Emotional dysregulation

The word dysregulation is a neologism created by combining the prefix dys- to regulation. According to Webster's Dictionary, dys- has various roots and is of Greek origin. With Latin and Greek roots, it is akin to Old English {{Lang|ang|tō-}}, {{Lang|ang|te-}} 'apart' and Sanskrit {{Lang|sa-latn|dus-}} 'bad, difficult'. It is frequently confused with the spelling disregulation, with the prefix dis meaning 'the opposite of' or 'absence of'; while disregulation refers to the removal or absence of regulation, dysregulation refers to ways of regulating that are inappropriate or ineffective.

There are links between child emotional dysregulation and later psychopathology.{{cite journal | vauthors = De Caluwé E, Decuyper M, De Clercq B | title = The child behavior checklist dysregulation profile predicts adolescent DSM-5 pathological personality traits 4 years later | journal = European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry | volume = 22 | issue = 7 | pages = 401–11 | date = July 2013 | pmid = 23381573 | doi = 10.1007/s00787-013-0379-9 | s2cid = 24423401 }} For instance, ADHD symptoms are associated with problems with emotional regulation, motivation, and arousal.{{cite journal | vauthors = Barkley RA | title = Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: constructing a unifying theory of ADHD | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 121 | issue = 1 | pages = 65–94 | date = January 1997 | pmid = 9000892 | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.121.1.65 }} One study found a connection between emotional dysregulation at 5 and 10 months, and parent-reported problems with anger and distress at 18 months.{{cite journal | vauthors = Stifter CA, Jain A | title = Psychophysiological correlates of infant temperament: stability of behavior and autonomic patterning from 5 to 18 months | journal = Developmental Psychobiology | volume = 29 | issue = 4 | pages = 379–91 | date = May 1996 | pmid = 8732809 | doi = 10.1002/(sici)1098-2302(199605)29:4<379::aid-dev5>3.0.co;2-n | citeseerx = 10.1.1.590.8991 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Eisenberg N, Spinrad TL, Eggum ND | title = Emotion-related self-regulation and its relation to children's maladjustment | journal = Annual Review of Clinical Psychology | volume = 6 | issue = 1 | pages = 495–525 | date = March 2010 | pmid = 20192797 | pmc = 3018741 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.121208.131208 }} Low levels of emotional regulation behaviors at 5 months were also related to non-compliant behaviors at 30 months.{{cite journal | vauthors = Stifter CA, Spinrad TL, Braungart-Rieker JM | title = Toward a developmental model of child compliance: the role of emotion regulation in infancy | journal = Child Development | volume = 70 | issue = 1 | pages = 21–32 | year = 1999 | pmid = 10191513 | doi = 10.1111/1467-8624.00003 }} While links have been found between emotional dysregulation and child psychopathology, the mechanisms behind how early emotional dysregulation and later psychopathology are related are not yet clear.

Smoking, self-harm, eating disorders, and addiction have all been associated with emotional dysregulation.{{cite book|last=Macklem|first=G.L.|year=2008|title=Practitioner's Guide to Emotion regulation in School–Aged Children|location=NY|publisher=Springer}}{{page needed|date=October 2019}} Somatoform disorders may be caused by a decreased ability to regulate and experience emotions or an inability to express emotions in a positive way.{{cite journal|vauthors=Waller E, Scheidt CE|title=Somatoform disorders as disorders of affect regulation: a development perspective|journal=International Review of Psychiatry|volume=18|issue=1|pages=13–24|date=February 2006|pmid= 16451876|doi=10.1080/09540260500466774|s2cid=10215459}} Individuals who have difficulty regulating emotions are at risk for eating disorders and substance abuse as they use food or substances as a way to regulate their emotions.{{cite journal|vauthors=Sim L, Zeman J| year=2006 | title = The contribution of emotion regulation to body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in early adolescent girls | doi = 10.1007/s10964-005-9003-8 | journal = Journal of Youth and Adolescence | volume = 35 | issue = 2| pages = 207–216 | s2cid = 144601992 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Tice DM, Bratslavsky E, Baumeister RF | title = Emotional distress regulation takes precedence over impulse control: if you feel bad, do it! | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 80 | issue = 1 | pages = 53–67 | date = January 2001 | pmid = 11195891 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.80.1.53 | s2cid = 10596913 }} Emotional dysregulation is also found in people who have an increased risk of developing a mental disorder, particularly an affective disorder such as depression or bipolar disorder.{{cite journal | vauthors = Kanske P, Schönfelder S, Forneck J, Wessa M | title = Impaired regulation of emotion: neural correlates of reappraisal and distraction in bipolar disorder and unaffected relatives | journal = Translational Psychiatry | volume = 5 | pages = e497 | date = January 2015 | issue = 1 | pmid = 25603413 | pmc = 4312831 | doi = 10.1038/tp.2014.137 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Heissler J, Kanske P, Schönfelder S, Wessa M | title = Inefficiency of emotion regulation as vulnerability marker for bipolar disorder: evidence from healthy individuals with hypomanic personality | journal = Journal of Affective Disorders | volume = 152–154 | pages = 83–90 | date = January 2014 | pmid = 23948633 | doi = 10.1016/j.jad.2013.05.001 }}

Dysregulation is more prevalent in this age group, and is generally seen to decrease as children develop.{{Cite journal |last1=Kuo |first1=Patty X. |last2=Volling |first2=Brenda L. |last3=Gonzalez |first3=Richard |last4=Oh |first4=Wonjung |last5=Yu |first5=Tianyi |date=September 2017 |title=VII. Developmental Trajectories of Children's Emotional Reactivity After the Birth of a Sibling|journal=Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development |language=en |volume=82 |issue=3 |pages=93–105 |doi=10.1111/mono.12313 |pmc=5596886 |pmid=28766772}}{{Cite web |title=Emotion Dysregulation Resource Center |url=https://www.aacap.org/aacap/families_and_youth/Resource_Centers/Emotional_Dysregulation/Home.aspx |access-date=2023-04-20 |website=www.aacap.org |language=en}} During early childhood, emotional dysregulation or reactivity is considered to be situational rather than indicative of emotional disorders. It is important to consider parental mood disorders as genetic and environmental determinants. Children of parents with symptoms of depression are less likely to learn strategies for regulating their emotions and are at risk of inheriting a mood disorder. When parents have difficulty with regulating their emotions, they often cannot teach their children to regulate properly.{{Cite web |last=Burton |first=Natasha |date=2022-04-30 |title=When Should Your Anger Be Alarming to Those Around You? |url=https://www.goalcast.com/emotional-dysregulation/ |access-date=2023-04-18 |website=Goalcast |language=en-US}} The role of parents in a child's development is acknowledged by attachment theory, which argues that the characteristics of the caregiver-child relationship impact future relationships. Current research indicates that parent-child relationships characterized by less affection and greater hostility may result in children developing emotional regulation problems.{{Cite journal |last1=Linder |first1=Jennifer Ruh |last2=Collins |first2=W. Andrew |date=June 2005 |title=Parent and Peer Predictors of Physical Aggression and Conflict Management in Romantic Relationships in Early Adulthood. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0893-3200.19.2.252 |journal=Journal of Family Psychology |language=en |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=252–262 |doi=10.1037/0893-3200.19.2.252 |pmid=15982103 |issn=1939-1293}}{{Cite journal |last1=Lavi |first1=Iris |last2=Ozer |first2=Emily J. |last3=Katz |first3=Lynn Fainsilber |last4=Gross |first4=James J. |date=2021-12-01 |title=The role of parental emotion reactivity and regulation in child maltreatment and maltreatment risk: A meta-analytic review |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272735821001422 |journal=Clinical Psychology Review |language=en |volume=90 |pages=102099 |doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102099 |pmid=34752992 |s2cid=243488933 |issn=0272-7358}} If the child's emotional needs are ignored or rejected, they may experience greater difficulty dealing with emotions in the future.{{Cite web |last=Team |date=2022-04-18 |title=Emotional Dysregulation & Insecure Attachment in Relationships |url=https://www.attachmentproject.com/blog/insecure-attachment-emotional-dysregulation/ |access-date=2023-04-18 |website=Attachment Project |language=en-US}} Moreover, conflict between parents is linked to increased emotional reactivity or dysregulation in children.{{Cite journal |last1=Cook |first1=Emily C. |last2=Buehler |first2=Cheryl |last3=Blair |first3=Bethany L. |date=2013 |title=Adolescents' emotional reactivity across relationship contexts. |journal=Developmental Psychology |language=en |volume=49 |issue=2 |pages=341–352 |doi=10.1037/a0028342 |issn=1939-0599 |pmc=3419815 |pmid=22545839}}{{Cite journal |last1=Buehler |first1=Cheryl |last2=Lange |first2=Garrett |last3=Franck |first3=Karen L. |date=May 2007 |title=Adolescents' Cognitive and Emotional Responses to Marital Hostility |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01032.x |journal=Child Development |language=en |volume=78 |issue=3 |pages=775–789 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01032.x |pmid=17517004 |issn=0009-3920}} Other factors involved include the quality of relationship with peers, the child's temperament, and social or cognitive understanding. Additionally, loss or grief can contribute to emotional dysregulation.{{Cite web |last=Whyte |first=Angus |date=2021-04-23 |title=What Is Emotional Dysregulation in Teens? |url=https://evolvetreatment.com/blog/emotional-dysregulation-teens/ |access-date=2023-04-19 |website=Evolve Treatment Centers |language=en-US}}

Research has shown that failures in emotional regulation may be related to the display of acting out, externalizing disorders, or behavior problems. When presented with challenging tasks, children who were found to have defects in emotional regulation (high-risk) spent less time attending to tasks and more time throwing tantrums or fretting than children without emotional regulation problems (low-risk). High-risk children had difficulty with self-regulation and had difficulty complying with requests from caregivers and were more defiant.{{cite journal | vauthors = Calkins SD, Dedmon SE | title = Physiological and behavioral regulation in two-year-old children with aggressive/destructive behavior problems | journal = Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology | volume = 28 | issue = 2 | pages = 103–18 | date = April 2000 | pmid = 10834764 | doi = 10.1023/A:1005112912906 | s2cid = 18490690 }} Emotional dysregulation has also been associated with childhood social withdrawal.{{cite journal | vauthors = Garcia-Coll C, Kagan J, Reznick J | year = 1984 | title = Behavioral inhibition in young children | journal = Child Development | volume = 55 | pages = 505–529 }}

Emotional dysregulation in children can be associated with internalizing behaviors including:

• exhibiting emotions too intense for a situation;
• difficulty calming down when upset;
• difficulty decreasing negative emotions;
• being less able to calm themselves;
• difficulty understanding emotional experiences;
• becoming avoidant or aggressive when dealing with negative emotions;
• experiencing more negative emotions.

Emotional dysregulation in children can be associated with externalizing behaviors including:

• exhibiting more extreme emotions;
• difficulty identifying emotional cues;
• difficulty recognizing their own emotions;
• focusing on the negative;
• difficulty controlling their attention;
• being impulsive;
• difficulty decreasing their negative emotions;
• difficulty calming down when upset.

In adolescents, emotional dysregulation is a risk factor for many mental health disorders including depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder, bipolar disorder, borderline personality disorder, substance use disorder, alcohol use disorder, eating disorders, oppositional defiant disorder, and disruptive mood dysregulation disorder. Dysregulation is also associated with self-injury, suicidal ideation, suicide attempts, and risky sexual behavior.{{Cite web |title=The ABCs of Emotional Dysregulation {{!}} Amen Clinics |url=https://www.amenclinics.com/blog/the-abcs-of-emotional-dysregulation/ |access-date=2023-04-19 |language=en-US}} Emotional dysregulation is not a diagnosis, but an indicator of an emotional or behavioral problem that may need intervention.

Attachment theory and the idea of an insecure attachment is implicated in emotional dysregulation. Greater attachment security correlates with less emotional dysregulation in daughters.{{Cite journal |last1=Hershenberg |first1=Rachel |last2=Davila |first2=Joanne |last3=Yoneda |first3=Athena |last4=Starr |first4=Lisa R. |last5=Miller |first5=Melissa Ramsay |last6=Stroud |first6=Catherine B. |last7=Feinstein |first7=Brian A. |date=October 2011 |title=What I like about you: The association between adolescent attachment security and emotional behavior in a relationship promoting context |journal=Journal of Adolescence |language=en |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=1017–1024 |doi=10.1016/j.adolescence.2010.11.006 |issn=0140-1971 |pmc=3081524 |pmid=21159373}} Moreover, it has been observed that more female teens struggle with emotional dysregulation than males.{{Cite news |title=Emotional Dysregulation Facts |language=en |work=Rogers Behavioral Health |url=https://rogersbh.org/emotional-dysregulation-facts |access-date=2023-04-19}} Professional treatment, such as therapy or admittance into a psychiatric facility, is recommended.

Emotional dysregulation tends to present as emotional responses that may seem excessive compared to the situation. Individuals with emotional dysregulation may have difficulty calming down, avoid difficult feelings, or focus on the negative. On average, women tend to score higher on scales of emotional reactivity than men.{{Cite journal |last1=Price |first1=Amber A. |last2=Leavitt |first2=Chelom E. |last3=Allsop |first3=David B. |date=2021-01-02 |title=How Gender Differences in Emotional Cutoff and Reactivity Influence Couple's Sexual and Relational Outcomes |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2020.1800541 |journal=Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=16–31 |doi=10.1080/0092623X.2020.1800541 |issn=0092-623X |pmid=32821026|s2cid=221219014 }}{{Cite journal |last1=Domes |first1=Gregor |last2=Schulze |first2=Lars |last3=Böttger |first3=Moritz |last4=Grossmann |first4=Annette |last5=Hauenstein |first5=Karlheinz |last6=Wirtz |first6=Petra H. |last7=Heinrichs |first7=Markus |last8=Herpertz |first8=Sabine C. |date=2009-12-02 |title=The neural correlates of sex differences in emotional reactivity and emotion regulation |journal=Human Brain Mapping |language=en |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=758–769 |doi=10.1002/hbm.20903 |pmc=6871188 |pmid=19957268}}{{Cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Min |last2=Johnson |first2=Lee N. |last3=Anderson |first3=Shayne R. |last4=Hunt |first4=Quintin |last5=Bradford |first5=Angela B. |last6=Banford Witting |first6=Alyssa |last7=Bean |first7=Roy |last8=Miller |first8=Rick B. |date=2022-10-25 |title=Emotion dysregulation and couple relationship satisfaction of clinical couples: An actor-partner interdependence model |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/famp.12828 |journal=Family Process |volume=62 |issue=4 |pages=1555–1573 |language=en |doi=10.1111/famp.12828 |pmid=36281780 |s2cid=253109121 |issn=0014-7370}} A study at University College in Ireland found that dysregulation correlates to negative feelings about one's ability to cope with emotions and rumination in adults. They also found dysregulation to be common in a sample of individuals not affected by mental disorders.{{Cite journal |last1=Yalvaç |first1=Elif B. Koş |last2=Gaynor |first2=Keith |date=2021-03-01 |title=Emotional dysregulation in adults: The influence of rumination and negative secondary appraisals of emotion |journal=Journal of Affective Disorders |language=en |volume=282 |pages=656–661 |doi=10.1016/j.jad.2020.12.194 |pmid=33445088 |s2cid=231610640 |issn=0165-0327|doi-access=free }}

Part of emotional dysregulation, which is a core characteristic in borderline personality disorder, is affective instability, which manifests as rapid and frequent shifts in mood of high affect intensity and rapid onset of emotions, often triggered by environmental stimuli. The return to a stable emotional state is notably delayed, exacerbating the challenge of achieving emotional equilibrium. This instability is further intensified by an acute sensitivity to psychosocial cues, leading to significant challenges in managing emotions effectively.{{cite book |title=Abnormal Psychology |vauthors=Hooley J, Butcher JM, Nock MK |date=2017 |publisher=Pearson Education |isbn=978-0-13-385205-9 |edition=17th |location=London, England |page=359}}{{harvnb|Linehan|1993|page=45}}{{Cite journal |last1=Dick |first1=Alexandra M. |last2=Suvak |first2=Michael K. |date=July 2018 |title=Borderline personality disorder affective instability: What you know impacts how you feel. |journal=Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment |language=en |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=369–378 |doi=10.1037/per0000280 |issn=1949-2723 |pmc=6033624 |pmid=29461071}}

Relationships are generally linked to better well-being, but dissatisfaction in relationships can lead to increased divorce, worsened health, and potential violence. Emotional dysregulation plays a role in relationship quality and overall satisfaction. It can be difficult for emotionally dysregulated individuals to maintain healthy relationships. People who struggle with emotional dysregulation often externalize, internalize, or dissociate when exposed to stressors. These behaviors are attempts to regulate emotions but often are ineffective in addressing stress in relationships. {{Cite web |last=Velasquez |first=Katrina |date=2023-01-03 |title=How Childhood Trauma Impacts Adult Intimate Relationships |url=https://thebetteryouinstitute.com/2023/01/03/childhood-trauma-impacts-adult-intimate-relationships/ |access-date=2023-04-18 |website=thebetteryouinstitute.com |language=en-US}} This commonly presents itself as intense anxiety around relationships, poor ability to set and sustain boundaries, frequent and damaging arguments, preoccupation with loneliness, worries about losing a relationship, and jealous or idealizing feelings towards others.{{Cite web |title=Unhealthy Attachment and Emotional Dysregulation |url=https://jessicalevith.com/love-addiction/intimacy-disorders/emotional-dependency/partnerships |access-date=2023-04-18 |website=Sex Therapy/ Sexual Health/AF-EMDR /Oakland, CA |language=en-US}} These feelings may be accompanied by support-seeking behaviors such as clinging, smothering, or seeking to control.

The counterpart of emotional dysregulation, emotional regulation, strengthens relationships. The ability to regulate negative emotions in particular is linked to positive coping and thus higher relationship satisfaction.{{Cite journal |last1=Rusu |first1=Petruta P. |last2=Bodenmann |first2=Guy |last3=Kayser |first3=Karen |date=January 2019 |title=Cognitive emotion regulation and positive dyadic outcomes in married couples |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0265407517751664 |journal=Journal of Social and Personal Relationships |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=359–376 |doi=10.1177/0265407517751664 |s2cid=149237097 |issn=0265-4075}} Emotional regulation and communication skills are linked to secure attachment, which has been related to higher partner support as well as openness in discussing negative experiences and resolving conflict.{{Cite journal |last1=Fávero |first1=Marisalva |last2=Lemos |first2=Lúcia |last3=Moreira |first3=Diana |last4=Ribeiro |first4=Filipe Nunes |last5=Sousa-Gomes |first5=Valéria |date=2021 |title=Romantic Attachment and Difficulties in Emotion Regulation on Dyadic Adjustment: A Comprehensive Literature Review |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=12 |page=723823 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2021.723823 |issn=1664-1078 |pmc=8710590 |pmid=34966317 |doi-access=free }} On the other hand, emotional dysregulation has a negative impact on relationships. Multiple studies note the effects of emotion dysregulation on relationship quality. One study found that relationship satisfaction is lower in couples that lack impulse control or regulatory strategies. Another study found that both husbands' and wives' emotional reactivity was negatively linked with marriage quality as well as perceptions of partner responsiveness.{{Cite journal |last1=Yuan |first1=Qunming |last2=Fan |first2=Zhiguang |last3=Leng |first3=Jiaqi |date=2022 |title=The Effect of Emotional Reactivity on Marital Quality in Chinese Couples: The Mediating Role of Perceived Partner Responsiveness |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=12 |page=787899 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2021.787899 |issn=1664-1078 |pmc=8806163 |pmid=35115988 |doi-access=free }} The literature concludes that dysregulation increases instances of perceived criticism, contributes to physical and psychological violence, and worsens depression, anxiety, and sexual difficulties.{{Cite journal |last1=Klein |first1=Sarah R. |last2=Renshaw |first2=Keith D. |last3=Curby |first3=Timothy W. |date=2016-03-01 |title=Emotion Regulation and Perceptions of Hostile and Constructive Criticism in Romantic Relationships |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0005789415001173 |journal=Behavior Therapy |language=en |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=143–154 |doi=10.1016/j.beth.2015.10.007 |pmid=26956648 |issn=0005-7894}}{{Cite journal |last1=Halmos |first1=Miklos B. |last2=Leone |first2=Ruschelle M. |last3=Parrott |first3=Dominic J. |last4=Eckhardt |first4=Christopher I. |date=May 2021 |title=Relationship Dissatisfaction, Emotion Regulation, and Physical Intimate Partner Aggression in Heavy-Drinking, Conflict-Prone Couples: A Dyadic Analysis |journal=Journal of Interpersonal Violence |language=en |volume=36 |issue=9–10 |pages=NP5385–NP5406 |doi=10.1177/0886260518801019 |issn=0886-2605 |pmc=6878138 |pmid=30239307}}{{Cite journal |last1=Dubé |first1=Justin P. |last2=Corsini-Munt |first2=Serena |last3=Muise |first3=Amy |last4=Rosen |first4=Natalie O. |date=2019-11-01 |title=Emotion Regulation in Couples Affected by Female Sexual Interest/Arousal Disorder |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-01465-4 |journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior |language=en |volume=48 |issue=8 |pages=2491–2506 |doi=10.1007/s10508-019-01465-4 |pmid=31468243 |s2cid=201674173 |issn=1573-2800}} Dysregulation has also been observed to lower empathy and decrease relationship satisfaction, quality, and intimacy.{{Cite journal |last=Cotet |first=Carmen |title=Interpersonal Emotion Regulation and Cognitive Empathy As Mediators Between Intrapersonal Emotion Regulation Difficulties and Couple Satisfaction |journal=Journal of Evidence-Based Psychotherapies |year=2019 |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=119–134 |url=http://jebp.psychotherapy.ro/vol-xix-no-2-2019/interpersonal-emotion-regulation-and-cognitive-empathy-as-mediators-between-intrapersonal-emotion-regulation-difficulties-and-couple-satisfaction/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |language=en-US |doi=10.24193/jebp.2019.2.17|s2cid=214529246 |doi-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last1=Mazzuca |first1=Silvia |last2=Kafetsios |first2=Konstantinos |last3=Livi |first3=Stefano |last4=Presaghi |first4=Fabio |date=September 2019 |title=Emotion regulation and satisfaction in long-term marital relationships: The role of emotional contagion |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0265407518804452 |journal=Journal of Social and Personal Relationships |language=en |volume=36 |issue=9 |pages=2880–2895 |doi=10.1177/0265407518804452 |s2cid=150204066 |issn=0265-4075}}

Research conflicts on whether higher levels of emotional reactivity are linked to increases or decreases in sexual desire. Moreover, this effect could differ between men and women based on observed differences in emotional reactivity between genders. Some research posits that higher emotional reactivity in women is linked to greater sexual attraction in their male partners. However, difficulties in regulating emotions have been linked to poorer sexual health, both in regards to ability and overall satisfaction.{{Cite journal |last1=Fischer |first1=Vinicius Jobim |last2=Andersson |first2=Gerhard |last3=Billieux |first3=Joël |last4=Vögele |first4=Claus |date=2022-04-01 |title=The Relationship Between Emotion Regulation and Sexual Function and Satisfaction: A Scoping Review |journal=Sexual Medicine Reviews |language=en |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=195–208 |doi=10.1016/j.sxmr.2021.11.004 |pmid=35012894 |s2cid=245834967 |issn=2050-0521|doi-access=free }}

Emotional dysregulation plays a role in nonconsensual and violent sexual encounters. Emotional regulation skills prevent verbal coercion by regulating feelings of sexual attraction in men.{{Cite journal |last=Craig |first=Amber |title=The Impact of Sexual Arousal and Emotional Regulation on Men's Sexual Aggression Proclivity |url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520915544 |journal=Journal of Interpersonal Violence |year=2022 |volume=37 |issue=1–2|pages=NP264–NP280 |doi=10.1177/0886260520915544 |pmid=32345118 |s2cid=216646458 }} Consequently, a lack of emotional regulation skills can cause both internalizing and externalizing behaviors in a sexual context. This may mean violence, which can serve as a strategy for regulating emotion.{{Cite journal |last1=Bushman |first1=Brad J. |last2=Baumeister |first2=Roy F. |last3=Phillips |first3=Collen M. |date=2001 |title=Do people aggress to improve their mood? Catharsis beliefs, affect regulation opportunity, and aggressive responding. |url=https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.81.1.17 |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |language=en |volume=81 |issue=1 |pages=17–32 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.81.1.17 |pmid=11474722 |issn=1939-1315}} In a non-violent context, insecurely attached individuals may seek to satisfy their need for connection or to resolve relational issues with sex. {{Cite journal |last1=Birnbaum |first1=Gurit E |last2=Reis |first2=Harry T |date=2019-02-01 |title=Evolved to be connected: the dynamics of attachment and sex over the course of romantic relationships |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352250X18300010 |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology |series=Attachment in Adulthood |language=en |volume=25 |pages=11–15 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.02.005 |pmid=29486255 |s2cid=3548118 |issn=2352-250X}} Communication can also be hindered, as emotional dysregulation has been linked to an inability to express oneself in sexual situations.{{Cite journal |last1=Zerubavel |first1=Noga |last2=Messman-Moore |first2=Terri L. |date=December 2013 |title=Sexual Victimization, Fear of Sexual Powerlessness, and Cognitive Emotion Dysregulation as Barriers to Sexual Assertiveness in College Women |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1077801213517566 |journal=Violence Against Women |language=en |volume=19 |issue=12 |pages=1518–1537 |doi=10.1177/1077801213517566 |pmid=24379216 |hdl=10161/11250 |s2cid=8115007 |issn=1077-8012|hdl-access=free }} This can lead to victimization as well as further sexual difficulties.{{Cite journal |last1=Rozee |first1=Patricia D. |last2=Koss |first2=Mary P. |date=December 2001 |title=Rape: A Century of Resistance |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/1471-6402.00030 |journal=Psychology of Women Quarterly |language=en |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=295–311 |doi=10.1111/1471-6402.00030 |s2cid=71473792 |issn=0361-6843}} Thus, the ability to both recognize emotions and express negative emotions are important for communication and social adjustment, including within sexual contexts.

While personal characteristics and experiences can contribute to externalizing and internalizing behaviors as listed above, emotional regulation has an interpersonal aspect. Couples who effectively co-regulate have higher emotional satisfaction and stability. Openly discussing emotions in the relationship can help to validate feelings of insecurity and encourage closeness. For partners who struggle with emotional dysregulation, there are available treatments. Couple's therapy has shown itself to be an effective method of improving relationship satisfaction and quality by positively impacting the process of emotional regulation in relationships.

Early experiences with caregivers can lead to differences in emotional regulation. The responsiveness of a caregiver to an infant's signals can help an infant regulate their emotional systems. Caregiver interaction styles that overwhelm a child or that are unpredictable may undermine emotional regulation development. Effective strategies involve working with a child to support developing self-control such as modeling a desired behavior rather than demanding it.Bronson M. B. (2000). Self-regulation in early childhood. New York: Guilford Press.{{page needed|date=October 2019}}

The richness of an environment that a child is exposed to helps the development of emotional regulation. An environment must provide appropriate levels of freedom and constraint. The environment must allow opportunities for a child to practice self-regulation. An environment with opportunities to practice social skills without overstimulation or excessive frustration helps a child develop self-regulation skills.

Several variables have been explored to explain the connection between emotional dysregulation and substance use in young adults, such as child maltreatment, cortisol levels, family environment, and symptoms of depression and anxiety. Vilhena-Churchill and Goldstein (2014){{cite journal | vauthors = Vilhena-Churchill N, Goldstein AL | title = Child maltreatment and marijuana problems in young adults: examining the role of motives and emotion dysregulation | journal = Child Abuse & Neglect | volume = 38 | issue = 5 | pages = 962–72 | date = May 2014 | pmid = 24268374 | doi = 10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.10.009 }} explored the association between childhood maltreatment and emotional dysregulation. More severe childhood maltreatment was found to be associated with an increase in difficulty regulating emotion, which in turn was associated with a greater likelihood of coping by using marijuana. Kliewer et al. (2016){{cite journal | vauthors = Kliewer W, Riley T, Zaharakis N, Borre A, Drazdowski TK, Jäggi L | title = Emotion dysregulation, anticipatory cortisol, and substance use in urban adolescents | journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 99 | pages = 200–205 | date = September 2016 | pmid = 27795602 | pmc = 5082236 | doi = 10.1016/j.paid.2016.05.011 }} performed a study on the relationship between negative family emotional climate, emotional dysregulation, blunted anticipatory cortisol, and substance use in adolescents. Increased negative family emotional climate was found to be associated with high levels of emotional dysregulation, which was then associated with increased substance use. Girls were seen to have blunted anticipatory cortisol levels, which was also associated with an increase in substance use. Childhood events and family climate with emotional dysregulation are both factors seemingly linked to substance use. Prosek, Giordano, Woehler, Price, and McCullough (2018){{cite journal | vauthors = Prosek EA, Giordano AL, Woehler ES, Price E, McCullough R | title = Differences in Emotion Dysregulation and Symptoms of Depression and Anxiety among Illicit Substance Users and Nonusers | journal = Substance Use & Misuse | volume = 53 | issue = 11 | pages = 1915–1918 | date = September 2018 | pmid = 29465278 | doi = 10.1080/10826084.2018.1436563 | s2cid = 3411848 }} explored the relationship between mental health and emotional regulation in collegiate illicit substance users. Illicit drug users reported higher levels of depression and anxiety symptoms. Emotional dysregulation was more prominent in illicit drug users in the sense that they had less clarity and were less aware of their emotions when the emotions were occurring.

{{see also|Management of borderline personality disorder|Management of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder}}

Many people experience dysregulation and can struggle at times with uncontrollable emotions. Thus, potential underlying issues are important to consider in determining severity. As the ability to appropriately express and regulate emotions is related to better relationships and mental health, parental support can help regulate the emotions of children struggling with emotional dysregulation. Training to help parents address this issue focuses on predictability and consistency. These tenets are thought to provide comfort by creating a sense of familiarity and thus safety.{{Cite web |date=2022-04-07 |title=Emotional dysregulation: Causes, symptoms, and related disorders |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/dysregulation |access-date=2023-04-18 |website=www.medicalnewstoday.com |language=en}}

While cognitive behavioral therapy is the most widely prescribed treatment for such psychiatric disorders, a commonly prescribed psychotherapeutic treatment for emotional dysregulation is dialectical behavioral therapy, a psychotherapy which promotes the use of mindfulness, a concept called dialectics, and emphasis on the importance of validation and maintaining healthy behavioral habits.{{Cite web | url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/borderline-personality-disorder/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20370242 | title=Borderline personality disorder - Diagnosis and treatment - Mayo Clinic| website=Mayo Clinic}}{{Cite web | url=https://www.clearviewwomenscenter.com/emotion-dysregulation-therapy/ |title = Emotion Dysregulation Treatment with DBT}}

When diagnosed as being part of ADHD, norepinephrine and dopamine reuptake inhibitors such as methylphenidate (Ritalin){{cite journal | vauthors = Suzer Gamli I, Tahiroglu AY | title = Six months methylphenidate treatment improves emotion dysregulation in adolescents with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a prospective study | journal = Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment | volume = 14 | pages = 1329–1337 | year = 2018 | pmid = 29872300 | pmc = 5973442 | doi = 10.2147/NDT.S164807 | doi-access = free }} and atomoxetine{{cite journal | vauthors = Reimherr FW, Marchant BK, Strong RE, Hedges DW, Adler L, Spencer TJ, West SA, Soni P | display-authors = 6 | title = Emotional dysregulation in adult ADHD and response to atomoxetine | journal = Biological Psychiatry | volume = 58 | issue = 2 | pages = 125–31 | date = July 2005 | pmid = 16038683 | doi = 10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.04.040 | s2cid = 21018577 }} are often used. A few studies have also showed promise in terms of non-pharmacological treatments for people with ADHD and emotional problems,{{Cite journal |last1=Vacher |first1=Cécile |last2=Goujon |first2=Allison |last3=Romo |first3=Lucia |last4=Purper-Ouakil |first4=Diane |date=2020-09-01 |title=Efficacy of psychosocial interventions for children with ADHD and emotion dysregulation: a systematic review |journal=Psychiatry Research |language=en |volume=291 |pages=113151 |doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113151 |pmid=32619822 |s2cid=219123966 |issn=0165-1781|doi-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last1=Faraone |first1=Stephen V. |last2=Rostain |first2=Anthony L. |last3=Blader |first3=Joseph |last4=Busch |first4=Betsy |last5=Childress |first5=Ann C. |last6=Connor |first6=Daniel F. |last7=Newcorn |first7=Jeffrey H. |date=February 2019 |title=Practitioner Review: Emotional dysregulation in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder - implications for clinical recognition and intervention |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jcpp.12899 |journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry |language=en |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=133–150 |doi=10.1111/jcpp.12899|pmid=29624671 }} although the research is limited and requires additional inquiry.

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) can help recovery from emotional dysregulation in cases where the dysregulation is a symptom of prior trauma. Outside of therapy, there are helpful strategies to help individuals recognize how they are feeling and put space between an event and their response. These include mindfulness, affirmations, and gratitude journaling. Hypnosis may also help to improve emotional regulation. Movement such as yoga and aerobic exercise can also be therapeutic by aiding with regulation and the ability to understand how one's mind influences behavior.

{{Portal|Psychology}}

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• Adrenal insufficiency
• Alexithymia
• Anxiety
• Conduct disorder
• Emotional self-regulation
• Epigenetics of anxiety and stress–related disorders
• Pseudobulbar affect
• Reduced affect display
• Spiritual crisis
• WAVE Trust

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{{reflist}}

• {{cite book |vauthors=Linehan M |author-link=Marsha M. Linehan |year=1993 |title=Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder |location=New York |publisher=Guilford Press |isbn=978-0-89862-183-9}}
• {{cite book |vauthors=Manning S |year=2011 |title=Loving Someone with Borderline Personality Disorder |publisher=The Guilford Press |isbn=978-1-59385-607-6}}

{{Bipolar disorder}}

{{Borderline personality disorder}}

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Category:Mood disorders

Category:Psychological abuse

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