Education in Indiana

According to William J. Reese, Indiana followed the pattern of reform movements that originated in New England, and was brought to Indiana by Yankee Presbyterians in the northern half of the state. South of Indianapolis the arrivals from the Southern states considered education a private affair, with wealthy families supporting tutors. Before 1860 nearly all schooling was private.William J. Reese, ed., Hoosier Schools: past and present (Indiana University press 1998) Across the state Presbyterian and other Protestant churches set up Sunday Schools that provided basic training in reading, writing, arithmetic and piety.Grover L. Hartman, "The Hoosier Sunday School: A Potent Religious/Cultural Force" Indiana Magazine of History 78#3 (1982), pp. 215–241 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/27790629 online]

Reform efforts included building support for common schools funded by local taxes, the development of city schools, and curricula designed by professional educators. Reforms during the 1880s to 1920s included high schools, manual training and vocational education in the high schools, and controversies regarding control of rural schools between the farmer parents and the centralizers in the county seat. By the late 20th century, new efforts to reform public education agitated the state.

The Jefferson Academy was founded in 1801 as a public university for the Indiana Territory, and was reincorporated as Vincennes University in 1806, the first in the state.See [https://web.archive.org/web/20080312150224/http://www.vinu.edu/cms/opencms/about/history_mission/ About VU]

The 1816 Indiana Constitution in Article 8, Section 1 states:For text see [https://law.justia.com/constitution/indiana/art8.html online]

Knowledge and learning, generally diffused throughout a community, being essential to the preservation of a free government; it shall be the duty of the General Assembly to encourage, by all suitable means, moral, intellectual, scientific, and agricultural improvement; and to provide, by law, for a general and uniform system of Common Schools, wherein tuition shall be without charge, and equally open to all."

It took decades for the legislature to begin to fulfill its promise.

The 1820s saw the start in a few places of free public township schools, locally funded by taxes. During the administration of William Hendricks, a plot of ground was set aside in each township for the construction of a schoolhouse.Dunn, pp. 315–317 Indiana lagged the rest of the Midwest with the lowest literacy and education rates into the early 20th century.Patrick J. Furlong, "Indiana" in Gale Farmington, ed.), Encyclopedia of the United States in the Nineteenth Century (2000) 2:101–103.

Caleb Mills (1806–1879) was a Presbyterian Yankee who served as the Superintendent of Public Instruction in Indiana and was the first faculty member at Wabash College. He played a central role in promoting the public education system of Indiana.Anne T. Fraker, "Caleb Mills: Schools, Christianity, and Civilization in the West." American Presbyterians 70.3 (1992): 151–162.

Mills arrived in Crawfordsville in 1833 after graduating from Dartmouth College in New Hampshire and Andover Theological Seminary in Massachusetts. He became the first professor and the principal of the Crawfordsville Classical High School, which opened in December 1833 with 12 students. As soon as a charter could be obtained from the state legislature it became the Wabash Teachers Seminary and Manual Labor College, finally acquiring the name Wabash College in 1851.Osborne (1932), p. 31. Mills was recruited to the job by his old college roommate Edmund Otis Hovey, one of the nine founders of the school, who later joined him on the faculty as one of the professors. At first Mills taught all the classes in every subject.

The state held a referendum on public schools in May 1848.Boone (1892) pp 87–128. Northern Indiana voted 64% in favor, while Southern Indiana voted 51% against. The most enthusiastic support came from the Whig strongholds, led by St. Joseph County (South Bend) on the Michigan border, with 94% voting in favor.

See Boone (1892) p. 107. Mills played a major role in preparing materials that pro-school editors included in their newspapers. The legislature passed a law in 1849 enabling but not requiring the establishment of public schools. The loophole was closed in the new state constitution of 1851, and the new school law of 1852 finally required all counties to create free public schools.Boone, (1892) pp. 143–151.

Starting in 1846, for six years, Mills wrote an annual address to the Indiana legislature on the subject of public education.See [https://archive.org/details/anaddresstolegi00milgoog the 1847 address online] These very long letters argued for a statewide system of taxpayer funded free public schools. He made the case that the benefits of a "good and efficient system of free schools" would pay for themselves, and described the parts that would be needed for such a system, including township school committees, district superintendents, school libraries, and normal schools to train teachers. These addresses were printed in the Indiana State Journal under the byline "One of the People", and were the main influence on the new school law, embracing most of Mills' proposals, which was drafted and adopted by the state constitutional convention in 1852.

In 1854 Mills was elected Indiana Superintendent of Public Instruction, defeating the incumbent Democrat, William C. Larrabee, 99,857 to 85,835. Mills, a Whig, ran on a fusion ticket called the People's Party which brought together modernizers from the Whigs, Free Soilers, Know-Nothings and temperance advocates to support a common slate. Traditionalists supported the Democrats but they lost. Mills, after serving one term, did not stand for re-election in 1856 and Larrabee regained the office. Larrabee was a Yankee and a professor of mathematics at Asbury College; he agreed with Mills on the need to modernize the schools. They were followed by a series of state superintendents of public instruction who aggressively promoted public schools. However, in the 1850s their work was repeatedly frustrated by the state supreme court, which nullified key parts of the school laws. After 1865 the progress of building public schools resumed.Emma Lou Thornbrough, Indiana in the Civil War Era, 1850–1880 (1965) pp. 461–475.

For a list of institutions, see :Category:Universities and colleges in Indiana.

The state government chartered Indiana University in Bloomington in 1820 as the State Seminary. Construction began in 1822, the first professor was hired in 1823, and classes began in 1824.Donald F. Carmony, Indiana, 1816 to 1850: The Pioneer Era (1998) pp. 396–398. Enrollment in 1890 was only 400, but it grew to 3200 in 1919. Its national reputation was weak until the late 1930s, when president Herman B Wells (1937–2000) started to build a national reputation for research.Clifton J. Phillips, Indiana in Transition, 1880 to 1920 (1968) pp. 414–419.James H. Capshew, Herman B Wells: The Promise of the American University (Indiana UP, 2012) [https://jvlone.com/HermanBWellsIndianaMagHist2012.pdf see online book review]Thomas D. Clark, Indiana University: Midwestern Pioneer, Years of Fulfillment (1977). Purdue University was founded in 1869 in West Lafayette as the state's land-grant university, a school of science, engineering and agriculture. Enrollment grew from 849 in 1900 to 2605 in 1919. Purdue for the first half of the 20th century boasted the largest enrollment of any engineering school in the country. It battled IU for years over who would run a medical school, and finally its rival won control of the medical school in Indianapolis.Phillips, Indiana in Transition, 1880 to 1920 (1968) pp. 414–419.Robert W. Topping, A Century and Beyond: The History of Purdue University (Purdue UP, 1988).

Other state colleges were established for specialized needs. They included Indiana State University, established in Terre Haute in 1865 as the state normal school for training teachers.Dan Clark, A History of Indiana State University: From Normal School to Teachers College, 1865–1933 (Indiana University Press, 2022) [https://books.google.com/books?id=Uq5-EAAAQBAJ&dq=%22Indiana+State+University%22+history&pg=PP1 online] Ball State University was founded as a normal school in the early 20th century and given to the state in 1918.Anthony O. Edmonds, & E. Bruce Geelhoed, Ball State University: An Interpretive History (Indiana UP, 2001).

Public colleges lagged behind the private religious colleges in both size and educational standards until the 1890s.Furlong, "Indiana" 2:101–103.Donald F. Carmony, Indiana, 1816 to 1850: The Pioneer Era (1998) pp. 398–402. In 1855, North Western Christian University [now Butler University] was chartered by Ovid Butler after a split with the Christian Church Disciples of Christ over slavery. Significantly the university was founded on the basis of anti-slavery and co-education. It was one of the first to admit African Americans and one of the first to have a named chair for female professors, the Demia Butler Chair in English.{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.butler.edu/dawgblog/2015/02/university-founder-demia-butler-the-universitys-abolitionist-feminist-beginnings/|title=Butler Libraries Blog " University Founder Demia Butler & The University's Abolitionist-Feminist Beginnings|website=blogs.butler.edu|language=en-US|access-date=2018-07-18}} Asbury College (now Depauw University) was Methodist. Wabash College was Presbyterian. The Northern Indiana Vocational School became Valparaiso University in 1907. Its cheap tuition attracted 5000 students as the largest school in Indiana. It fell apart in the 1920s and the campus was sold to the Lutherans who still operate it. The University of Notre Dame, founded by Rev Edward Sorin in 1842, emerged as the most prominent Catholic school in the country, thanks in large part to football under Knute Rockne.Robert E. Burns Being Catholic, Being American, Volume 1: The Notre Dame Story, 1842–1934 (1999) pp.172–173.

Indiana did not invent basketball but it pioneered in adding it to the high school curriculum, using it to build rural support for hundreds of small new rural high schools. Hundreds and even thousands of supporters packed the bleachers to cheer the local team.David G. Martin, "Gymnasium or Coliseum? Basketball, Education, and Community. Impulse in Indiana in the Early Twentieth Century." in Reese, ed., Hoosier Schools Past and Present (1998) pp. 121–144.Alexander M. Moore, "Elementary and Secondary Education" in Donald F. Carmony, ed. Indiana: A Self-Appraisal (Indiana UP, 1966), pp. 166–185.Phillip M. Hoose, Hoosiers: The fabulous basketball life of Indiana (Indiana UP, 2016), ch. 1.

Black students were attended racially schools, especially in Indianapolis and Gary. Although official segregation ended in the 1940s, in practice the great majority of blacks attended schools that were overwhelmingly black. Starting in 1941 all-black high schools were allowed in the basketball tournaments. One unexpected result was that whites in Indianapolis cheered Oscar Robertson and the all-black Crispus Attucks High School in winning the state basketball championship in 1955 and 1956 under coach Ray Crowe.Arum Goudsouzian, "'Ba-ad, Ba-a-ad Tigers': Crispus Attucks Basketball and Black Indianapolis in the 1950s," Indiana Magazine of History 96#1 (2000), pp.4–43.Richard B. Pierce, "More than a game: The political meaning of high school basketball in Indianapolis." in Sport and the Color Line (Routledge, 2004) pp.223–246 [https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203497456-12/game-richard-pierce abstract]

{{See also|List of school districts in Indiana|List of high schools in Indiana}}

Indiana's 1816 constitution was the first in the country to implement a state-funded public school system. It also allotted one township for a public university.{{cite web

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}} However, the plan turned out to be far too idealistic for a pioneer society, as tax money was not accessible for its organization. In the 1840s, Caleb Mills pressed the need for tax-supported schools, and in 1851 his advice was included in the new state constitution. In 1843 the Legislature ruled that African Americans could not attend the public schools, leading to the foundation of Union Literary Institute and other schools for them, funded by donations or the students themselves.{{cite web|title=Examining the Cross-roads: School Segregation in Indiana: Center for Evaluation, Policy, & Research: Indiana University Bloomington|url=https://cepr.indiana.edu/segregation.html|access-date=February 10, 2022|website=Center for Evaluation, Policy, & Research|language=en-US}} The Indiana General Assembly authorized separate but equal schools for Black students in 1869, and in 1877 language in the law changed to allow for integrated schools.

Although the growth of the public school system was held up by legal entanglements, many public elementary schools were in use by 1870. Most children in Indiana attend public schools, but nearly ten percent attend private schools and parochial schools.{{Cite web|url=https://www.in.gov/doe/about/news/indiana-k-12-school-enrollment-grows-for-2021-2022-school-year/#:~:text=More%20than%2083%2C000%20students%20currently,comprises%207.4%25%20of%20Indiana's%20students.|title=Indiana K-12 School Enrollment grows for 2021–2022 School Year|date=January 20, 2022 |accessdate=November 12, 2022}} About half of all college students in Indiana are enrolled in state-supported four-year schools.

Indiana public schools have gone through several changes throughout Indiana's history. Modern, public school standards, have been implemented all throughout the state. These new standards were adopted in April 2014. The overall goal of these new state standards is to ensure Indiana students have the necessary skills and requirements needed to enter college or the workforce upon high school graduation.{{cite web |title=Indiana Academic Standards |url=https://www.doe.in.gov/standards |website=Indiana Department of Education |access-date=November 4, 2018 |archive-date=November 5, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105012744/https://www.doe.in.gov/standards |url-status=dead }} State standards can be found for nearly every major subject taught in Indiana public schools. Mathematics, English/Language Arts, Science, and Social Studies are among the top, prioritized standards. In 2022, the Indiana Department of Education reported that the state's overall graduation rate was 86.7%, down one percent from 2021.{{Cite web |last=Roberts |first=Mary |title=State Releases 2021 Graduation Rates |url=https://www.insideindianabusiness.com/articles/state-releases-2021-graduation-rates |access-date=July 21, 2022 |website=Inside INdiana Business |language=en-US}}

The rate of Indiana high school students attending college fell to 53% in 2022, a significant decline from 65% in 2017.{{Cite web |date=June 10, 2022 |title=Rate of Indiana high school students headed to college plummets to 53% |url=https://in.chalkbeat.org/2022/6/9/23161997/college-going-rate-indiana-decrease-low-high-school-higher-education-gap |access-date=July 21, 2022 |website=Chalkbeat Indiana |language=en}}{{cite web|url=https://www.in.gov/che/files/2021_College_Readiness_Report_04_21_2021a.pdf|title=Indiana College Readiness Report 2021|website=In.gov|access-date=July 29, 2022}} Indiana's college-going rates have fallen further than most states'.{{Cite web |last=Nietzel |first=Michael T. |title=Updated Figures Show College Enrollments Falling Further Behind Last Year |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/michaeltnietzel/2021/11/18/updated-figures-show-college-enrollment-falling-further-behind-last-year/ |access-date=July 22, 2022 |website=Forbes |language=en}}{{Cite web |last=Indiana |first=Helen Rummel, Chalkbeat |title=Rate of Indiana high school students headed to college drops to 53% |url=https://nuvo.newsnirvana.com/news/rate-of-indiana-high-school-students-headed-to-college-drops-to-53/article_89f15974-e9d4-11ec-a877-a7ced5f94de7.html |access-date=July 22, 2022 |website=NUVO |date=June 11, 2022 |language=en}}{{Cite web |date=June 10, 2022 |title=Rate of Indiana high school students headed to college plummets to 53% |url=https://in.chalkbeat.org/2022/6/9/23161997/college-going-rate-indiana-decrease-low-high-school-higher-education-gap |access-date=July 22, 2022 |website=Chalkbeat Indiana |language=en}}{{Cite web |last=brooke.mcafee@newsandtribune.com |first=BROOKE MCAFEE |title=Local college enrollment reflects Indiana decline |url=https://www.newsandtribune.com/news/local-college-enrollment-reflects-indiana-decline/article_7530346c-eb62-11ec-87c8-07171aed778c.html |access-date=July 22, 2022 |website=News and Tribune |date=June 13, 2022 |language=en}} Trends reveal widening gaps for ethnic minorities and low-income families.

Indiana has a strong vocational school system. Charles Allen Prossor, known as the father of vocational education in the United States, was from New Albany. The Charles Allen Prosser School of Technology is named in his honor. There are vocational schools in every region of Indiana, and most Indiana students can freely attend a vocational school during their high school years and receive training and job placement assistance in trade jobs. The International Union Of Operating Engineers (IUOE) has seven local unions in Indiana, offering apprenticeship and training opportunities.{{cite web|title=Local Unions by State/Province|url=https://www.iuoe.org/join-iuoe/local-unions-by-state-province|access-date=November 11, 2021|website=www.iuoe.org}} According to the Electrical Training Alliance website, there are ten electrical training centers in Indiana.{{cite web|title=electrical training ALLIANCE for the IBEW and NECA|url=http://electricaltrainingalliance.org/AboutUs|access-date=November 11, 2021|website=electricaltrainingalliance.org}}

{{See also|List of colleges and universities in Indiana}}

The state's community college system, Ivy Tech Community College of Indiana, serves nearly 200,000 students annually, making it the state's largest public post-secondary educational institution and the nation's largest singly accredited statewide community college system.{{cite web |title=Ivy Tech Reports Record Enrollment |url=http://www.insideindianabusiness.com/newsitem.asp?id=49433 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017093819/http://www.insideindianabusiness.com/newsitem.asp?id=49433 |archive-date=October 17, 2014 |access-date=July 23, 2014 |website=Insideindianabusiness.com}} In 2008, the Indiana University system agreed to shift most of its associate (2-year) degrees to the Ivy Tech Community College System.{{cite web |date=May 16, 2008 |title=Hoosier State Gets Coordinated |url=http://www.insidehighered.com/news/2008/05/16/indiana |access-date=March 21, 2014 |website=Inside Higher Ed}}

Indiana University is a multi-campus university system. Its flagship campus at Bloomington began as the Indiana Seminary in 1820. Indiana State University was established in Terre Haute as the state's Normal School in 1865. Purdue University was chartered in West Lafayette as the state's land-grant university in 1869 and is also now a multi-campus institution. The three other independent state universities are Vincennes University (founded in 1801 by the Indiana Territory), Ball State University (founded 1918 as the East Division of Indiana State), and the University of Southern Indiana (founded 1965 as the Evansville campus of Indiana State).

Many of Indiana's private colleges and universities are affiliated with religious denominations. The University of Notre Dame, Marian University, and the University of Saint Francis are Catholic. Universities affiliated with Protestant denominations include Anderson University, Butler University, Huntington University, Manchester University, Indiana Wesleyan University, Taylor University, Franklin College, Hanover College, DePauw University, Earlham College, Valparaiso University, University of Indianapolis, and University of Evansville.{{cite web|title=About UE |publisher=University of Evansville |url=http://www.evansville.edu/aboutue/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100106123440/http://www.evansville.edu/aboutue/ |archive-date=January 6, 2010 }}

The state has several universities ranked among the best by U.S. News & World Report. The University of Notre Dame ranks among the top 20, Purdue University among the top 50, and Indiana University Bloomington among the top 100.{{Cite web |title=University of Notre Dame |url=https://www.usnews.com/best-colleges/university-of-notre-dame-1840}}{{Cite web |title=Purdue University-West Lafayette |url=https://www.usnews.com/best-colleges/purdue-university-west-lafayette-1825}}{{Cite web |title=Indiana University-Bloomington |url=https://www.usnews.com/best-colleges/indiana-university-bloomington-1809}} Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) has recently made it into the top 200 U.S. News & World Report rankings. Butler, Valparaiso, and the University of Evansville are ranked among the top ten in the Regional University Midwest Rankings. Purdue's engineering programs are ranked fourth in the country.{{Cite web |title=2023–2024 Best Engineering Schools |url=https://www.usnews.com/best-graduate-schools/top-engineering-schools/eng-rankings |access-date=November 24, 2023 |website=US News & World Report}} In addition, Taylor University is ranked first in the Regional College Midwest Rankings and Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology has been considered the nation's top undergraduate engineering school for 25 consecutive years.[http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/rankings/national-universities National University Ranking|Top National Universities|US News Best Colleges] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110521210513/http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/rankings/national-universities |date=May 21, 2011 }}, U.S. News & World Report, retrieved 2013-Aug-13[http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/rankings/regional-universities-midwest Regional University Midwest Rankings|Top Regional Universities Midwest|US News Best Colleges] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151029062714/http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/rankings/regional-universities-midwest |date=October 29, 2015 }}, U.S. News & World Report, retrieved 2013-Aug-13[http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/rankings/regional-colleges-midwest Regional College Midwest Rankings|Top Regional Colleges Midwest|US News Best Colleges] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130130182816/http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/rankings/regional-colleges-midwest |date=January 30, 2013 }}, U.S. News & World Report, retrieved 2013-Aug-13[http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/rankings/engineering-no-doctorate Best Undergraduate Engineering Programs|Rankings|UsNews] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160930205000/http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/rankings/engineering-no-doctorate |date=September 30, 2016 }}, U.S. News & World Report, retrieved 2013-Sept-17{{Cite web |title=The Survey Says: Rose-Hulman No. 1 in U.S. News' Engineering Rankings for 24th Straight Year |url=https://www.rose-hulman.edu/news/2022/the-survey-says-rose-hulman-number-one-in-us-news-engineering-rankings-for-24th-straight-year.html |access-date=September 28, 2022 |website=www.rose-hulman.edu |language=en}}

The state is also home to the largest medical school system in the country (the Indiana University School of Medicine) and a smaller, osteopathic medical school (the Marian University College of Osteopathic Medicine). In addition, Indiana boasts one veterinary medical school (the Purdue College of Veterinary Medicine), one optometry school (Indiana University School of Optometry), three pharmacy schools (the Purdue College of Pharmacy, Butler College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, and the Manchester College of Pharmacy, Natural, and Health Sciences) and four law schools (IU Maurer School of Law, IU McKinney School of Law, Notre Dame Law School, and Purdue Global Law School).

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| caption1 = Indiana University Bloomington. The public Indiana University system enrolls 114,160 students.{{cite press release|title=Indiana University enrollment remains strong; minority numbers up|publisher=Indiana University Newsroom|url=http://archive.news.iu.edu/releases/iu/2016/08/university-census-enrollment.shtml|date=August 31, 2016|access-date=September 2, 2017}}

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| caption2 = Purdue University. The public Purdue University system enrolls 67,596 students, not including Purdue Global.{{cite press release|title=Purdue University sets record for largest enrollment and highest graduation rates ever|publisher=Purdue University|url=https://www.purdue.edu/newsroom/releases/2016/Q3/purdue-university-sets-records-for-largest-enrollment-and-highest-graduation-rates-ever.html|date=September 12, 2016|access-date=September 2, 2017}}

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{{Reflist}}

• Boone, Richard G. A history of education in Indiana (R. Appleton, 1892) [https://archive.org/details/ahistoryeducati00boongoog online]
• Buley, R. Carlyle. The Old Northwest, Pioneer Period, 1815–1840 (2 vols., 1951), vol 2 pp. 339–408, and passim.
• Carmony, Donald J. Indiana, 1816–1850: The Pioneer Era (1998), pp. 363–402. [https://archive.org/details/indiana18161850p0000carm online]
• Cohen, Ronald D. Children of the mill: Schooling and society in Gary, Indiana, 1906–1960 (Routledge, 2014). [https://books.google.com/books?id=DYJ9AwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Gary+Indiana%22&pg=PR13 online]
• Cotton, Fassett A. Education in Indiana. An outline of the growth of the common school system, together with statements relating to the condition of secondary and higher education in the state and a brief history of the educational exhibit (1904) [https://archive.org/details/educationinindi01instgoog online].
• Davis, Gail D. "An oral history of rural schools in Pike County, Indiana" (PhD dissertation, University of Central Florida; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing,  2004. 3134676).
• McCord, David Marion. "Sunday School and Public School: An Exploration of their Relationship with special reference to Indiana, 1790–1869" (PhD dissertation, Purdue University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing,  1976. 7701744).
• Madison, James H. Indiana Through Tradition & Change: A History of the Hoosier State & Its People, 1920–1945 (1982) pp. 263–291. [https://archive.org/details/indianathroughtr0000jame/page/n6/mode/1up online]
• Newman, Otho Lionel. "Development or the Common Schools of Indiana To 1851," Indiana Magazine of History, v. 22 (September, 1926), 229–276. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/27786265 online]
• Phillips, Clifton J. "Chapter X: The Expansion of education" in Indiana in Transition: The Emergence of an Industrial Commonwealth, 1880–1920 (1968), pp. 386–486. [https://archive.org/details/indianaintransit0000clif online]
• Reese, William J. ed. Hoosier Schools: Past and Present (1998) [https://books.google.com/books?id=u6ZH9HGw8UAC&dq=reese+indiana%27s+best&pg=PR11 online]
• Rudolph, L. C. Hoosier Faiths: A History of Indiana's Churches and Religious Groups (1995), 710 pp.
• Thornbrough, Emma Lou. Indiana in the Civil War Era, 1850–1880 (1965) pp. 461–535. [https://archive.org/details/indianaincivilwa0003thor online]
• Thornbrough, Emma Lou. Indiana Blacks in the twentieth century (2000) [https://archive.org/details/indianablacksint00thor online] on desegregation pp:139–162.
• Whitford, Frederick and Martin, Andrew G. The Grand Old Man of Purdue University and Indiana Agriculture: A Biography of William Carroll Latta (Purdue U. Press, 2005), 385 pp.
• Woodburn, James Albert. Higher education in Indiana (1891) [https://archive.org/details/cu31924030558682/page/n7/mode/2up online].

• [https://archive.org/details/ERIC_ED607799 Higher Education in Focus 2019. "Essential Performance Indicators for Midwestern States: Indiana" (2019)]

Category:Education in Indiana