Direct action#Nonviolent direct action

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Image:Bardouxha Mont 1893-mw-c.jpg. A general strike is an example of direct action.]]

Direct action is a term for economic and political behavior in which participants use agency—for example economic or physical power—to achieve their goals. The aim of direct action is to either obstruct a certain practice (such as a government's laws or actions) or to solve perceived problems (such as social inequality).

Direct action may include activities, often nonviolent but possibly violent, targeting people, groups, institutions, actions, or property that its participants deem objectionable. Nonviolent direct action may include civil disobedience, sit-ins, strikes, and counter-economics.{{Cite web |last=Sharp |first=Gene |date=2019-04-10 |title=198 Methods of Nonviolent Action by Gene Sharp |url=https://commonslibrary.org/198-methods-of-nonviolent-action/ |access-date=2024-08-12 |website=The Commons Social Change Library |language=en-AU}} Violent direct action may include political violence, assault, arson, sabotage, and property destruction.

Terminology and definitions

It is not known when the term direct action first appeared. Spanish philosopher José Ortega y Gasset wrote that the term and concept of direct action originated in fin de siècle France.Ortega y Gasset, José (1957). The Revolt of the Masses. W. W. Norton. p. 74.

"When the reconstruction of the origins of our epoch is undertaken, it will be observed that the first notes of its special harmony were sounded in those groups of French syndicalists and realists of about 1900, inventors of the method and the name of 'direct action.'" The Industrial Workers of the World union first mentioned the term "direct action" in a publication about the 1910 Chicago strike.The I.W.W.: Its First Seventy Years, 1905–1975, Fred W. Thompson and Patrick Murfin, 1976, p. 46. American anarchist Voltairine de Cleyre wrote the essay "Direct Action" in 1912, offering historical examples such as the Boston Tea Party and the American anti-slavery movement, and writing that "direct action has always been used, and has the historical sanction of the very people now reprobating it."{{r|decleyre}}

In his 1920 book Direct Action, William Mellor categorized direct action with the struggle between worker and employer for economic control. Mellor defined it "as the use of some form of economic power for securing of ends desired by those who possess that power." He considered it a tool of both owners and workers, and for this reason he included lockouts and cartels, as well as strikes and sabotage.{{Cite book| publisher = L. Parsons| last = Mellor| first = William| title = Direct action| location = London| access-date = 2024-05-23| date = 1920| url = https://archive.org/details/directaction00mell/page/n15/mode/2up |pages=15–16}}

Canadian anarchist Ann Hansen, one of the Squamish Five, wrote in her book Direct Action that "the essence of direct action [...] is people fighting for themselves, rejecting those who claim to represent their true interests, whether they be revolutionaries or government officials".Hansen, Ann. Direct Action: Memoirs of an Urban Guerrilla. Toronto: Between the Lines, 2001. {{ISBN|978-1-902593-48-7}}, p. 335

Activist trainer and author Daniel Hunter states 'Nonviolent direct action are techniques outside of institutionalized behavior for waging conflict using methods of protest, noncooperation, and intervention without the use or threat of injurious force.{{Cite web |last=Hunter |first=Daniel |date=2024-06-17 |title=Nonviolent Direct Action as Social Parable |url=https://commonslibrary.org/nonviolent-direct-action-as-social-parable/ |access-date=2024-08-12 |website=The Commons Social Change Library |language=en-AU}}

History

Anti-globalization activists forced the Seattle WTO Ministerial Conference of 1999 to end early via direct action tactics and prefigurative politics.{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Prefigurative politics |encyclopedia=Open Encyclopedia of Anthropology |url=https://www.anthroencyclopedia.com/entry/prefigurative-politics |last=Fians |first=Guilherme |date=18 March 2022 |editor=Stein, Felix |language=en |doi=10.29164/22prefigpolitics |s2cid=247729590 |hdl=10023/25123 |hdl-access=free |access-date=2023-01-24 |archive-date=2023-07-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230721215956/https://anthroencyclopedia.com/entry/prefigurative-politics |url-status=live }}

On April 28, 2009, Greenpeace activists, including Phil Radford, scaled a crane across the street from the Department of State, calling on world leaders to address climate change.{{cite web|url=http://grist.org/article/2009-04-27-greenpeace-radford/|title=First Day on the Job!|publisher=Grist.org|date=2009-04-28|access-date=2013-08-09|archive-date=2019-10-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191012210235/https://grist.org/article/2009-04-27-greenpeace-radford/|url-status=live}} Soon thereafter, they dropped a banner from Mount Rushmore, placing President Obama's face next to other historic presidents. The banner read: "History honors leaders. Stop global warming."{{cite journal|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Politics/The-Vote/2009/0708/greenpeace-scales-mt-rushmore-issues-challenge-to-obama|title=Greenpeace Scales Mt Rushmore – issues challenge to Obama|journal=Christian Science Monitor|publisher=Grist.org|date=2009-07-09|access-date=2013-08-09|archive-date=2012-11-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120023027/http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Politics/The-Vote/2009/0708/greenpeace-scales-mt-rushmore-issues-challenge-to-obama|url-status=live}}

Human rights activists have used direct action in the campaign to close the School of the Americas (SOA).{{cite book |last1=Gill |first1=Lesley |title=The School of the Americas: Military Training and Political Violence in the Americas |date=2004 |publisher=Duke University Press |location=Durham, North Carolina |isbn=978-0-8223-3392-0 |pages=200–242 |chapter=Targeting the "School of the Assassins"}} 245 SOA Watch protestors have collectively spent almost 100 years in prison, and more than 50 people have served probation sentences.

In the United States, direct action is increasingly used to oppose the fossil fuel industry, oil drilling, pipelines, and gas power plant projects.{{Cite web|last=Lachmann|first=Richard|date=December 10, 2020|title=Direct Action Can Beat Fossil Fuels When Democrats Won't|url=https://truthout.org/articles/direct-action-can-beat-fossil-fuels-when-democrats-wont/|url-status=live|website=Truth Out|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210192507/https://truthout.org/articles/direct-action-can-beat-fossil-fuels-when-democrats-wont/ |archive-date=2020-12-10 }}

Direct action was taken at arms factories in the United States and the United Kingdom that supplied arms to Israel during the Gaza war.{{cite news |title=Protesters Are Targeting Defense Contractors That Bragged About Profits from Gaza |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/protesters-are-targeting-defense-contractors-that-bragged-about-profits-from-gaza/ |work=Vice |date=17 November 2023}}{{cite news |title=Activists say they have proof ministers tried to influence police over Israeli arms firm protests |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/sep/30/activists-say-they-have-proof-ministers-tried-to-influence-police-over-israeli-arms-firm-protests |work=The Guardian |date=30 September 2024}}

Practitioners

Anarchists organize almost exclusively through direct action,{{cite encyclopedia |entry-url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/anarchism/ |entry=Anarchism |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |year=2018 |access-date=2020-09-25 |archive-date=2020-08-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200828210847/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/anarchism/ |url-status=live }}{{Sfn|Graeber|2009|pp=224-225}} which they use due to a rejection of party politics and a refusal to work within hierarchical bureaucratic institutions.{{Cite journal |author=Manicas, Peter T. |year=1982 |title=John Dewey: Anarchism and the Political State |journal=Transactions of the Charles S. Peirce Society |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=133–158 |jstor=40319958}}{{Cite journal |last=Spicer |first=Michael W. |date=December 1, 2014 |title=In Pursuit of Liberty, Equality, and Solidarity in Public Administration |journal=Administrative Theory & Praxis |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=539–544 |doi=10.1080/10841806.2014.11029977 |s2cid=158433554}}

Tactics

Image:Cutters1.preview.jpg destroying fences at the Gaza–Israel barrier in 2007]]File:Castor 2011 - Monte Göhrde (12).jpg

Direct action protestors may perform activities such as:

{{Columns-list|colwidth=15em|

body block
linking arms
lock-ons{{Cite web |last=Rich |date=2014-07-14 |title=Making Lock-ons with Greenpeace • V&A Blog |url=https://www.vam.ac.uk/blog/disobedient-objects/locked-on |access-date=2023-02-14 |website=V&A Blog |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-02-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214221036/https://www.vam.ac.uk/blog/disobedient-objects/locked-on |url-status=live }}
tunneling{{Cite web |title=2 German climate activists still hold out in tunnel in Lutzerath |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/europe/2-german-climate-activists-still-hold-out-in-tunnel-in-lutzerath/2788946 |access-date=2023-02-14 |website=www.aa.com.tr |archive-date=2023-02-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214221033/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/europe/2-german-climate-activists-still-hold-out-in-tunnel-in-lutzerath/2788946 |url-status=live }}
tree sitting{{Cite news |date=2023-01-24 |title=The eviction of Lützerath: the village being destroyed for a coalmine – a photo essay |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2023/jan/24/eviction-lutzerath-village-destroyed-coalmine-a-photo-essay |access-date=2023-02-14 |issn=0261-3077}}
occupation
sit-ins
strikes
workplace occupation
street blockades
hacktivism
counter-economics
tax resistance

}}

Some protestors dress in black bloc, wearing black clothing and face coverings to obscure their identities.{{Cite news |last=Lennard |first=Natasha |date=22 January 2017 |title=Neo-Nazi Richard Spencer Punched--You Can Thank the Black Bloc |newspaper=National Post |url=https://www.thenation.com/article/if-you-appreciated-seeing-neo-nazi-richard-spencer-get-punched-thank-the-black-bloc/ |access-date=2023-08-14 |archive-date=2020-01-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200117024028/https://www.thenation.com/article/if-you-appreciated-seeing-neo-nazi-richard-spencer-get-punched-thank-the-black-bloc/ |url-status=live }}{{cite news |date=28 January 2013 |title=Black Bloc anarchists emerge |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-21228852 |access-date=2023-08-14 |archive-date=2023-08-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230814031300/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-21228852 |url-status=live }} Ende Gelände protestors wear matching white suits.{{Cite web |title=Shut shit down ! An Activist's Guide of Ende Gelände |url=https://www.ende-gelaende.org/en/shut-shit-down-an-activists-guide-of-ende-gelaende/ |access-date=2023-02-14 |website=Ende Gelände |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-02-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214221031/https://www.ende-gelaende.org/en/shut-shit-down-an-activists-guide-of-ende-gelaende/ |url-status=live }}

One of Greenpeace's tactics is to install banners in trees or at symbolic places like offices, statues, nuclear power plants.{{Cite news |last=Bromwich |first=Jonah Engel |date=2017-01-25 |title=Greenpeace Activists Arrested After Hanging 'Resist' Banner in View of White House |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/25/us/greenpeace-resist-banner-protest-trump.html |access-date=2023-02-14 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=2023-02-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214221033/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/25/us/greenpeace-resist-banner-protest-trump.html |url-status=live }}

Direct action protestors may also destroy property through actions such as vandalism, theft, breaking and entering, sabotage, tree spiking, arson, bombing, ecotage, or eco-terrorism.

Pranks may also be considered a form of direct action. Examples of direct action pranks include the use of stink, critter, and paint bombs.{{rp|pages=295–306}} Protestors may pie their targets.{{Cite book |url=https://mutualaiddisasterrelief.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/direct_action_manual_3-1.pdf |title=direct action manual |publisher=earth first! |access-date=2023-02-14 |archive-date=2023-03-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306045114/https://mutualaiddisasterrelief.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/direct_action_manual_3-1.pdf |url-status=live }}{{rp|pages=295–306}} The Yes Men practice nonviolent direct action through pranks.{{Cite web |title=The Monkey-Wrench Prank: An Interview With Tim DeChristopher |url=https://www.motherjones.com/environment/2009/11/monkeywrench-prank-interview-tim-dechristopher/ |access-date=2023-08-14 |website=Mother Jones |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-08-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230814024819/https://www.motherjones.com/environment/2009/11/monkeywrench-prank-interview-tim-dechristopher/ |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |last=Dwyer |first=Devin |date=2009-10-23 |title=Liberal Pranksters Use Stunts to 'Fix the World' |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/political-hoax-prank-men-humorous-stunts-liberal/story?id=8900941 |access-date=2023-08-14 |website=ABC News |language=en |archive-date=2023-08-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230814024643/https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/political-hoax-prank-men-humorous-stunts-liberal/story?id=8900941 |url-status=live }}

Some direct action groups form legal teams, addressing interactions with the law enforcement, judges, and courts.{{rp|pages=10, 11}}

= Violent and nonviolent direct action =

== Definitions ==

Definitions of what constitutes violent or nonviolent direct action vary. Sociologist Dieter Rucht states that determining if an act is violent falls along a spectrum or gradient—lesser property damage is not violence, injuries to humans are violent, and acts in between could be labelled either way depending on the circumstances. Rucht states that definitions of "violence" vary widely, and cultural perspectives can also color such labels.Dieter Rucht. Violence and New Social Movements. In: [https://books.google.com/books?id=A4mqsik_VDcC&dq=definition+of+violence+property&pg=PA369 International Handbook of Violence Research], Volume I. Dordrecht: Kluwer, 2003, pp. 369–382. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707004533/http://books.google.com/books?id=A4mqsik_VDcC&pg=PA369&dq=definition+of+violence+property&hl=en&sa=X&ei=04NpU8zxBYuryAScMw&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=definition%20of%20violence%20property&f=false|date=2014-07-07}}

American political scientist Gene Sharp defined nonviolent direct action as "those methods of protest, resistance, and intervention without physical violence in which the members of the nonviolent group do, or refuse to do, certain things."{{cite book |last=Sharp |first=Gene |title=Social Power and Political Freedom |date=1980 |publisher=Porter Sargent Publishers |isbn=0-87558-091-2 |page=218}} American anarchist Voltairine de Cleyre wrote that violent direct action utilizes physical, injurious force against people or, occasionally, property.{{cite wikisource|title=Direct Action|first=Voltairine|last=de Cleyre|author-link=Voltairine de Cleyre|year=1912}}

Some activist groups, such as Earth Liberation Front and Animal Liberation Front, use property destruction, arson, and sabotage and claim their acts are nonviolent as they believe that violence is harm directed toward living things.

== Nonviolent direct action ==

Image:Gandhi Salt March.jpg, Salt March 1930]]

American civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr., who used direct action tactics such as boycotts, felt that the goal of nonviolent direct action was to "create such a crisis and foster such a tension" as to demand a response.{{cite web |last=King |first=Martin Luther Jr. |date=16 April 1963 |title=Letter from Birmingham Jail |url=http://abacus.bates.edu/admin/offices/dos/mlk/letter.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110826040008/http://abacus.bates.edu/admin/offices/dos/mlk/letter.html |archive-date=26 August 2011 |access-date=25 May 2009}}

Mahatma Gandhi's methods, which he called satyagraha,{{cite book |last1=Gandhi |first1=M. K. |title=Nonviolent Resistance (Satyagraha) |date=2012 |publisher=Dover Publications |location=Mineola, New York}} did not involve confrontation and could be described as "removal of support" without breaking laws besides those explicitly targeted. Examples of targeted laws include the salt tax and the Asiatic Registration Act.M.K. Gandhi, Satyagraha in South Africa, Navajivan, Ahmedabad, 1111, pp. 94, 122, 123 etc.Gandhi, M. K. "Pre-requisites for Satyagraha" Young India 1 August 1925{{cite web |last1=Gandhi |first1=Mohandas Karamchand |author1-link=Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi |title=Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi: Volume 17 |url=https://www.gandhiashramsevagram.org/gandhi-literature/mahatma-gandhi-collected-works-volume-17.pdf |publisher=Publications Division, Government of India |access-date=12 March 2022 |location=New Delhi |page=297 |date=24 February 1919 |quote="in the event of these Bills becoming law and until they are withdrawn, we shall refuse civilly to obey these laws and such other laws as a Committee" |archive-date=2022-12-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221205105912/https://www.gandhiashramsevagram.org/gandhi-literature/mahatma-gandhi-collected-works-volume-17.pdf |url-status=live }} His preferred actions were largely symbolic and peaceful, and included "withdrawing membership, participation or attendance in government-operated [...] agencies."{{cite book|first=Uma|last=Majmudar|title=Gandhi's Pilgrimage of Faith: From Darkness to Light|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xM4paHEq5oQC&pg=PA175|year=2005|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-6405-2|page=175}} Gandhi and American civil rights leader James Bevel were strongly influenced by Leo Tolstoy's 1894 book The Kingdom of God Is Within You, which promotes passive resistance.Christoyannopoulos, Alexandre (2010). Christian Anarchism: A Political Commentary on the Gospel. Exeter: Imprint Academic. p. 19

Other terms for nonviolent direct action include civil resistance, people power, and positive action.{{Cite web |title=Nonviolent Action Defined |url=https://nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu/content/nonviolent-action-defined |work=Global Nonviolent Action Database |access-date=2020-08-18 |archive-date=2021-02-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210218024146/https://nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu/content/nonviolent-action-defined |url-status=live }}

== Violent direct action ==

Insurrectionary anarchism, a militant variant of anarchist ideology, primarily deals with direct action against governments. Insurrectionist anarchists see countries as inherently controlled by the upper classes, and thereby impossible to reform. While the vast majority of anarchists are not militant and do not engage in militant actions,{{Cite journal|url = https://crln.acrl.org/index.php/crlnews/article/view/8341/8470|doi = 10.5860/crln.71.3.8341|title = Understanding resistance: An introduction to anarchism|year = 2010|last1 = Finnell|first1 = Joshua|last2 = Marcantel|first2 = Jerome|journal = College & Research Libraries News|volume = 71|issue = 3|pages = 156–159|doi-access = free|access-date = 2020-10-07 |archive-date = 2021-04-15 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210415084328/https://crln.acrl.org/index.php/crlnews/article/view/8341/8470|url-status = live}} insurrectionists take violent action against the state and other targets. Most insurrectionary anarchists largely reject mass grassroots organizations created by other anarchists, instead calling for coordinated militant action to be taken by decentralized cell networks.{{Cite thesis |last1=Loadenthal |first1=Michael |title=The Politics of the Attack: A Discourse of Insurrectionary Communiqués |date=2015 |language=English |id={{ProQuest|1695806756}} |publisher=George Mason University |type=Ph.D. |url=http://ebot.gmu.edu/bitstream/handle/1920/9817/Loadenthal_gmu_0883E_10805.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |access-date=2020-10-07 |archive-date=2021-03-11 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210311170329/http://ebot.gmu.edu/bitstream/handle/1920/9817/Loadenthal_gmu_0883E_10805.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |url-status=dead }}

Fascism emphasizes direct action, including the legitimization of political violence, as a core part of its politics.{{Cite book |last=Payne |first=Stanley G. |title=A history of fascism, 1914-1945 |date=1995 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |isbn=0-585-25197-5 |location=Madison |page=106 |oclc=45733847}}{{Cite book |last=Breuilly |first=John |title=Nationalism and the state |date=1993 |publisher=Manchester University Press |isbn=0-7190-3799-9 |edition=2nd |location=Manchester |page=294 |oclc=27768107}}

Effectiveness

While radical activism has been effective as part of the civil rights movement,{{Cite journal |last=Haines |first=Herbert H. |date=October 1984 |title=Black Radicalization and the Funding of Civil Rights: 1957-1970 |url=https://academic.oup.com/socpro/article-abstract/32/1/31/1699011 |journal=Social Problems |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=31–43 |doi=10.2307/800260 |jstor=800260 |access-date=2023-08-25 |archive-date=2023-08-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825123444/https://academic.oup.com/socpro/article-abstract/32/1/31/1699011 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }} forceful or violent environmental sabotage (FVES) can have a "negative impact on voter attitudes toward all environmental organizations", though that effect is contingent on the organizations' prior record.{{Cite journal |last1=Farrer |first1=Ben |last2=Klein |first2=Graig R. |date=2022-02-17 |title=How Radical Environmental Sabotage Impacts US Elections |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09546553.2019.1678468 |journal=Terrorism and Political Violence |language=en |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=218–239 |doi=10.1080/09546553.2019.1678468 |issn=0954-6553 |hdl=1887/3238773 |s2cid=210558240 |hdl-access=free |access-date=2023-08-25 |archive-date=2023-08-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825123444/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09546553.2019.1678468 |url-status=live }}

In polls conducted in the United Kingdom, two thirds of respondents supported non-violent environmental direct action, while a similar percentage believed defacing art or public monuments should be criminalized.{{Cite web |last1=Timperley |first1=Jocelyn |last2=Henriques |first2=Martha |date=2023-04-21 |title=The surprising science of climate protests |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20230421-earth-day-the-science-of-climate-change-protest |access-date=2023-08-25 |website=BBC |language=en |archive-date=2023-08-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230824122655/https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20230421-earth-day-the-science-of-climate-change-protest |url-status=live }}

The question of engaging in radical protest is known as the "activist's dilemma": "activists must choose between moderate actions that are largely ignored and more extreme actions that succeed in gaining attention, but may be counterproductive to their aims as they tend to make people think less of the protesters."{{Cite web |last=Davis |first=Colin |date=2022-10-21 |title=Just Stop Oil: do radical protests turn the public away from a cause? Here's the evidence |url=http://theconversation.com/just-stop-oil-do-radical-protests-turn-the-public-away-from-a-cause-heres-the-evidence-192901 |access-date=2023-08-25 |website=The Conversation |language=en |archive-date=2023-08-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230823144008/https://theconversation.com/just-stop-oil-do-radical-protests-turn-the-public-away-from-a-cause-heres-the-evidence-192901 |url-status=live }}

References

Bibliography

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{{cite book|last=Graeber|first=David|author-link=David Graeber|year=2009|title=Direct Action: An Ethnography|title-link=Direct Action: An Ethnography|publisher=AK Press|isbn=978-1-904859-79-6|lccn=2007939198}}
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{{cite book|last=Zimmer|first=Kenyon|date=2019 |chapter=Haymarket and the Rise of Syndicalism|editor-last1=Adams|editor-first1=Matthew S.|editor-last2=Levy|editor-first2=Carl|title=The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism|location=London|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-3-319-75619-6|pages=353–370|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-75620-2_21|s2cid=158225785 }}