.com/document/d/1u5a5ersKBH6eG362atALrzuXo3zuZ70qrGomWVEC27U/preview?usp=embed_facebook|url-status=live}}{{cite web|title=COVIDSafe App Teardown & Panel Discussion|website = YouTube|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U3dN99ljgD4|language=en|access-date=2020-05-07|archive-date=2021-07-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210704122814/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U3dN99ljgD4|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|title=The #covidsafe app is now available in Australia. However, it's a shame that they have decided not to release the source code for full transparency. Luckily, I'm a curious chap and also a professional mobile developer.|url=https://twitter.com/matthewrdev/status/1254336105203200000|last=Robbins|first=Matthew|date=2020-04-26|website=@matthewrdev|language=en|access-date=2020-05-07|archive-date=2020-05-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506065610/https://twitter.com/matthewrdev/status/1254336105203200000|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|title=Not sure whether to install the government's COVIDSafe app? Here's everything we know.|url=https://www.sbs.com.au/news/the-feed/not-sure-whether-to-install-the-government-s-covidsafe-app-here-s-everything-we-know|website=The Feed|language=en|access-date=2020-05-07|archive-date=2020-05-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506172316/https://www.sbs.com.au/news/the-feed/not-sure-whether-to-install-the-government-s-covidsafe-app-here-s-everything-we-know|url-status=live}} before they were patched.{{Cite web|title=COVIDSafe code from version 1.0.17 (#1) · AU-COVIDSafe/mobile-android@696e4ed|url=https://github.com/AU-COVIDSafe/mobile-android/commit/696e4ed498623a763b3fefc6982d2567691ea48d|website=GitHub|language=en|access-date=2020-05-15|archive-date=2021-07-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210704122754/https://github.com/AU-COVIDSafe/mobile-android/commit/696e4ed498623a763b3fefc6982d2567691ea48d|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|title=fixed a bug where the cached read payload was not cleared properly · opentrace-community/opentrace-android@0c7f7f6|url=https://github.com/opentrace-community/opentrace-android/commit/0c7f7f6c4b265140f86b91f8e9e1ec70f5cd67ba|website=GitHub|language=en|access-date=2020-05-07|archive-date=2021-07-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210704122815/https://github.com/opentrace-community/opentrace-android/commit/0c7f7f6c4b265140f86b91f8e9e1ec70f5cd67ba|url-status=live}}
Generally, there are two ways of generating Ephemeral IDs. Centralized protocols such as BlueTrace issue Temporary IDs from the central reporting server, where they are generated by encrypting a static User ID with a secret key only known to the health authority. Alternatively, anonymous decentralized protocols such as TCN and DP-3T have the clients deterministically generate the IDs from a secret key only known to the client. This secret key is later revealed and used by clients to determine contact with an infected patient.
List of protocols
Issues and controversies
During the unfolding COVID-19 pandemic, reactions to digital contact tracing applications worldwide have at times been drastic and often polarized.
Despite holding the promise to drastically reduce contagion and allow for a relaxation of social distancing measures, digital contact tracing applications have been criticized by academia and the public alike. The main issues concern the technical efficacy of such systems and their ethical implications, in particular regarding privacy, freedoms and democracy.{{Cite web|title=COVID-19 contact tracing app: 'I get it, but I don't like it'|url=https://www.afr.com/technology/covid-19-contact-tracing-app-i-get-it-but-i-don-t-like-it-20200417-p54kqk|date=17 April 2020|website=Australian Financial Review|language=en|access-date=17 April 2020|archive-date=2021-07-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210704122738/https://www.afr.com/technology/covid-19-contact-tracing-app-i-get-it-but-i-don-t-like-it-20200417-p54kqk|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|title=TraceTogether, Singaporean COVID-19 contact tracing and Australian recommendations|url=https://eng.unimelb.edu.au/ingenium/research-stories/world-class-research/real-world-impact/on-the-privacy-of-tracetogether,-the-singaporean-covid-19-contact-tracing-mobile-app,-and-recommendations-for-australia|last=Jackson|first=Carl|date=6 April 2020|language=en|access-date=18 April 2020|agency=Melbourne School of Engineering|archive-date=2021-07-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210704122850/https://eng.unimelb.edu.au/ingenium/technology-and-society/on-the-privacy-of-tracetogether,-the-singaporean-covid-19-contact-tracing-mobile-app,-and-recommendations-for-australia|url-status=live}}
The US non-profit, ForHumanity, called for independent audit and governance of contact tracing{{Cite web|title=Contact Tracing Governance|url=https://medium.com/@ForHumanity_Org/contact-tracing-requires-independent-governance-89e05f57ff33|access-date=2020-08-08|website=Medium|date=30 April 2020|language=en-US|archive-date=2020-05-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200511032619/https://medium.com/@ForHumanity_Org/contact-tracing-requires-independent-governance-89e05f57ff33|url-status=live}} and subsequently launched the first comprehensive audit{{Cite web|title=Contact Tracing Audit PDF version|url=https://www.forhumanity.center/contact-tracing-audit|access-date=2020-08-08|website=ForHumanity|language=en-US|archive-date=2020-08-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200821144405/https://www.forhumanity.center/contact-tracing-audit|url-status=dead}} vetted by a team of global experts, known as ForHumanity Fellows{{Cite web|title=ForHumanity Fellows|url=https://www.forhumanity.center/forhumanity-fellows-ct|access-date=2020-08-08|website=ForHumanity|language=en-US|archive-date=2020-07-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200704071025/https://www.forhumanity.center/forhumanity-fellows-ct|url-status=dead}} on privacy, algorithmic bias, trust, ethics and cybersecurity. NY State Senate Bill S-8448D, which passed in the Senate in July 2020, calls for independent audit of digital contact tracing.{{Cite web|date=2020-07-17|title=NY State Senate Bill S8448D|url=https://www.nysenate.gov/legislation/bills/2019/s8448/amendment/d|access-date=2020-08-09|website=NY State Senate|language=en|archive-date=2021-07-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210704122849/https://www.nysenate.gov/legislation/bills/2019/s8448/amendment/d|url-status=live}}
= Independent audit and governance =
Voluntary adoption of digital contact tracing has fallen short of some estimated thresholds for efficacy. This has been referred to as a "trust-gap"{{Cite web |url=http://www.lbwwls2020.legalbusinesslibrary.com/index-h5.html?page=1#page=102 |title=Suggested legislative measures to overcome the contact tracing "trust gap" |access-date=2020-08-08 |website=lbwwls2020.legalbusinesslibrary.com |archive-date=2020-07-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200718195221/http://www.lbwwls2020.legalbusinesslibrary.com/index-h5.html?page=1#page=102 |url-status=live }} and advocates for digital contact tracing have endeavored to identify ways to bridge the gap. Independent Governance suggests that contact tracing authorities and technology providers do not have adequate trust from the traced populace and therefore requires independent oversight which exists on behalf of the traced for the purposes of looking after their best interests.{{cn|date=July 2022}}
Independent audit borrows from the financial accounting industry the process of third-party oversight assuring compliance with existing rules and best-practices. The third party auditor examines all details of digital contact tracing in the areas of ethics, trust, privacy, bias and cybersecurity. The audit provides oversight, transparency and accountability over the authority providing the digital contact tracing.{{cn|date=July 2022}}
= Epidemiological effectiveness =
The effectiveness of digital contact tracing depends on the degree to which it reduces the probability of transmission and hence the effective reproduction number. This is equal to the product of failure rates at six stages: installation by the primary case, installation by the secondary case, detection of exposure, timely diagnosis of the primary case, rapid triggering of notifications following diagnosis, and behavior modification of the secondary case that prevents transmission to tertiary cases.{{cite journal |last1=Masel |first1=Joanna |last2=Petrie |first2=James Ian Mackie |last3=Bay |first3=Jason |last4=Ebbers |first4=Wolfgang |last5=Sharan |first5=Aalekh |last6=Leibrand |first6=Scott Michael |last7=Gebhard |first7=Andreas |last8=Zimmerman |first8=Samuel |title=Combatting SARS-CoV-2 With Digital Contact Tracing and Notification: Navigating Six Points of Failure |journal=JMIR Public Health and Surveillance |date=4 December 2023 |volume=9 |pages=e49560 |doi=10.2196/49560|doi-access=free |pmid=38048155 |pmc=10728795 }} In most countries, opt-in voluntary usage was insufficient to achieve large reductions in the effective reproduction rate, with Singapore a notable exception.{{cite web |title=TraceTogether-Only SafeEntry To Start From 1 June 2021; Only TraceTogether App Or Token Will Be Accepted For SafeEntry Check-In |url=https://www.smartnation.gov.sg/media-hub/press-releases/tos-to-start-1-june-2021 |website=www.smartnation.gov.sg |language=en}} However, even more modest reductions could accumulate substantial epidemiological impact over time.{{cite journal |last1=Kendall |first1=Michelle |last2=Tsallis |first2=Daphne |last3=Wymant |first3=Chris |last4=Di Francia |first4=Andrea |last5=Balogun |first5=Yakubu |last6=Didelot |first6=Xavier |last7=Ferretti |first7=Luca |last8=Fraser |first8=Christophe |title=Epidemiological impacts of the NHS COVID-19 app in England and Wales throughout its first year |journal=Nature Communications |date=22 February 2023 |volume=14 |issue=1 |page=858 |doi=10.1038/s41467-023-36495-z|pmid=36813770 |pmc=9947127 |bibcode=2023NatCo..14..858K }}
== System requirements ==
Some smartphone-based digital contact tracing applications have system requirements such as Android/iOS version, Bluetooth enabled, GPS enabled, while others require users to scan QR codes. Smartphones stop receiving software updates a few years after release (2–3 years for Android, 5 years for iOS). Improvements to this ecosystem would benefit the adoption rate of future digital contact tracing applications.{{cn|date=July 2022}}. Hardware tokens can be used to bypass smartphone limitations.
= Ethical issues =
Other than having doubts about the technical effectiveness of smartphone-based contact tracing systems, publics and academia are confronted with ethical issues about the use of smartphone data by central governments to track and direct citizen behaviour.{{cite journal |last1=Calvo |first1=Rafael |last2=Deterding |first2=Sebastian |last3=Ryan |first3=Richard |title=Health surveillance during covid-19 pandemic |journal=BMJ |date=April 2020 |volume=369 |pages=m1373 |doi=10.1136/bmj.m1373 |pmid=32253180 |url=http://www.bmj.com/content/369/bmj.m1373.abstract |access-date=27 April 2020 |doi-access=free |archive-date=2020-04-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412045648/https://www.bmj.com/content/369/bmj.m1373.abstract |url-status=live |hdl=10044/1/78107 |hdl-access=free }} The most pressing questions pertain privacy and surveillance, liberty, and ownership. Around the world, governments and publics have taken different positions on this issue.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}{{Cite journal|last=Martin|first=Kirsten|title=Ethical Issues in the Big Data Industry|journal=MIS Quarterly Executive}}
== Privacy ==
On privacy, the main problem about digital contact tracing regards type of information which can be collected from each person and the way related data is treated by companies and institutions. The type of data which is collected, and the approach being used (centralized or decentralized) determine the severity of the issue. In other words, a privacy-first approach that sacrifices data for privacy or a data-first approach that collects citizen data in exchange for private information from citizens.{{Cite journal|last1=Fahey|first1=Robert A.|last2=Hino|first2=Airo|date=December 2020|title=COVID-19, digital privacy, and the social limits on data-focused public health responses|url= |journal=International Journal of Information Management|volume=55|pages=102181|doi=10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2020.102181|pmid=32836638|issn=0268-4012|pmc=7328565}} Moreover, critics point out that claims of anonymity and protection of personal data, even if made by institutions, cannot be verified and that individual's user profiles can be traced back in several cases.{{cite news|last1=Casilli|first1=Antonio|last2=Dehaye|first2=Paul-Olivier|last3=Soufron|first3=Jean-Baptiste|date=26 April 2020|title=StopCovid est un projet désastreux piloté par des apprentis sorciers|publisher=Le Monde|agency=Le Monde|issue=23420|url=https://www.lemonde.fr/idees/article/2020/04/25/stopcovid-est-un-projet-desastreux-pilote-par-des-apprentis-sorciers_6037721_3232.html|access-date=27 April 2020|archive-date=2020-05-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200501065630/https://www.lemonde.fr/idees/article/2020/04/25/stopcovid-est-un-projet-desastreux-pilote-par-des-apprentis-sorciers_6037721_3232.html|url-status=live}}
== Surveillance ==
Closely related to privacy, comes the issue of surveillance: too much personal data in centralized governmental database could set a dangerous precedent on the way governments are capable of “spying” on individual behaviour. The possibility that a wide-ranging adoption of digital contact tracing could set a dangerous precedent for surveillance and control has been abundantly treated by media and academia alike. In short, the main concern here relates to the tendency of temporary measures, justified by an emergency situation, to be normalized and extended indefinitely in a society.{{Cite journal|last=Guinchard|first=Audrey|date=2021-01-02|title=Our digital footprint under Covid-19: should we fear the UK digital contact tracing app?|journal=International Review of Law, Computers & Technology|volume=35|issue=1|pages=84–97|doi=10.1080/13600869.2020.1794569|s2cid=225640296|issn=1360-0869|doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal|last=Martinez-Martin|first=Nicole|date=Jun 2020|title=Digital Contact Tracing, Privacy, and Public Health|journal=Hastings Center Report|volume=50|issue=3|pages=43–46|doi=10.1002/hast.1131|pmid=32596893|pmc=7361453|id={{ProQuest|2448427354}}}} Concerns of normalizing exceptional surveillance practices were raised Israel, where existing cellphone surveillance measures used for counterterrorism purposes were employed for COVID-19 contact tracing purposes.{{Cite journal |last=Cahane |first=Amir |title=The (Missed) Israeli Snowden Moment? |journal=International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence |year=2021 |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=694–717|doi=10.1080/08850607.2020.1838902 |s2cid=234178779 |doi-access=free }}
== Environment ==
Electronic waste may result from the need to purchase a new smartphone to meet the system requirements of smartphone-based digital contact tracing applications.{{cn|date=July 2022}}
See also
References
Further reading
- {{cite book |title=Contact Tracing in Post-Covid World: A Cryptologic Approach |last1=Chakraborty |first1=Pranab |author2=Subhamoy Maitra |author3=Mridul Nandi |author4=Suprita Talnikar |year=2021 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9789811597268 |url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9789811597268 }}