Energy in Japan

File:Japan energy and GDP.svg

File:CO2 emissions Japan.svg

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In the post-war period, Japan's energy policy underwent significant transformation as it grappled with limited domestic energy resources. Initially, Japan relied heavily on coal, which accounted for over 80% of its energy needs in the 1950s, fueling its rapid industrialization and supporting its economic recovery. Coal was integral to powering factories, railways, and other critical infrastructure. However, by the late 1950s and early 1960s, Japan shifted towards oil due to its cost-effectiveness, higher energy density, and the challenges posed by domestic coal supply disruptions. By the 1970s, oil dominated Japan's energy mix, accounting for over 70% of its energy requirements, driven by rapid urbanization and the expansion of the transportation and manufacturing sectors. The 1973 oil crisis marked a turning point, exposing Japan’s vulnerability to external supply shocks and triggering efforts to diversify its energy sources. This period saw the emergence of liquefied natural gas (LNG) as a viable alternative, valued for its lower environmental impact, flexibility, and increasing global availability. Japan signed its first LNG import agreement in 1967, and by the 1990s, partnerships with countries in the Middle East, particularly Qatar, solidified LNG as a cornerstone of its energy policy. These energy shifts—from coal to oil to LNG—reflect Japan’s strategic adaptation to global energy dynamics, ensuring a stable supply while fostering deeper economic and political ties with resource-rich regions like the Gulf.Steven Wright, "The LNG Sector in Japan’s Relations with the Middle East," in Japan and the Middle East: Foreign Policies and Interdependence, ed. Satoru Nakamura and Steven Wright, Palgrave Macmillan, 2023, pp. 243–267. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-3459-9.

Japan's rapid industrial growth since the end of World War II doubled the nation's energy consumption every five years into the 1990s. During the 1960–72 period of accelerated growth, energy consumption grew much faster than GNP, doubling Japan's consumption of world energy. By 1976, with only 3% of the world's population, Japan was consuming 6% of global energy supplies.

Compared with other nations, electricity in Japan is relatively expensive,Nagata, Kazuaki, "[http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20110906i1.html Utilities have monopoly on power]", Japan Times, 6 September 2011, p. 3. and, since the loss of nuclear power after the earthquake and tsunami disaster at Fukushima, the cost of electricity has risen significantly.{{cite news|last=Nakamoto |first=Michiyo |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/bf0affbc-7d5f-11e1-bfa5-00144feab49a.html#axzz1vnj3MoWo |title=Tepco faces revolt over price rise |newspaper=Financial Times |publisher=FT.com |date=4 April 2012 |access-date=10 December 2012}}

File:Gas Station, Tokyo outskirts, Japan.jpg gas station in Ebina, Kanagawa]]

In 1950, coal supplied half of Japan's energy needs, hydroelectricity one-third, and oil the rest. By 2001, the contribution of oil had increased to 50.2% of the total, with rises also in the use of nuclear power and natural gas. Japan now depends heavily on imported fossil fuels to meet its energy demand.

In the wake of the two oil crises of the 1970s (1973 and 1979), Japan made efforts to diversify energy resources in order to increase energy security. Japan's domestic oil consumption dropped slightly, from around {{convert|5.1|Moilbbl|m3}} of oil per day in the late 1980s to {{convert|4.9|Moilbbl|m3}} per day in 1990. While the country's use of oil declined, its use of nuclear power and natural gas rose substantially. Several Japanese industries, for example electric power companies and steelmakers, switched from petroleum to coal, most of which is imported. Japan's proved oil reserves total an estimated 44 million barrels.{{Cite journal|date=10 April 2014|title=Oil and gas reserves and production|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264208292-graph7-en|access-date=12 November 2021|doi=10.1787/9789264208292-graph7-en|url-access=subscription}}

The state stockpile equals about 92 days of consumption and the privately held stockpiles equal another 77 days of consumption for a total of 169 days or {{convert|579|Moilbbl|m3}}.{{cite news|title= Energy Security in East Asia |publisher= Institute for the Analysis of Global Security|date=13 August 2004 |url=http://www.iags.org/n0813042.htm}}{{cite news |title= Energy Security Initiative |publisher= Asia Pacific Energy Research Center |date= 1 January 2002 |url= http://www.ieej.or.jp/aperc/2002pdf/OilStocks2002.pdf |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060620092529/http://www.ieej.or.jp/aperc/2002pdf/OilStocks2002.pdf |archive-date= 20 June 2006 }} The Japanese SPR is run by the Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation.{{cite web|url=http://www.jogmec.go.jp/english/index.html |title=Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation |publisher=JOGMEC |access-date=10 December 2012}} Japan was the fifth-largest oil consumer and fourth-largest crude oil importer in the world in 2019.{{cite web |title=Country Analysis Executive Summary: Japan |url=https://www.eia.gov/international/content/analysis/countries_long/Japan/japan.pdf |publisher=U.S. Energy Information Administration |access-date=13 November 2021}} {{PD-notice}}

Oil demand has been waning in Japan, especially leading up to and since the Tohoku earthquake in 2011.

While oil consumption was over 5 million barrels per day (bpd) for decades, this had declined to 3.22 million bpd by 2017.{{cite news|last1=Editorial|first1=Reuters |title=UPDATE 1-Japan 2017 thermal coal imports hit record, LNG up for...|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/energyOilNews/idAFL4N1PJ1DT |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124060921/https://af.reuters.com/article/energyOilNews/idAFL4N1PJ1DT |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 January 2018 |access-date=18 April 2018|work=AF}} As of 2016, India,{{cite news|title=India beats Japan in oil use, only next to US, China|url= https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/energy/oil-gas/india-beats-japan-in-oil-use-only-next-to-us-china/articleshow/52659580.cms |work=The Economic Times|date=9 June 2016}} Saudi Arabia{{Cite web|url=https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/saudi-arabia/oil-consumption|title=Saudi Arabia Oil Consumption, 1965 – 2021 | CEIC Data}} and Texas{{cite web|title=Texas - SEDS - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)|url=https://www.eia.gov/state/seds/data.php?incfile=/state/seds/sep_use/total/use_tot_TXa.html&sid=TX |website=www.eia.gov|language=en}} have overtaken Japan in oil consumption. A further decline to 3.03 mln bpd or just under 176 million kiloliters (preliminary) was posted in 2018.{{cite news | url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/01/22/reuters-america-update-1-japans-2018-crude-imports-fall-to-39-year-low-as-population-shrinks.html | title=UPDATE 1-Japan's 2018 crude imports fall to 39-year low as population shrinks | date=23 January 2019 | publisher=CNBC | access-date=28 January 2019 | archive-date=19 April 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419161113/https://www.cnbc.com/2019/01/22/reuters-america-update-1-japans-2018-crude-imports-fall-to-39-year-low-as-population-shrinks.html | url-status=dead }} Crude consumption further declined during first half of 2020 to [https://www.spglobal.com/platts/en/market-insights/latest-news/oil/090220-interview-japan-eyes-strategic-space-for-flexible-oil-reserves-management 303/141 = 2.15 million bpd], but that figure probably doesn't include refined products that are directly increasingly imported rather than converted.

In 2022, Japan's crude oil imports rose to 2.5 million barrels per day (b/d), an increase from 2.3 million b/d in 2021, despite a decade-long trend of declining imports, which are now almost 0.9 million b/d less than the 2013 levels. The Middle East remained the predominant source, accounting for 93% of imports. Concurrently, Japan's crude oil acquisitions from Russia declined to 1% of the total, a decrease from 4% in the preceding year, in the aftermath of Russia's invasion of Ukraine.

Japan ranked as the world's largest importer of liquefied natural gas (LNG).

Because domestic natural gas production is minimal, rising demand is met by greater imports. Japan's main LNG suppliers in 2016 were Australia (27%), Malaysia (18%), Qatar (15%), Russia (9%), and Indonesia (8%).{{cite web |url=https://www.eia.gov/beta/international/analysis.php?iso=JPN |title=Country Analysis Brief: Japan |publisher=US Energy Information Administration |date=2 February 2017 |access-date=19 December 2018}} In 1987, suppliers were Indonesia (51.3%), Malaysia (20.4%), Brunei (17.8%), United Arab Emirates (7.3%), and the United States (3.2%). In 2017, Japan consumed 4.7 quadrillion Btu (1377 TWh) of imported methane.

The new Japanese LNG strategy published in May 2016 envisages the creation of a liquid market and an international LNG hub in Japan. This promises to radically change the traditional JCC (crude oil) based pricing system in Japan, but also potentially in the Pacific Basin as a whole. But the path to hub creation and hub pricing in the early 2020s envisaged by the Strategy will not be straightforward.{{Cite journal|last=Stern|first=Jonathan |year=2016|title=The new Japanese LNG strategy : a major step towards hub-based gas pricing in Asia|url=https://www.oxfordenergy.org/publications/new-japanese-lng-strategy-major-step-towards-hub-based-gas-pricing-asia/ |journal=Oxford Energy Comment|publisher=Oxford Institute for Energy Studies}}

In 2022, Japan's LNG imports decreased to 3.3 Tcf from 3.6 Tcf in 2021, yet it remained the world's leading LNG importer, surpassing China. Australia's contribution to Japan's imports increased from 36% to 42%, affirming its status as Japan's primary LNG supplier. Conversely, Qatar's share fell from 13% to 4%. Despite Japan's commitment to reducing energy dependence on Russia, in line with the G7's price cap on Russian crude oil, its LNG imports from Russia remained steady, supported by an exemption for the Sakhalin-2 project.{{Cite web |title=International - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) |url=https://www.eia.gov/international/analysis/country/jpn |access-date=2024-02-23 |website=www.eia.gov}}

Japan has set a policy goal to reduce the share of LNG in its power generation from 34% in 2022 to 20% by 2030. As the largest single source of power in 2022, accounting for 34%, LNG consumption has seen a decline since 2019, influenced by the reactivation of nuclear plants, slow economic growth, high international LNG prices, and enhanced energy efficiency. Japan holds the largest LNG storage capacity in the world, estimated at 425.1 billion cubic feet, which plays a critical role in managing seasonal demand fluctuations and potential supply disruptions. Furthermore, from 2009 to 2023, the levels of LNG inventory in Japan varied between 32% and 66% of its storage capacity.{{Cite web |title=Japan's energy policies aim to reduce use of fossil fuels in electricity generation - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) |url=https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=61945 |access-date=2024-05-03 |website=www.eia.gov}}

Japan's engagement with Middle Eastern nations, particularly Qatar, has played a crucial role in shaping its liquefied natural gas (LNG) imports and energy security. Following the adoption of LNG in the 1960s, Japan's shift towards cleaner and cost-effective energy sources has led to long-term partnerships with Gulf states. Qatar, home to the world’s largest non-associated gas field, became a dominant LNG supplier to Japan in 1997, with agreements prioritizing reliability, cost optimization, and integrated supply systems. These ties have not only contributed to Japan’s energy stability but also strengthened bilateral trade and technological cooperation, reflecting a broader interdependence between Japan and the Gulf region.{{cite book |title=Japan and the Middle East: Foreign Policies and Interdependence |chapter=The LNG Sector in Japan's Relations with the Middle East |last=Wright |first=Steven |editor1-last=Nakamura |editor1-first=Satoru |editor2-last=Wright |editor2-first=Steven |series=Contemporary Gulf Studies |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan Singapore |year=2023 |pages=243–267 |isbn=978-981-19-3459-9 |doi=10.1007/978-981-19-3459-9_9 |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-981-19-3459-9}}

As of 2019, a third of the electricity in Japan was generated from coal and is the third-largest importer of coal behind China and India in 2019. Government targets aimed to reduce that proportion to a quarter through closure of older, less efficient coal power plants.{{cite web |last1=Tabuchi |first1=Hiroko |author-link=Hiroko Tabuchi |title=Japan Races to Build New Coal-Burning Power Plants, Despite the Climate Risks |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/03/climate/japan-coal-fukushima.html?smid=tw-nytimes&smtyp=cur |website=The New York Times |date=3 February 2020}} In 2017, Japan consumed 4.738 quadrillion Btu (1,388 TWh) of imported coal.{{cite web |title=International - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) |url=https://www.eia.gov/international/overview/country/JPN |website=www.eia.gov |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205200913/https://www.eia.gov/international/overview/country/JPN |archive-date=5 February 2020 |url-status=live}} In July 2020, the minister of Industry, Hiroshi Kajiyama, announced that around 100 coal plants would be shut down by 2030.{{Cite web|last=Johnston|first=Eric|date=10 July 2020|title=Japan's coal closure plan a historic milestone, but what's next?|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/07/10/business/japans-coal-closures-whats-next/|access-date=30 October 2020|website=The Japan Times|language=en-US}} In 2023 Japan said it would not start building any more new unabated (without carbon capture and storage) coal plants.{{Cite news |date=2023-12-01 |title=Japan Pledges to End Construction of New Unabated Coal Plants |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-12-01/cop28-japan-to-end-construction-of-new-unabated-coal-plants |access-date=2024-01-04 |work=Bloomberg.com |language=en}} Japan plans to phase out unabated coal by 2035.{{Cite web |title=G7 countries agree to end use of coal power by 2035, says UK minister |url=https://www.ft.com/content/31de5c0d-6a10-4861-b797-94fac00a5f73 |access-date=2024-05-08 |website=www.ft.com|date=29 April 2024 |last1=Mooney |first1=Attracta |last2=Bryan |first2=Kenza }}

ThIn 2022, Japan's coal imports remained at 202 million short tons. Russian imports significantly decreased from 22 million to 13 million short tons, offset by increases from Indonesia, Canada, and Australia. Bituminous coal made up 89% of steam coal imports, slightly down from the previous year. The main sources—Australia, Indonesia, Russia, and the United States—contributed 94% of the total, a 3% decrease from 2021.

The contribution of coal-fired power generation decreased from 30.2% in 2016 to 26.5% in 2021, but then saw an increase to 27.8% in 2022.

Japan has set a policy goal to reduce the share of coal in electricity generation from 31% in 2022 to 19% by 2030. As part of this initiative, there are plans to close or suspend about 90% of inefficient coal-fired power plants, which amounts to approximately 100 facilities, thereby reducing Japan’s total installed coal capacity by about 40%. Additionally, to further mitigate environmental impact, new coal-fired power plants are required to incorporate emission reduction measures, such as blending coal with 20% ammonia or 25% wood pellets to significantly lower CO2 emissions.{{Cite web |title=Japan's energy policies aim to reduce use of fossil fuels in electricity generation - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) |url=https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=61945 |access-date=2024-05-03 |website=www.eia.gov}}

{{Main|Nuclear power in Japan}}

File:Onagawa_Nuclear_Power_Station_in_2012.png, a 3-unit BWR site typical of Japan's nuclear plants.]]

Following Eisenhower's Atoms for Peace speech, the United States helped Japan develop their nuclear power program. When Japan decided to embark on the nuclear power field, it imported technology from the United States and obtained uranium from Canada, France, South Africa, and Australia. The first nuclear reactor was commissioned in 1966, from then to 2010, 54 more nuclear reactors had opened, with total generation capacity of 48,847 MW.{{Cite web|url=http://www.fepc.or.jp/english/nuclear/power_generation/plants/ |title=Nuclear Power Plants in Japan|website=The Federation of Electric Power Companies of Japan|access-date=20 October 2016}} The ratio of nuclear power generation to total electricity production increased from 2% in 1973 to around 30% in March 2011.{{Cite web |date=2016 |title=Nuclear Power in Japan |url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-g-n/japan-nuclear-power.aspx |access-date=20 October 2016 |website=World Nuclear Association}} During the 1980s, Japan's nuclear power program was strongly opposed by environmental groups, particularly after the Three Mile Island accident in the United States. In the 2000s, Japan had a few of the modern Advanced Boiling Water Reactor, including some of the first new advanced Generation III reactors. At Rokkasho, Aomori a facility was built to enrich nuclear fuel, deal with nuclear waste, and recycle spent nuclear fuel.

The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami damaged some nuclear reactors, and was the immediate cause of the Fukushima nuclear accident. This caused much uncertainty and fear about the release of radioactive material, as well as highlighting the ongoing concerns over seismic design standards (see Nuclear power in Japan §Seismicity).Johnston, Eric, "[http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20110922x3.html Current nuclear debate to set nation's course for decades]", Japan Times, 23 September 2011, p. 1.

On 5 May 2012, Japan shut down the last nuclear reactor, the first time there has been no nuclear power production since 1970.{{cite news| url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/may/05/japan-shuts-down-last-nuclear-reactor | location=London | work=The Guardian | first=David | last=Batty | title=Japan shuts down last working nuclear reactor | date=5 May 2012}}

On 16 June, Prime Minister Yoshihiko Noda ordered the restart of Ōi nuclear plant's reactors number 3 and 4, saying that people's livelihood needs to be protected.{{cite web|url=http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/RS-Ohi_reactors_cleared_for_restart-1806124.html |title=Ohi reactors cleared for restart |publisher=World-nuclear-news.org |date=18 June 2012 |access-date=10 December 2012}}

Ōi nuclear plant's reactor No. 3 was restarted on 2 July,{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna48034288 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120702102242/http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/48034288/ns/world_news-asia_pacific/#.T_DZPuge4XM |url-status=live|archive-date=2 July 2012 |title=Japan restarts first reactor since Fukushima – World news – Asia-Pacific|date=7 January 2012|publisher=MSNBC|access-date=10 December 2012}} and No. 4 began operation on 21 July.{{cite web|url=http://zeenews.india.com/news/world/oi-nuclear-plant-s-no-4-reactor-begins-generating-power_788863.html |title=Oi nuclear plant's No 4 reactor begins generating power |publisher=Zeenews.india.com |date=21 July 2012 |access-date=10 December 2012}} However, in September 2013 the plant was shut down again in order to have extensive safety inspections performed.{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-24099022 |title=Japan halts last nuclear reactor at Ohi|date=15 September 2013|website=BBC|access-date=20 October 2016}}

By late 2015, both of the Sendai Nuclear Power Plant's reactors had reopened and restarted producing nuclear energy. Other nuclear plants, such as the Takahama Nuclear Power Plant, have received permission to reopen, and other nuclear reactors are beginning the process of restarting.{{Cite web|url=http://www.euronews.com/2015/12/24/four-nuclear-reactors-to-reopen-in-japan |title=Four nuclear reactors to reopen in Japan|date=24 December 2015|website=Euronews|access-date=20 October 2016}}

In a draft of Japan’s seventh long-term energy plan (December 2024), the Japanese government expresses the aim that nuclear power should account for 20% of Japan’s energy supply by 2040, rising from 8.5% in 2023.{{Cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/sustainability/climate-energy/japan-targets-40-50-power-supply-renewable-energy-by-2040-2024-12-17/ |title=Japan targets 40-50% power supply from renewables by 2040|date=17 December 2024|website=Reuters|access-date=20 February 2025}}

The policy to increase the share of nuclear energy, which dates from 2015, reversed a decision by the previous Democratic Party.

As of 1 January 2022, operating reactors are:

• Sendai Nuclear Power Plant on 11 August 2015 Unit 1 was restarted,{{Cite web |title=Kyushu Electric Homepage:Press release |url=https://www.kyuden.co.jp/en_press_150810-1.html?media=smart}} followed by Unit 2 on 1 November 2015.{{Cite web |title=Kyushu Electric restarts nuclear reactor |date=9 December 2016 |url=https://japantoday.com/category/national/kyushu-electric-restarts-nuclear-reactor}}
• Ōi Nuclear Power Plant's on 14 March 2018 Unit 3 was restarted, followed by Unit 4 on 9 May 2018.{{Cite news |date=10 May 2018 |title=No. 4 reactor at Oi nuclear plant restarted after nearly five years offline |language=en-US |work=The Japan Times Online |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2018/05/10/national/no-4-reactor-oi-nuclear-plant-restarted-nearly-five-years-offline/ |access-date=20 December 2018 |issn=0447-5763 |archive-date=5 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505172418/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2018/05/10/national/no-4-reactor-oi-nuclear-plant-restarted-nearly-five-years-offline/ |url-status=dead }}
• Genkai Nuclear Power Plant on 23 March 2018 Unit 3 was restarted,{{Cite web |title="OE Information related to Genkai Unit 3 restart". |url=https://www.genanshin.jp/english/report/restart_operations/genkai_3.html}} followed by Unit 4 in June 2018.{{Cite news |title="Genkai unit 4 supplying power again". |work=www.world-nuclear-news.org |url=https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/C-Genkai-unit-4-supplying-power-again-1906185.html}}
• Takahama Nuclear Power Plant on 22 May 2017 Unit 4 was restarted,{{Cite news |title=Start of Power Generation at Takahama Unit No. 4 |url=https://www.kepco.co.jp/english/corporate/pr/2017/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2017/05/22/2017_may22_2.pdf}} followed by Unit 3 on 6 June 2017.{{Cite news |title=Japan's Fifth Re-Activated Reactor -- Takahama 3 -- Is Restarted |url=https://nuclearstreet.com/nuclear_power_industry_news/b/nuclear_power_news/archive/2017/06/06/japan_2700_s-fifth-re_2d00_activated-reactor-_2d002d00_-takahama-3-_2d002d00_-is-restarted-060601#.WUJ8ArMypHY}}
• Mihama Nuclear Power Plant on 23 June 2021, Unit 3 was restarted.{{Cite news |title=Fukui nuclear unit becomes Japan's first to operate beyond 40-year limit |work=The japan times |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2021/06/23/national/mihama-plant-restart/}}
• Ikata Nuclear Power Plant on 2 December 2021 Unit 3 was restarted.{{Cite news |title=Japan restarts nuclear reactor after 2 years |work=Anadolu Agency |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/japan-restarts-nuclear-reactor-after-2-years/2436938}}

The Fourth Strategic Energy Plan set the renewable share goal to be 24% by 2030. In the next 15 years{{Clarify timeframe|date=November 2020}}, Japan intends on investing $700 billion into renewable energy.{{Cite web|url=http://www.enecho.meti.go.jp/en/category/others/basic_plan/pdf/4th_strategic_energy_plan.pdf |title=4th Strategic Energy Plan|date=April 2014|website=Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry|access-date=20 October 2016}} One initiative the Japanese government has implemented in order to boost the amount of renewable energy produced and purchased in Japan is the feed-in tariff scheme. The scheme encourages companies to invest in renewable energy by providing set prices for various types of renewable energy. The initiatives appear to be working, as renewable energy generation capacity now{{when|date=November 2020}} stands at 26.2 GW, compared to 20.9 GW in 2012.{{Cite web|url=http://nautilus.org/napsnet/napsnet-special-reports/energy_burst_japan |title=Renewable Energy Burst in Japan|last=Takase|first=Kae|date=27 May 2014|website=Nautilus Institute for Security and Sustainability|access-date=20 October 2016}}

On 3 July 2018, Japan's government pledged to increase renewable energy sources, including wind and solar, from 15% to 22–24% by 2030. Nuclear power will provide 20% of the country's energy needs as an emissions-free energy source. This will help Japan meet climate change commitments.{{cite web|title=Japan aims for 24% renewable energy but keeps nuclear central|url=https://phys.org/news/2018-07-japan-aims-renewable-energy-nuclear.html| publisher=Phys.org|date=3 July 2018| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180703120614/https://phys.org/news/2018-07-japan-aims-renewable-energy-nuclear.html |archive-date=3 July 2018|access-date=3 October 2018}}

In October 2021 Japan's cabinet approved a new target of 36-38% of renewable share in power generation by 2030. The nuclear target of 20-22% remained unchanged.{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/japan-aims-36-38-energy-come-renewables-by-2030-2021-10-22/|title=Japan aims for 36-38% of energy to come from renewables by 2030|newspaper=Reuters|date=22 October 2021}}

In 2022, renewables are estimated to make up 22.7% of Japan's overall electricity generation, including consumption at the site of generation, which is a slight rise from 22.4% in the previous year.{{Cite web |last=ISEP |date=2023-04-26 |title=2022 Share of Electricity from Renewable Energy Sources in Japan (Preliminary) {{!}} Institute for Sustainable Energy Policies |url=https://www.isep.or.jp/en/1436/ |access-date=2024-02-24 |language=en-US}}

{{main|Hydroelectricity in Japan}}

The country's main renewable energy source is hydroelectricity, with an installed capacity of about 27 GW and a production of 69.2 TWh of electricity in 2009.See Hydroelectricity#World hydroelectric capacity

As of September 2011, Japan had 1,198 small hydropower plants with a total capacity of 3,225 MW. The smaller plants accounted for 6.6 percent of Japan's total hydropower capacity. The remaining capacity was filled by large and medium hydropower stations, typically sited at large dams. Cost per kilowatt-hour for power from smaller plants was high at ¥15–100, hindering further development of the energy source.Johnston, Eric, "[http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20110929f1.html Small hydropower plants keep it local]", Japan Times, 29 September 2011, p. 3.

{{Main|Solar power in Japan}}

Japan was the world's second largest producer of solar power in the early 2000s, although solar was a very minor contribution to the total at that time. The country was overtaken by Germany in 2005, a year in which Japan had 38% of the world supply compared to Germany's 39%.[http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/features/science/20070510TDY03003.htm Japan lags behind Europe in solar power]. The Daily Yomiuri, published 2007-05-10, accessed 14 May 2007.Johnston, Eric, "[http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20110924f1.html Despite headwinds, solar energy making progress, advocates say]", Japan Times, 24 September 2011, p. 3. Since then, Japan had been slow to increase solar capacity compared to other countries until 2012.

On 1 July 2012, after the nuclear disaster at Fukushima, new tariffs for renewable energy were introduced by the Japanese government. The tariffs, set at ¥42 per kWh over the next 20 years to solar power producers, were among the highest in the world.Watanabe, Chisaki, (Bloomberg), "[http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nb20120704n3.html Japan to become No. 2 solar market] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120824080342/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nb20120704n3.html |date=24 August 2012 }}", Japan Times, 4 July 2012, p. 7Johnston, Eric, "[http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20120529i1.html New feed-in tariff system a rush to get renewables in play]", Japan Times, 29 May 2012, p. 3 With the incentives in place, Japan added 1,718 MW of solar power in 2012. By the end of the year, Japan's total solar capacity was 7.4 GW.{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/18/japan-solar-energy-fukushima-nuclear-renewable-abe |title=After Fukushima, Japan beginning to see the light in solar energy|last=Harlan|first=Chico |date=19 June 2013|newspaper=The Guardian|location=London|access-date=19 June 2013}} Japan has seen sustained growth of solar PV capacity after 2012, reaching a cumulative installed capacity of 34 GW by the end of 2015, generating 3.5% of the national electricity consumption in that year.

In 2022, electricity produced by solar photovoltaic (PV) systems amounted to 9.9% of the total annual electricity output, reflecting a growth of 0.6 percentage points from 9.3% in 2021.

{{Excerpt|Wind power in Japan}}

In 2022, wind power contributed to 0.85% of electricity production, experiencing a slight decrease from 0.88% in the previous year.

{{Excerpt|Geothermal power in Japan}}

As of September 2011, Japan had 190 generators attached to municipal waste units and 70 independent plants using biomass fuel to produce energy. In addition, 14 other generators were used to burn both coal and biomass fuel. In 2008, Japan produced 322 million tons of biomass fuel and converted 76% of it into energy.Johnston, Eric, "[http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2011/09/30/national/with-backing-biomass-can-help-meet-energy-needs/#.WW-RI4iGNhE With backing, biomass can help meet energy needs]", Japan Times, 30 September 2011, p. 3.

In 2022, the proportion of electricity generated from biomass power rose to 4.6%, an increase from 4.1% in the preceding year.

In 2012, the government announced plans to build experimental tidal power and wave power plants in coastal areas. Construction on the projects, the locations for which have not been determined, would begin in 2013.Jiji Press, "Wave, wind power project planned", Japan Times, 20 March 2012, p. 7.

Japan’s energy sector has experienced a significant expansion of renewable energy capacity, growing by over 30% in the past five years, fueling demand for battery energy storage systems (BESS). Over half of the 2.4 gigawatts of capacity awarded in recent long-term low-carbon power auctions went to foreign companies or consortia, with major projects including over 1.37 GW of new BESS capacity and more than 6.7 GWh of energy capacity approved for 2024.{{cite web |url=https://www.occto.or.jp/market-board/market/oshirase/2025/files/250428_longauction_youryouyakujokekka_kouhyou_besshi_ousatsu2024.pdf |title=Japan BESS Auction Results 2024 |publisher=Organization for Cross-regional Coordination of Transmission Operators (OCCTO) |date=2024-04-28 |access-date=2025-06-01}} Japan’s Long Term Decarbonization Power Source Auction incentivizes BESS development by guaranteeing fixed cost recovery for 20 years. However, limited price volatility and a price floor in the Japanese power market may constrain returns for BESS operators, highlighting the need for further reforms.{{cite news |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Energy/Foreign-companies-bet-on-Japan-s-battery-storage-market |title=Foreign companies bet on Japan's battery storage market |work=Nikkei Asia |date=2025-05-29 |access-date=2025-06-01}}

{{Main|Electricity sector in Japan}}

File:Electricity production in Japan.svg

File:Power Grid of Japan.svg, showing incompatible systems between regions]]

File:20040905 jpower sakuma 02.jpg

In 2014, Japan ranked fifth in the world by electricity production, after the United States, China, Russia, and India with 934 TWh produced during that year.{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2233rank.html|title=Electricity – Consumption|website=The World Factbook|access-date=20 October 2016|archive-date=7 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307234309/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2233rank.html|url-status=dead}} It is estimated that Japan's net electricity generation was at about 950 terawatthours (TWh) in 2019 and has declined overall by about 11% since 2010.{{Cite book|last=Use.|first=United States. United States. Energy Information Administration. Office of Energy Markets and End|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1098365668|title=International energy annual|publisher=Energy Information Administration, Office of Energy Markets and End Use, U.S. Dept. of Energy|oclc=1098365668}} In 2019, Japan's net electricity generation decreased nearly 4% from the 2018 level as a result of warm winter weather and lower industrial output.{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=27 December 2019|title=Falling output and retail sales signal Japan's economic strains|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2019/12/27/business/economy-business/japans-output-retail-sales-fall-signaling-economic-strains/|access-date=12 November 2021|website=The Japan Times|language=en-US}}{{Cite news|last=Sim|first=Walter|date=1 January 2020|title=Snow shortage, warmer winter fuel climate change worries in Japan|language=en|work=The Straits Times|url=https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/east-asia/snow-shortage-warmer-winter-fuel-climate-change-worries-in-japan|access-date=12 November 2021|issn=0585-3923}}

In terms of per capita electricity consumption, the average person in Japan consumed 8,459 kWh in 2004 compared to 14,240 kWh for the average American. In that respect it ranked 18th among the countries of the world. Its per capita electricity consumption increased by 21.8% between 1990 and 2004.{{cite web|url=http://www.allcountries.org/ranks/electricity_consumption_per_capita_2004.html |title=Electricity Consumption Per Capita 2004 – Country Rankings |publisher=Allcountries.org |date=25 May 2007 |access-date=10 December 2012}}

Japan had 282 GW of total installed electricity generating capacity in 2010, the third largest in the world behind the United States and China. However, after the damage by the 2011 earthquake, capacity is estimated to be around 243 GW in mid-2011.{{cite web|url=http://205.254.135.7/EMEU/cabs/Japan/pdf.pdf|title=Japan|publisher=U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)|work=Country Analysis Briefs|access-date=2 July 2012}} {{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} It was one of the world's largest users of solar energy, in fourth place behind Germany, Italy, and China. With 53 active nuclear power generating reactor units in 2009, that year Japan ranked third in the world in that respect, after the United States (104 reactors) and France (59).{{cite web|url=http://www.photius.com/rankings/nuclear_power_reactors_by_country_2009.html |title=Nuclear Power Plants by Country 2009 |publisher=Photius.com |date=25 May 2007 |access-date=10 December 2012}} Almost one quarter (24.93%) of its electricity production was from nuclear plants, compared to 76.18% for France and 19.66% for the United States.{{cite web|url=http://www.allcountries.org/ranks/nuclear_share_electricity_generation_by_country_2009.html |title=Nuclear Share in Electricity Generation by Country 2008 |publisher=Allcountries.org |date=25 May 2007 |access-date=10 December 2012}} However, after the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami and the subsequent Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, all plants eventually shut down in May 2012 and Ōi Nuclear Power Plant was restarted and operational between June 2012 and September 2013. On 11 August 2015[http://www.kyuden.co.jp/en_information_150811.html Startup of Sendai Nuclear Power Unit No.1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525170529/http://www.kyuden.co.jp/en_information_150811.html |date=25 May 2017 }} (11 August 2015) and 1 November 2015, the two nuclear reactor of the Sendai Nuclear Power Plant were restarted respectively.{{cite news|title=Japan Restarts First Nuclear Power Plant since Fukushima|work=BBC News|date=11 August 2015|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-33858350|access-date=11 August 2015}}{{cite web|title=Japan restarts first nuclear reactor since Fukushima disaster|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/aug/11/japan-restarts-first-nuclear-reactor-fukushima-disaster|website=The Guardian|date=11 August 2015|access-date=11 August 2015}}{{cite news | url = http://the-japan-news.com/news/article/0002534317 | title = Sendai No. 2 reactor in full-capacity operation | date = 1 November 2015 | publisher = Japan News (The Yomiuri Shimbun) | access-date = 7 November 2015 | archive-date = 2 November 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151102054532/http://the-japan-news.com/news/article/0002534317 | url-status = dead }}{{Pie chart|thumb=right|caption=Electricity generation in 2021{{Cite web |title=International - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) |url=https://www.eia.gov/international/analysis/country/JPN |access-date=2024-05-03 |website=www.eia.gov}}|other=|label4=Coal|value4=29.98|color4=#de2821|label1=Oil|value1=3.21|color1=#7C6250|label3=Biofuels and Waste|value3=2.85|color3=#313c42|label2=Natural gas|value2=39.04|color2=#ef8e39|label5=Wind|value5=0.94|color5=#006400|label6=Hydro|value6=8.28|color6=#191970|value7=9.28|label7=Solar|value8=6.41|label8=Nuclear}}Since the generation disruption caused by the Fukushima disaster, rapid steps have been made to liberalize the electricity market.{{cite news |url=http://www.eurotechnology.com/japan-energy/japans-electricity/ |title=Japan electricity markets: structural changes and liberalization |newspaper=Eurotechnology Japan |year=2014 |access-date=1 August 2016}}{{cite web |url=http://www.enecho.meti.go.jp/en/category/electricity_and_gas/electric/electricity_liberalization/what/ |title=What does liberalization of the electricity market mean? |publisher=METI |work=Agency for Natural Resources and Energy |year=2013 |access-date=1 August 2016}} One way this was done in Japan is through the feed-in-tariff scheme. This was announced in 2012 as a direct consequence of the Fukushima disaster. The feed-in-tariff scheme encourages utility operators and companies to purchase and invest in renewable energy.{{Cite web|url=http://www.meti.go.jp/english/policy/energy_environment/renewable/pdf/summary201207.pdf|title=Feed-in Tariff Scheme in Japan|date=2012|website=Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry|access-date=20 October 2016}} The Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry set prices for various renewable energy sources to encourage the production and consumption of renewable energy. In April 2016 domestic and small business customers became able to select from over 250 supplier companies competitively selling electricity. Also wholesale electricity trading on the Japan Electric Power Exchange has been encouraged.{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-03-28/japan-s-power-market-opening-challenges-entrenched-players-q-a |title=Japan's Power Market Opening Challenges Entrenched Players: Q&A |author=Stephen Stapczynski, Emi Urabe |publisher=Bloomberg |date=28 March 2016 |access-date=1 August 2016}}{{cite news |url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2016/04/07/national/electricity-market-shake-mainly-benefiting-tokyo-kansai/ |title=Electricity market shake-up mainly benefiting Tokyo and Kansai |newspaper=The Japan Times |date=7 April 2016 |access-date=1 August 2016}}

Japan produced 1004.8 TWh of electricity in 2021, close to 4% of the electricity generated in the world and 8% of that in Asia-Pacific (3rd largest behind China and India). Japan consumed 17.03 EJ, 3% of the world's consumption and 7% of Asia-Pacific's consumption (3rd largest behind China and India).{{Cite web |title=Statistical Review of World Energy 2021 |url=https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-sites/en/global/corporate/pdfs/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2021-full-report.pdf |access-date=4 April 2022}}

Nuclear energy's contribution to electricity generation has fluctuated, dropping to zero in 2014, then climbing to 6.5% by 2019. It fell to 4.3% in 2020, slightly rose to 5.9% in 2021, and then decreased once more to 4.8% in 2022.

Unlike most other industrial countries, Japan doesn't have a single national grid but instead has separate eastern and western grids. The standard voltage at power outlets is 100 V, but the grids operate at different frequencies: 50 Hz in Eastern Japan and 60 Hz in Western Japan.{{cite web|url=http://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2225.html |title=Electricity in Japan |publisher=Japan-guide.com |date=7 May 2007 |access-date=10 December 2012}} The grids are connected together by three frequency converter stations (Higashi-Shimizu, Shin Shinano and Sakuma), but these can only handle 1 GW in total.

A converter station also exists at Minami-Fukumitsu. The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami resulted in 11 reactors being taken offline with a loss of 9.7GW. The three converter stations did not have the capacity to transfer enough power from Japan's western power grid to significantly help the eastern grid.

The two grids were originally developed by separate companies. Tokyo Electric Light Co was established in 1883, which also established electric power in Japan. In 1885, demand had grown enough that TELCO bought generation equipment from AEG of Germany.{{cite news|url=http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9214758/A_legacy_from_the_1800s_leaves_Tokyo_facing_blackouts|title=A legacy from the 1800s leaves Tokyo facing blackouts|last=Williams|first=Martyn|date=18 March 2011|work=Computerworld|access-date=21 March 2011|archive-date=6 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140806070803/http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9214758/A_legacy_from_the_1800s_leaves_Tokyo_facing_blackouts|url-status=dead}}

The same happened in the western parts of Japan with General Electric being the supplier to Osaka Electric Lamp. GE's equipment used the US standard 60 Hz, while AEG's equipment used the European standard of 50 Hz.

In Japan, the electricity market is divided into 10 regulated companies:

{{Div col}}

• Chugoku Electric Power Company (CEPCO/ENERGIA)
• Chubu Electric Power (Chuden)
• Hokuriku Electric Power Company (Hokuden)
• Hokkaido Electric Power Company (HEPCO)
• Kyushu Electric Power (Kyuden)
• Kansai Electric Power Company (KEPCO)
• Okinawa Electric Power Company (Okiden)
• Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO)
• Tohoku Electric Power (Tohokuden)
• Shikoku Electric Power Company (Yonden)

{{div col end}}

In March 2016, METI set a target of 40,000 hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles on Japan's roads by 2020 and 160 fueling stations.Umair Irfan, "[https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/japan-bets-on-a-hydrogen-fueled-future/ Japan Bets on a Hydrogen-Fueled Future]", Scientific American, 3 May 2016

{{See|Climate change in Japan#Greenhouse gas emissions}}

{{Portal|Japan|Energy|Renewable energy}}

• Electricity sector in Japan
• Energy Law (Japan)
• Geothermal power in Japan
• Hydroelectricity in Japan
• Japan Electric Association
• Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation
• List of countries by energy consumption per capita
• List of countries by total primary energy consumption and production
• Renewable energy by country
• Solar power in Japan
• Wind power in Japan
• World energy consumption

{{Reflist}}

• {{Country study}} – [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/jptoc.html Japan]

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20090506060304/http://www.enecho.meti.go.jp/english/index.htm Agency for Natural Resources and Energy]
• [http://www.enecho.meti.go.jp/en/category/whitepaper/pdf/whitepaper_2017.pdf Japan's Energy White Paper 2017]

{{Japan topics}}{{Economy of Japan}}

{{Asia topic|Energy in}}

{{Asia topic|Energy policy of}}{{Renewable energy by country}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Energy In Japan}}