Environmental impact of pesticides#Humans

Chemical Pesticides have been used for years, this is due to the immediate benefits that agribusiness gets. From their cost effectiveness to their assistance in decreasing disease spread, and increasing crop production, these pesticides appear to be a great resource. However, studies have shown that chemical pesticides can cause serious issues for those that consume them and the environment around them.{{Cite web |title=Pesticides and Pollinators |url=https://extension.psu.edu/pesticides-and-pollinators |access-date=2024-05-01 |website=extension.psu.edu |language=en}} They can destroy ecosystems and introduce all sorts of toxins to the people and animals that consume them. Even the non-active ingredients that are often assumed to be non-toxic can be the very toxic ingredient that causes harm. Perhaps, the most commonly seen issue with pesticides is their effect on pollinators. While designed to kill pests, these chemicals also tend to kill or damage the very creatures that keep agriculture going. Sure, some chemical pesticides are mild enough to not harm the good insects, but all it takes is human error to make what’s harmless, harmful. Some effects are unknown due to the complicated and difficult to predict effect of combining pesticides. In some instances, natural pesticides offer a better alternative for farmers.{{Cite journal |last=Rajak |first=Prem |last2=Roy |first2=Sumedha |last3=Ganguly |first3=Abhratanu |last4=Mandi |first4=Moutushi |last5=Dutta |first5=Anik |last6=Das |first6=Kanchana |last7=Nanda |first7=Sayantani |last8=Ghanty |first8=Siddhartha |last9=Biswas |first9=Gopal |date=2023-05-01 |title=Agricultural pesticides – friends or foes to biosphere? |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2772416623000359 |journal=Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances |volume=10 |pages=100264 |doi=10.1016/j.hazadv.2023.100264 |issn=2772-4166|doi-access=free }} Natural pesticides are pesticides that are found in nature and made from minerals, plants, and microorganisms. While they do not last as long as synthetic pesticides and are less toxic, they are more environmentally safe. (This does not mean they are safe for humans, as they are still meant to kill insects.) Specific types of natural pesticides include botanical pesticides- natural occurring chemicals extracted directly from plants or minerals; biochemical pesticides- uses substances like plant hormones that could interfere with pests mating or other behaviors; and microbial pesticides- pesticide with microorganisms like fungi, viruses, or bacteria as the active ingredient. Other things such as rosemary, marigolds, chrysanthemums, lavender, and basil work as a natural deterrent against specific pests.{{Cite web |last=Tan |first=Sharlene |title=What to Know About Natural Pesticides |url=https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/what-to-know-about-natural-pesticides |access-date=2024-05-01 |website=WebMD |language=en}}

File:Pesticide use by region.svg

The first synthetic herbicides were discovered in the 1930's and 1940's. This was the era when synthetic antibiotics, plastics, and many other materials became available. Synthetic pesticides became popular rapidly after World War II. Crop yields increased significantly through the discovery of 2,4-D.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hVK4vrpma2YC|title=Herbicides and Plant Physiology|author1=Andrew H. Cobb |author2=John P. H. Reade |year=2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|chapter=7.1|isbn=9781444322491}}{{Cite journal |last=Troyer |first=James R. |date=March 2001 |title=In the beginning: the multiple discovery of the first hormone herbicides |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0043174500009954/type/journal_article |journal=Weed Science |language=en |volume=49 |issue=2 |pages=290–297 |doi=10.1614/0043-1745(2001)049[0290:ITBTMD]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=85637273 |issn=0043-1745|url-access=subscription }}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xpx25mRzF_YC|title=A History of Weed Science in the United States|author=Robert L Zimdahl|year=2007|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=9780123815026}}{{cite book|doi=10.1021/ba-1950-0001.ch045|chapter=2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid (2,4-D) as a Selective Herbicide|title=Agricultural Control Chemicals|series=Advances in Chemistry|year=1950|last1=Quastel|first1=J. H.|isbn=978-0-8412-2442-1|volume=1|pages=244–249|publisher=American Chemical Society |location=1155 Sixteenth Street, N.W. Washington 6, D. C }} Many insect infestations were addressed by DDT, greatly lowering rates of typhus and malaria worldwide. In 1962, an estimated 85,000,000 kilograms of DDT was produced in the US alone.{{cite book |doi=10.1002/14356007.s14_s01 |chapter=Insect Control, 2. Individual Insecticides |title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry |date=2014 |last1=Metcalf Deceased |first1=Robert L. |last2=Horowitz |first2=Abraham Rami |pages=1–94 |isbn=9783527306732 }}

Public concern over the undesirable environmental effects of chemicals arose in the early 1960s with the publication of Rachel Carson′s book, Silent Spring. Shortly thereafter, DDT, originally used to combat malaria, and its metabolites were shown to cause population-level effects in raptorial birds. Initial studies in industrialized countries focused on acute mortality effects mostly involving birds or fish.{{Cite journal|last1=Kohler|first1=H. -R.|last2=Triebskorn|first2=R.|year=2013|title=Wildlife Ecotoxicology of Pesticides: Can We Track Effects to the Population Level and Beyond?|journal=Science|volume=341|issue=6147|pages=759–765|bibcode=2013Sci...341..759K|doi=10.1126/science.1237591|pmid=23950533|s2cid=206548843}}

Today, over 3.5 billion kilograms of synthetic pesticides are used for the world's agriculture in an over $45 billion industry.{{Cite journal|last1=Pretty|first1=Jules|last2=Bharucha|first2=Zareen|date=5 March 2015|title=Integrated Pest Management for Sustainable Intensification of Agriculture in Asia and Africa|journal=Insects|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=152–182|doi=10.3390/insects6010152|issn=2075-4450|pmc=4553536|pmid=26463073|doi-access=free}} Current lead agrichemical producers include Syngenta (ChemChina), Bayer Crop Science, BASF, Dow AgroSciences, FMC, ADAMA, Nufarm, Corteva, Sumitomo Chemical, UPL, and Huapont Life Sciences. Bayer CropScience and its acquisition of Monsanto led it to record profits in 2019 of over $10 billion in sales, which herbicide shares growing by 22%, followed closely by Syngenta.{{Cite web|title=Ranking List of 2019 Top 20 Global Agrochemical Companies Recomposed, Graced by 11 Chinese Players|url=http://news.agropages.com/News/Detail-36626.htm|access-date=28 April 2021|website=Grainews|language=en}}

In 2016, the United States consumed {{convert|322|e6lb|kg|0}} of pesticides banned in the EU, {{convert|26|e6lb|kg|0}} of pesticides banned in Brazil and {{convert|40|e6lb|kg|0}} of pesticides banned in China, with most of banned pesticides banned staying constant or increasing in the United States over the past 25 years according to studies.{{Cite journal|last=Donley|first=Nathan|date=7 June 2019|title=The USA lags behind other agricultural nations in banning harmful pesticides|url=|journal=Environmental Health|volume=18|issue=1|pages=44|doi=10.1186/s12940-019-0488-0|issn=1476-069X|pmc=6555703|pmid=31170989 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2019EnvHe..18...44D }}

In the United States, conventional pesticide use peaked in 1979, and by 2007, had been reduced by 25 percent from the 1979 peak level,EPA. 2011. Pesticides industry sales and usage; 2006 and 2007 market estimates. {{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/opp00001/pestsales/07pestsales/market_estimates2007.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=24 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318232514/http://www.epa.gov/opp00001/pestsales/07pestsales/market_estimates2007.pdf |archive-date=18 March 2015 }} while US agricultural output increased by 43 percent over the same period.USDA ERS. 2013. Table 1. Indices of farm output, input and total factor productivity for the United States, 1948–2011. (last update 27 September 2013) http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/agricultural-productivity-in-the-us.aspx#28247

{{Main|Persistent organic pollutant}}

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are compounds that resist degradation and thus remain in the environment beyond their intended term. Some pesticides, including aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, mirex, and toxaphene, are considered POPs. Some POPs have the ability to volatilize and travel great distances through the atmosphere to become deposited in remote regions. Such chemicals may have the ability to bioaccumulate and biomagnify and can biomagnify (i.e. become more concentrated) up to 70,000 times their original concentrations.Ritter L, Solomon KR, and Forget J, Stemeroff M, and O'Leary C. [http://www.chem.unep.ch/pops/ritter/en/ritteren.pdf Persistent organic pollutants: An Assessment Report on: DDT, Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, Chlordane, Heptachlor, Hexachlorobenzene, Mirex, Toxaphene, Polychlorinated Biphenyls, Dioxins and Furans] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926101350/http://www.chem.unep.ch/pops/ritter/en/ritteren.pdf|date=26 September 2007}}. Prepared for The International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS), within the framework of the Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals (IOMC). Retrieved on 16 September 2007. POPs can affect non-target organisms in the environment and increase risk to humansCenters for Disease Control and Prevention. [http://0-www.cdc.gov.mill1.sjlibrary.org/nceh/indicators/pesticides.htm Pesticides] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013154002/http://0-www.cdc.gov.mill1.sjlibrary.org/nceh/indicators/pesticides.htm|date=13 October 2007}}. cdc.gov. Retrieved on 15 September 2007. by disruption in the endocrine, reproductive, and respiratory systems.

The half-life of pesticides is of great interest. Some pesticides degrade rapidly in the environment, others, called persistent, linger, causing undesired effects.{{Cite web|url=https://apvma.gov.au/node/14051|title=Tebufenozide in the product Mimic 700 WP Insecticide, Mimic 240 SC Insecticide|first=Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines|last=Authority|date=31 March 2015|website=Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority}} and certain authors maintain that pesticide risk and impact assessment models rely on and are sensitive to information describing dissipation from plants.{{cite journal|doi=10.1021/es500434p | volume=48 | title=Estimating Half-Lives for Pesticide Dissipation from Plants | year=2014 | journal=Environmental Science & Technology | pages=8588–8602 | last1 = Fantke | first1 = Peter | last2 = Gillespie | first2 = Brenda W. | last3 = Juraske | first3 = Ronnie | last4 = Jolliet | first4 = Olivier| issue=15 | pmid=24968074 | bibcode=2014EnST...48.8588F | doi-access = free | hdl=20.500.11850/91972 | hdl-access=free }}

The half-life for pesticides is explained in two NPIC fact sheets. Known degradation pathways are through: photolysis, chemical dissociation, sorption, bioaccumulation and plant or animal metabolism.[http://npic.orst.edu/factsheets/half-life.html npic.orst.edu: " Pesticide Half-life Fact Sheet"], 2015[http://npic.orst.edu/envir/efate.html npic.orst.edu: "What Happens to Pesticides Released in the Environment?"], 20 September 2017 A USDA fact sheet published in 1994 lists the soil adsorption coefficient and soil half-life for then-commonly used pesticides.[https://extension.usu.edu/waterquality/files-ou/Agriculture-and-Water-Quality/Pest/FactSheet151.pdf usu.edu: "PESTICIDE ADSORPTION AND HALF-LIFE"], October 2004[http://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1075&context=extension_histall usu.edu: "PESTICIDE ADSORPTION AND HALF-LIFE"], February 1999

File:US Air Force 050913-F-5964B-033 Spray 'em out.jpg of a mosquito pesticide over a city]]

{{See also|Pesticide drift|Aerial application}}

Pesticides contribute to air pollution. Pesticide drift occurs when pesticides suspended in the air as particles are carried by wind to other areas, potentially contaminating them.Cornell University. [http://pmep.cce.cornell.edu/facts-slides-self/core-tutorial/module06/index.html Pesticides in the environment] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090605073023/http://pmep.cce.cornell.edu/facts-slides-self/core-tutorial/module06/index.html |date=5 June 2009 }}. Pesticide fact sheets and tutorial, . Pesticide Safety Education Program. Retrieved on 11 October 2007. Pesticides that are applied to crops can volatilize and may be blown by winds into nearby areas, potentially posing a threat to wildlife.National Park Service. US Department of the Interior. (1 August 2006), [https://web.archive.org/web/20071013135016/http://www.nps.gov/seki/naturescience/air_synthchem.htm Sequoia & Kings Canyon National Park: Air quality – Airborne synthetic chemicals]. Nps.gov. Retrieved on 19 September 2007. Weather conditions at the time of application as well as temperature and relative humidity change the spread of the pesticide in the air. As wind velocity increases so does the spray drift and exposure. Low relative humidity and high temperature result in more spray evaporating. The amount of inhalable pesticides in the outdoor environment is therefore often dependent on the season. Also, droplets of sprayed pesticides or particles from pesticides applied as dusts may travel on the wind to other areas,{{cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-registration/prn-2001-x-draft-spray-and-dust-drift-label-statements-pesticide-products |title=PRN 2001-X Draft: Spray and Dust Drift Label Statements for Pesticide Products |author= |website=Pesticide Registration |publisher=US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) |location=Washington, DC |access-date=19 September 2007}} or pesticides may adhere to particles that blow in the wind, such as dust particles.Environment Canada (September–October 2001), [http://www.ec.gc.ca/science/sandesept01/article3_e.html Agricultural pesticides and the atmosphere] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060924020314/http://www.ec.gc.ca/science/sandesept01/article3_e.html |date=24 September 2006 }}. Retrieved on 12 October 2007. Ground spraying produces less pesticide drift than aerial spraying does. Farmers can employ a buffer zone around their crop, consisting of empty land or non-crop plants such as Evergreen trees to serve as windbreaks and absorb the pesticides, preventing drift into other areas.Science Daily (19 November 1999), [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1999/11/991119075237.htm Evergreens help block spread of pesticide from crop fields]. Sciencedaily.com. Retrieved on 19 September 2007. Such windbreaks are legally required in the Netherlands.

Pesticides that are sprayed on to fields and used to fumigate soil can give off chemicals called volatile organic compounds, which can react with other chemicals and form a pollutant called ground level ozone. Pesticide use accounts for about 6 percent of total ground level ozone levels.UC IPM Online. (11 August 2006), [http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/NEWS/carrot-news.html What's up, Doc? Maybe less air pollution]. Statewide IPM Program, Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California. Ipm.ucdavis.edu. Retrieved on 15 October 2007.

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In the United States, pesticides were found to pollute every stream and over 90% of wells sampled in a study by the US Geological Survey.{{cite report |last1=Gillion |first1=RJ |last2=Barbash |first2=JE |last3=Crawford |first3=GG |last4=Hamilton |first4=PA |last5=Martin |first5=JD |last6=Nakagaki |first6=N |last7=Nowell |first7=LH |last8=Scott |first8=JC |last9=Stackelberg |first9=PE |last10=Thelin |first10=GP |last11=Wolock |first11=DM |date=15 February 2007 |orig-year=2006 |title=Pesticides in the Nation's Streams and Ground Water, 1992–2001 |series=The Quality of Our Nation's Waters |chapter-url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/2005/1291/ |publisher=US Geological Survey |location=Reston, VA |chapter=1. Overview of Findings and Implications |page=4 |id=Circular 1291}} Pesticide residues have also been found in rain and groundwater.Kellogg RL, Nehring R, Grube A, Goss DW, and Plotkin S (February 2000), [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Technical/land/pubs/eip_pap.html Environmental indicators of pesticide leaching and runoff from farm fields] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020618151910/http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Technical/land/pubs/eip_pap.html |date=18 June 2002 }}. United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service. Retrieved on 3 October 2007. Studies by the UK government showed that pesticide concentrations exceeded those allowable for drinking water in some samples of river water and groundwater.Bingham, S (2007), [http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/yourenv/eff/1190084/business_industry/agri/pests/915588/?version=1&lang=_e Pesticides in rivers and groundwater] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090302160349/http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/yourenv/eff/1190084/business_industry/agri/pests/915588/?version=1&lang=_e |date=2 March 2009 }}. Environment Agency, UK. Retrieved on 12 October 2007.

Pesticide impacts on aquatic systems are often studied using a hydrology transport model to study movement and fate of chemicals in rivers and streams. As early as the 1970s quantitative analysis of pesticide runoff was conducted to predict amounts of pesticide that would reach surface waters.Hogan,, CM, Patmore L, Latshaw, G, Seidman, H, et al. (1973), Computer modeling of pesticide transport in soil for five instrumented watersheds, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Southeast Water laboratory, Athens, Ga. by ESL Inc., Sunnyvale, California.

There are four major routes through which pesticides reach the water: it may drift outside of the intended area when it is sprayed, it may percolate, or leach through the soil, it may be carried to the water as runoff, or it may be spilled, for example accidentally or through neglect.States of Jersey (2007), [http://www.gov.je/PlanningEnvironment/Environment/Environmental+Protection/Environmental+Protection+and+Pesticide+use.htm Environmental protection and pesticide use] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060825010557/http://www.gov.je/PlanningEnvironment/Environment/Environmental+Protection/Environmental+Protection+and+Pesticide+use.htm |date=25 August 2006 }}. Retrieved on 10 October 2007. They may also be carried to water by eroding soil.{{cite journal | last1 = Papendick | first1 = RI | last2 = Elliott | first2 = LF | last3 = Dahlgren | first3 = RB | year = 1986 | title = Environmental consequences of modern production agriculture: How can alternative agriculture address these issues and concerns? | url = http://eap.mcgill.ca/MagRack/AJAA/AJAA_1.htm | journal = American Journal of Alternative Agriculture | volume = 1 | issue = 1| pages = 3–10 | doi=10.1017/s0889189300000722| url-access = subscription }} Factors that affect a pesticide's ability to contaminate water include its water solubility, the distance from an application site to a body of water, weather, soil type, presence of a growing crop, and the method used to apply the chemical.Pedersen, TL (June 1997), [http://extoxnet.orst.edu/faqs/safedrink/pest.htm Pesticide residues in drinking water]. extoxnet.orst.edu. Retrieved on 15 September 2007.

In United States regulation, maximum limits of allowable conce{{cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/privatewells |title=Private Drinking Water Wells |author= |date=15 November 2016 |publisher=EPA}} ntrations for individual pesticides in drinking water are set by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for public water systems. (There are no federal standards for private wells.) Ambient water quality standards for pesticide concentrations in water bodies are principally developed by state environmental agencies, with EPA oversight. These standards may be issued for individual water bodies, or may apply statewide.{{cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/standards-water-body-health/how-are-water-quality-standards-developed |title=How Are Water Quality Standards Developed? |author= |date=3 November 2016 |website=Standards for Water Body Health |publisher=EPA}}{{cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/wqs-tech/state-specific-water-quality-standards-effective-under-clean-water-act-cwa |title=State-Specific Water Quality Standards Effective under the Clean Water Act (CWA) |author= |date=1 December 2016 |publisher=EPA}}

The United Kingdom sets Environmental Quality Standards (EQS), or maximum allowable concentrations of some pesticides in bodies of water above which toxicity may occur.Bingham, S (2007), [http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/yourenv/eff/1190084/business_industry/agri/pests/917555/?version=1&lang=_e Pesticides exceeding environmental quality standards (EQS)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617110556/http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/yourenv/eff/1190084/business_industry/agri/pests/917555/?version=1&lang=_e |date=17 June 2008 }}. The Environment Agency, UK. Retrieved on 12 October 2007.

The European Union regulates maximum concentrations of pesticides in water.

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The extensive use of pesticides in agricultural production can degrade and damage the community of microorganisms living in the soil, particularly when these chemicals are overused or misused as chemical compounds build up in the soil.{{Cite web|url=https://www.oakshireenvironmental.co.uk/agricultural-land-contamination-testing|title=How To Test For Agricultural Land Contamination|last=Environmental|first=Oakshire|website=Oakshire Environmental|language=en|access-date=23 January 2020}} The full impact of pesticides on soil microorganisms is still not entirely understood; many studies have found deleterious effects of pesticides on soil microorganisms and biochemical processes, while others have found that the residue of some pesticides can be degraded and assimilated by microorganisms.{{cite book | title = Chapter 5: Impact of Pesticides on Soil Microbial Diversity, Enzymes, and Biochemical Reactions | volume = 102 | last1 = Hussain | first1 = Sarfraz | last2 = Siddique | first2 = Tariq | last3 = Saleem | first3 = Muhammad | last4 = Arshad | first4 = Muhammad | last5 = Khalid | first5 = Azeem | name-list-style = vanc | pages = 159–200 | doi = 10.1016/s0065-2113(09)01005-0 | series = Advances in Agronomy | year = 2009 | isbn = 9780123748188 }} The effect of pesticides on soil microorganisms is impacted by the persistence, concentration, and toxicity of the applied pesticide, in addition to various environmental factors.{{cite journal | vauthors = Abdel-Mallek AY, Moharram AM, Abdel-Kader MI, Omar SA | title=Effect of soil treatment with the organophosphorus insecticide Profenfos on the fungal flora and some microbial activities |journal=Microbiological Research|volume=149|issue=2|pages=167–171|doi=10.1016/s0944-5013(11)80114-x| pmid=7921896 | year=1994 }} This complex interaction of factors makes it difficult to draw definitive conclusions about the interaction of pesticides with the soil ecosystem. In general, long-term pesticide application can disturb the biochemical processes of nutrient cycling.

Many of the chemicals used in pesticides are persistent soil contaminants, whose impact may endure for decades and adversely affect soil conservation.{{cite web |url=http://www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/er/hazsubs/sources.htm |title=Sources of common contaminants and their health effects |author= |website=Emergency Response Program |publisher=EPA |access-date=10 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220205732/http://www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/er/hazsubs/sources.htm |archive-date=20 December 2008}}

The use of pesticides decreases the general biodiversity in the soil. Not using the chemicals results in higher soil quality,{{cite journal | author=Johnston, AE | title=Soil organic-matter, effects on soils and crops | journal=Soil Use Management | year=1986 | volume=2 | issue=3 | pages=97–105 | doi=10.1111/j.1475-2743.1986.tb00690.x| bibcode=1986SUMan...2...97J }} with the additional effect that more organic matter in the soil allows for higher water retention. This helps increase yields for farms in drought years, when organic farms have had yields 20-40% higher than their conventional counterparts.{{cite journal |vauthors=Lotter DW, Seidel R, Liebhardt W | title=The performance of organic and conventional cropping systems in an extreme climate year | journal=American Journal of Alternative Agriculture | year=2003 | volume=18 | issue=3 | pages=146–154 | doi=10.1079/AJAA200345}} A smaller content of organic matter in the soil increases the amount of pesticide that will leave the area of application, because organic matter binds to and helps break down pesticides.

Degradation and sorption are both factors which influence the persistence of pesticides in soil. Depending on the chemical nature of the pesticide, such processes control directly the transportation from soil to water, and in turn to air and our food. Breaking down organic substances, degradation, involves interactions among microorganisms in the soil. Sorption affects bioaccumulation of pesticides which are dependent on organic matter in the soil. Weak organic acids have been shown to be weakly sorbed by soil, because of pH and mostly acidic structure. Sorbed chemicals have been shown to be less accessible to microorganisms. Aging mechanisms are poorly understood but as residence times in soil increase, pesticide residues become more resistant to degradation and extraction as they lose biological activity.{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1016/j.agee.2007.07.011| issn = 0167-8809| volume = 123| issue = 4| pages = 247–260| last = Arias-Estévez| first = Manuel| author2 = Eugenio López-Periago| author3 = Elena Martínez-Carballo| author4 = Jesús Simal-Gándara| author5 = Juan-Carlos Mejuto| author6 = Luis García-Río| title = The mobility and degradation of pesticides in soils and the pollution of groundwater resources| journal = Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment| access-date = 10 November 2011| date = February 2008| bibcode = 2008AgEE..123..247A| url = http://www.aseanenvironment.info/Abstract/41017043.pdf| archive-date = 25 April 2012| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120425154124/http://www.aseanenvironment.info/Abstract/41017043.pdf| url-status = dead}}

File:Crop spraying near St Mary Bourne - geograph.org.uk - 392462.jpg

Nitrogen fixation, which is required for the growth of vascular ("higher") plants, is hindered by pesticides in soil.Rockets, Rusty (8 June 2007),

[http://www.scienceagogo.com/news/farming.shtml Down On The Farm? Yields, Nutrients And Soil Quality]. Scienceagogo.com. Retrieved on 15 September 2007. The insecticides DDT, methyl parathion, and especially pentachlorophenol have been shown to interfere with legume-rhizobium chemical signaling. Reduction of this symbiotic chemical signaling results in reduced nitrogen fixation and thus reduced crop yields. Root nodule formation in these plants saves the world economy $10 billion in synthetic nitrogen fertilizer every year.{{cite journal |author1=Fox, JE |author2=Gulledge, J |author3=Engelhaupt, E |author4=Burrow, ME |author5= McLachlan, JA |name-list-style=amp | title=Pesticides reduce symbiotic efficiency of nitrogen-fixing rhizobia and host plants | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA | year=2007 | volume=104 | pages=10282–10287 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0611710104 | pmid=17548832 | issue=24 | pmc=1885820|bibcode=2007PNAS..10410282F |doi-access=free }}

On the other side, pesticides have some direct harmful effect on plant including poor root hair development, shoot yellowing and reduced plant growth.Walley F, Taylor A and Lupwayi (2006) Herbicide effects on pulse crop nodulation and nitrogen fixation. FarmTech 2006 Proceedings 121–123.

Pesticides can kill bees and are strongly implicated in pollinator decline,{{cite journal |last1=Dicks |first1=Lynn V. |last2=Breeze |first2=Tom D. |last3=Ngo |first3=Hien T. |last4=Senapathi |first4=Deepa |last5=An |first5=Jiandong |last6=Aizen |first6=Marcelo A. |last7=Basu |first7=Parthiba |last8=Buchori |first8=Damayanti |author-link8=Damayanti Buchori |last9=Galetto |first9=Leonardo |last10=Garibaldi |first10=Lucas A. |last11=Gemmill-Herren |first11=Barbara |last12=Howlett |first12=Brad G. |last13=Imperatriz-Fonseca |first13=Vera L. |last14=Johnson |first14=Steven D. |last15=Kovács-Hostyánszki |first15=Anikó |date=16 August 2021 |title=A global-scale expert assessment of drivers and risks associated with pollinator decline |url=http://rid.unrn.edu.ar/handle/20.500.12049/7526 |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |volume=5 |issue=10 |pages=1453–1461 |bibcode=2021NatEE...5.1453D |doi=10.1038/s41559-021-01534-9 |pmid=34400826 |s2cid=237148742 |last16=Kwon |first16=Yong Jung |last17=Lattorff |first17=H. Michael G. |last18=Lungharwo |first18=Thingreipi |last19=Seymour |first19=Colleen L. |last20=Vanbergen |first20=Adam J. |last21=Potts |first21=Simon G.}} the loss of species that pollinate plants, including through the mechanism of Colony Collapse Disorder,{{cite web

|author=Hackenberg D

|url=http://www.imkerinnen.at/Hauptseite/Menues/News/Brief%20David%20Hackenberg%20307%20engl.doc

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614121809/http://www.imkerinnen.at/Hauptseite/Menues/News/Brief%20David%20Hackenberg%20307%20engl.doc

|archive-date=14 June 2007

|title=Letter from David Hackenberg to American growers from March 14, 2007

|publisher=Plattform Imkerinnen – Austria

|access-date=27 March 2007

|date=14 March 2007

|url-status=dead

}}{{Cite web |title=Pesticides and Pollinators |url=https://extension.psu.edu/pesticides-and-pollinators |access-date=2024-04-29 |website=extension.psu.edu |language=en}}{{cite news

| author = Wells, M

| title = Vanishing bees threaten US | work = www.bbc.co.uk

| publisher = BBC News

| date = 11 March 2007

| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6438373.stm

| access-date = 19 September 2007

}}{{cite web

| author=Haefeker, Walter

| url=http://www.beekeeping.com/articles/us/german_bee_monitoring.htm

| title=Betrayed and sold out – German bee monitoring

| access-date=10 October 2007

| date=12 August 2000

}}{{cite web

| author=Zeissloff, Eric

| url=http://www.beekeeping.com/artikel/imidacloprid_1.htm

| title=Schadet imidacloprid den bienen

| access-date=10 October 2007

| year=2001

| language=de}}{{Unreliable source?|date=March 2015}} in which worker bees from a beehive or western honey bee colony abruptly disappear. Application of pesticides to crops that are in bloom can kill honeybees, which act as pollinators. The USDA and USFWS estimate that US farmers lose at least $200 million a year from reduced crop pollination because pesticides applied to fields eliminate about a fifth of honeybee colonies in the US and harm an additional 15%.

File:Male Chaffinch.jpges]]

Animal studies mostly focus on fish, insects, birds, amphibians and arachnids. Many kinds of animals are harmed by pesticides, leading many countries to regulate pesticide usage through Biodiversity Action Plans. Animals including humans may be poisoned by pesticide residues that remain on food, for example when wild animals enter sprayed fields or nearby areas shortly after spraying.

Pesticides can eliminate some animals' essential food sources, causing the animals to relocate, change their diet or starve. Residues can travel up the food chain; for example, birds can be harmed when they eat insects and worms that have consumed pesticides. Earthworms digest organic matter and increase nutrient content in the top layer of soil. They protect human health by ingesting decomposing litter and serving as bioindicators of soil activity. Pesticides have had harmful effects on growth and reproduction on earthworms.{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1155/2010/678360| title = Effects of Pesticides on the Growth and Reproduction of Earthworm: A Review| journal = Applied and Environmental Soil Science| volume = 2010| pages = 1–9| year = 2010| last1 = Yasmin | first1 = S. | last2 = d'Souza | first2 = D. | doi-access = free}} Some pesticides can bioaccumulate, or build up to toxic levels in the bodies of organisms that consume them over time, a phenomenon that impacts species high on the food chain especially hard.

File:Common bird index (1990-2014).svg and selected European countries, base equal to 100 in 1990

{{legend|#1f78b4|Sweden}}

{{legend|#a6ce39|Netherlands}}

{{legend|#a6cee3|France}}

{{legend|#fb9a99|United Kingdom}}

{{legend|#6F2C91|European Union}}

{{legend|#b15928|Germany}}

{{legend|#AAA|Switzerland}}]]

The US Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that 72 million birds are killed by pesticides in the United States each year.{{cite news| url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2011/01/21/BAQ21HC5CB.DTL | work=The San Francisco Chronicle | first=Peter | last=Fimrite | title=Suit says EPA fails to shield species from poisons | date=27 June 2011}} Bald eagles are common examples of nontarget organisms that are impacted by pesticide use. Rachel Carson's book Silent Spring uncovered the effects of bioaccumulation of the pesticide DDT in 1962.

Farmland birds are declining more rapidly than birds of any other biome in North America, a decline that is correlated with intensification and expansion of pesticide usage.{{Cite book |title=The North American Breeding Bird Survey, Analysis Results 1966 - 2019 - ScienceBase-Catalog |year=2020 |chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.5066/P96A7675 |language=en-US |doi=10.5066/p96a7675|last1=Sauer |first1=John R. |last2=Link |first2=William A. |last3=Hines |first3=James E. |chapter=Wildlife Biology |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey }} In the farmland of the United Kingdom, populations of ten different bird species declined by 10 million breeding individuals between 1979 and 1999, allegedly from loss of plant and invertebrate species on which the birds feed. Throughout Europe, 116 species of birds were threatened as of 1999. Reductions in bird populations have been found to be associated with times and areas in which pesticides are used.Kerbs JR, Wilson JD, Bradbury RB, and Siriwardena GM (12 August 1999), [http://www.pmac.net/silent_spring.pdf The second silent spring] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080406072209/http://www.pmac.net/silent_spring.pdf |date=6 April 2008 }}. Commentary in Nature, Volume 400, Pages 611–612. DDE-induced egg shell thinning has especially affected European and North American bird populations.{{Cite journal

| pmid = 10680769

| year = 2000

| last1 = Vos

| first1 = J. G.

| title = Health effects of endocrine-disrupting chemicals on wildlife, with special reference to the European situation

| journal = Critical Reviews in Toxicology

| volume = 30

| issue = 1

| pages = 71–133

| last2 = Dybing

| first2 = E

| last3 = Greim

| first3 = H. A.

| last4 = Ladefoged

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| last5 = Lambré

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| last6 = Tarazona

| first6 = J. V.

| last7 = Brandt

| first7 = I

| last8 = Vethaak

| first8 = A. D.

| doi = 10.1080/10408440091159176

| s2cid = 11908661

}} From 1990 to 2014 the number of common farmland birds has declined in the European Union as a whole and in France, Belgium and Sweden; in Germany, which relies more on organic farming and less on pesticides the decline has been slower; in Switzerland, which does not rely much on intensive agriculture, after a decline in the early 2000s the level has returned to the one of 1990.{{cite news |last1=Duval |first1=Guillaume |title=Birds – collateral victims of intensive agriculture |url=https://www.europeandatajournalism.eu/eng/News/Data-news/Birds-collateral-victims-of-intensive-agriculture |access-date=24 August 2018 |work=Alternatives Economiques/EDJNet |date=11 April 2018}}

In another example, some types of fungicides used in peanut farming are only slightly toxic to birds and mammals, but may kill earthworms, which can in turn reduce populations of the birds and mammals that feed on them.

Some pesticides come in granular form. Wildlife may eat the granules, mistaking them for grains of food. A few granules of a pesticide may be enough to kill a small bird.Palmer, WE, Bromley, PT, and Brandenburg, RL. [http://ipm.ncsu.edu/wildlife/peanuts_wildlife.html Wildlife & pesticides – Peanuts]. North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. Retrieved on 11 October 2007. Herbicides may endanger bird populations by reducing their habitat. Furthermore, destruction of native habitat and conversion into other land-use types (e.g. agricultural, residential) contributes to the decline of these birds.

Avicides poses a huge threat of direct poisoning of non-target birds. As poisoned birds can fly long distances before they die, death of non-target birds often remains unnoticed.

Many countries have no registered pesticides of this group at all. In USA registered avicides belong to restricted use pesticides and can be used only by certified pest control operations.

{{clear}}

File:Aquaticplantbook algicide.jpg

File:Wide field margin near Clenchers Mill - geograph.org.uk - 1088003.jpg

Fish and other aquatic biota may be harmed by pesticide-contaminated water.Helfrich, LA, Weigmann, DL, Hipkins, P, and Stinson, ER (June 1996), [http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/waterquality/420-013/420-013.html#L4 Pesticides and aquatic animals: A guide to reducing impacts on aquatic systems] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305060503/http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/waterquality/420-013/420-013.html#L4 |date=5 March 2009 }}. Virginia Cooperative Extension. Retrieved on 14 October 2007. Pesticide surface runoff into rivers and streams can be highly lethal to aquatic life, sometimes killing all the fish in a particular stream.Toughill K (1999), [http://www.pmac.net/summer-rivers.html The summer the rivers died: Toxic runoff from potato farms is poisoning P.E.I.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080118035744/http://www.pmac.net/summer-rivers.html |date=18 January 2008 }} Originally published in Toronto Star Atlantic Canada Bureau. Retrieved on 17 September 2007.

Application of herbicides to bodies of water can cause fish kills when the dead plants decay and consume the water's oxygen, suffocating the fish. Herbicides such as copper sulfate that are applied to water to kill plants are toxic to fish and other water animals at concentrations similar to those used to kill the plants. Repeated exposure to sublethal doses of some pesticides can cause physiological and behavioral changes that reduce fish populations, such as abandonment of nests and broods, decreased immunity to disease and decreased predator avoidance.

Application of herbicides to bodies of water can kill plants on which fish depend for their habitat.

Pesticides can accumulate in bodies of water to levels that kill off zooplankton, the main source of food for young fish.Pesticide Action Network North America (4 June 1999), [http://www.pmac.net/bird_fish_CA.html Pesticides threaten birds and fish in California] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218122216/http://www.pmac.net/bird_fish_CA.html |date=18 February 2012 }}. PANUPS. Retrieved on 17 September 2007. Pesticides can also kill off insects on which some fish feed, causing the fish to travel farther in search of food and exposing them to greater risk from predators.

The faster a given pesticide breaks down in the environment, the less threat it poses to aquatic life. Insecticides are typically more toxic to aquatic life than herbicides and fungicides.

{{See also|Decline in amphibian population}}

In the past several decades, amphibian populations have declined across the world, for unexplained reasons which are thought to be varied but of which pesticides may be a part.Cone M (6 December 2000), [http://www.pmac.net/wind_borne.html A wind-borne threat to Sierra frogs: A study finds that pesticides used on farms in the San Joaquin Valley damage the nervous systems of amphibians in Yosemite and elsewhere] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151102235632/http://www.pmac.net/wind_borne.html |date=2 November 2015 }}. L.A. Times Retrieved on 17 September 2007.

Pesticide mixtures appear to have a cumulative toxic effect on frogs. Tadpoles from ponds containing multiple pesticides take longer to metamorphose and are smaller when they do, decreasing their ability to catch prey and avoid predators.Science Daily (3 February 2006), [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/02/060202180830.htm Pesticide combinations imperil frogs, probably contribute to amphibian decline]. Sciencedaily.com. Retrieved on 16 October 2007. Exposing tadpoles to the organochloride endosulfan at levels likely to be found in habitats near fields sprayed with the chemical kills the tadpoles and causes behavioral and growth abnormalities.Raloff, J (5 September 1998) [http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc98/9_5_98/fob5.htm Common pesticide clobbers amphibians]. Science News, Volume 154, Number 10, Page 150. Retrieved on 15 October 2007.

The herbicide atrazine can turn male frogs into hermaphrodites, decreasing their ability to reproduce. Both reproductive and nonreproductive effects in aquatic reptiles and amphibians have been reported. Crocodiles, many turtle species and some lizards lack sex-distinct chromosomes until after fertilization during organogenesis, depending on temperature. Embryonic exposure in turtles to various PCBs causes a sex reversal. Across the United States and Canada disorders such as decreased hatching success, feminization, skin lesions, and other developmental abnormalities have been reported.

File:Health effects of pollution.png

{{See also|Pesticide residue}}

Pesticides can enter the body through inhalation of aerosols, dust and vapor that contain pesticides; through oral exposure by consuming food/water; and through skin exposure by direct contact.California Department of Pesticide Regulation (2008), "What are the Potential Health Effects of Pesticides?" Community Guide to Recognizing and Reporting Pesticide Problems. Sacramento, CA. Pages 27–29. Pesticides secrete into soils and groundwater which can end up in drinking water, and pesticide spray can drift and pollute the air.

The effects of pesticides on human health depend on the toxicity of the chemical and the length and magnitude of exposure.{{cite journal |last=Lorenz |first=Eric S. |title=Potential Health Effects of Pesticides |url=http://pubs.cas.psu.edu/FreePubs/pdfs/uo198.pdf |journal=Ag Communications and Marketing |year=2009 |pages=1–8 |access-date=1 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130811175133/http://pubs.cas.psu.edu/FreePubs/pdfs/uo198.pdf |archive-date=11 August 2013 |url-status=dead }} Farm workers and their families experience the greatest exposure to agricultural pesticides through direct contact. Every human contains pesticides in their fat cells.

Children are more susceptible and sensitive to pesticides, because they are still developing and have a weaker immune system than adults. Children may be more exposed due to their closer proximity to the ground and tendency to put unfamiliar objects in their mouth. Hand to mouth contact depends on the child's age, much like lead exposure. Children under the age of six months are more apt to experience exposure from breast milk and inhalation of small particles. Pesticides tracked into the home from family members increase the risk of exposure. Toxic residue in food may contribute to a child's exposure.{{Cite journal

| pmid = 1566222

| year = 1992

| last1 = Du Toit

| first1 = D. F.

| title = Pancreatic transplantation

| journal = South African Medical

| volume = 81

| issue = 8

| pages = 432–3

}} Epidemiological studies have reported adverse effects of certain pesticides at current levels of exposure on children's cognitive development.{{cite journal |last1=Mie |first1=Axel |last2=Andersen |first2=Helle Raun |last3=Gunnarsson |first3=Stefan |last4=Kahl |first4=Johannes |last5=Kesse-Guyot |first5=Emmanuelle |last6=Rembiałkowska |first6=Ewa |last7=Quaglio |first7=Gianluca |last8=Grandjean |first8=Philippe |title=Human health implications of organic food and organic agriculture: a comprehensive review |journal=Environmental Health |date=27 October 2017 |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=111 |doi=10.1186/s12940-017-0315-4 |pmid=29073935 |pmc=5658984 |issn=1476-069X |doi-access=free |bibcode=2017EnvHe..16..111M }} The chemicals can bioaccumulate in the body over time.

Exposure effects can range from mild skin irritation to birth defects, tumors, genetic changes, blood and nerve disorders, endocrine disruption, coma or death. Developmental effects have been associated with pesticides. Recent increases in childhood cancers in throughout North America, such as leukemia, may be a result of somatic cell mutations.{{Cite journal

| pmid = 1470375

| year = 1992

| last1 = Crawford

| first1 = S. L.

| title = Childhood physical and sexual abuse and failure to complete military basic training

| journal = Military Medicine

| volume = 157

| issue = 12

| pages = 645–8

| last2 = Fiedler

| first2 = E. R.

| doi = 10.1093/milmed/157.12.645

}} Insecticides targeted to disrupt insects can have harmful effects on mammalian nervous systems. Both chronic and acute alterations have been observed in exposes. DDT and its breakdown product DDE disturb estrogenic activity and possibly lead to breast cancer. Fetal DDT exposure reduces male penis size in animals and can produce undescended testicles. Pesticide can affect fetuses in early stages of development, in utero and even if a parent was exposed before conception. Reproductive disruption has the potential to occur by chemical reactivity and through structural changes.{{Cite journal

| pmid = 8722114

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| journal = Environmental Health Perspectives

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| pmc = 1469573

| doi=10.1289/ehp.96104s197

}}

{{clear}}

{{excerpt|Pesticide resistance}}

Non-target organisms can also be impacted by pesticides. In some cases, a pest insect that is controlled by a beneficial predator or parasite can flourish should an insecticide application kill both pest and beneficial populations. A study comparing biological pest control and pyrethroid insecticide for diamondback moths, a major cabbage family insect pest, showed that the pest population rebounded due to loss of insect predators, whereas the biocontrol did not show the same effect.Muckenfuss AE, Shepard BM, Ferrer ER, [http://www.avrdc.org/pdf/90dbm/90DBM02.pdf Natural mortality of diamondback moth in coastal South Carolina] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120215185859/http://www.avrdc.org/pdf/90dbm/90DBM02.pdf |date=15 February 2012 }} Clemson University, Coastal Research and Education Center. Likewise, pesticides sprayed to control mosquitoes may temporarily depress mosquito populations, they may result in a larger population in the long run by damaging natural controls. This phenomenon, wherein the population of a pest species rebounds to equal or greater numbers than it had before pesticide use, is called pest resurgence and can be linked to elimination of its predators and other natural enemies.{{cite book|author1=Howell V. Daly|author2=John T. Doyen|author3=Alexander H. Purcell|title=Introduction to Insect Biology and Diversity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DHNvYqu7MlMC |pages=279–300 |date=1 January 1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-510033-4}}

Loss of predator species can also lead to a related phenomenon called secondary pest outbreaks, an increase in problems from species that were not originally a problem due to loss of their predators or parasites. An estimated third of the 300 most damaging insects in the US were originally secondary pests and only became a major problem after the use of pesticides. In both pest resurgence and secondary outbreaks, their natural enemies were more susceptible to the pesticides than the pests themselves, in some cases causing the pest population to be higher than it was before the use of pesticide.

{{Further|Organic farming}}

While various measures for minimizing pesticide use apply to gardens,"Take Action! How to Eliminate Pesticide Use." (2003) National Audubon Society. Pages 1–3. they are not relevant to agriculture on scale.

Biological controls such as resistant plant varieties and the use of pheromones, have been successful and at times permanently resolve a pest problem.Lewis, W. J., J. C. van Lenteren, Sharad C. Phatak, and J. H. Tumlinson, III. "A total system approach to sustainable pest management." The National Academy of Sciences 13 August 1997. Web of Science. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) employs chemical use only when other alternatives are ineffective. IPM causes less harm to humans and the environment. The focus is broader than on a specific pest, considering a range of pest control alternatives.{{cite book|author=Thad Godish|title=Indoor Environmental Quality|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cGlTz8d7j_sC|date=2 November 2000|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4200-5674-7 |pages=325–326}} Biotechnology can also be an innovative way to control pests. Strains can be genetically modified (GM) to increase their resistance to pests.

Prior or during the development of synthetic pesticides, many natural ones were identified including pyrethrum, rotenone, nicotine, sabadilla, and quassin.{{Cite book|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/book/10.1021/bk-1989-0387|title=Insecticides of Plant Origin|chapter=Botanical Pesticides |date=23 February 1989|publisher=American Chemical Society|isbn=978-0-8412-1569-6|editor-last=Arnason|editor-first=J. T.|series=ACS Symposium Series|volume=387|pages=1–10 |location=Washington, DC|language=en|doi=10.1021/bk-1989-0387.ch001|editor-last2=Philogène|editor-first2=B. J. R.|editor-last3=Morand|editor-first3=Peter}} Synthetic compounds proved cheaper and far more effective than natural pesticides.{{cite web |url=https://ucanr.edu/blogs/blogcore/postdetail.cfm?postnum=6498|title=Natural Herbicides: Are they effective?

|author=Cheryl Wilen }}

Biopesticides such as canola oil and baking soda that contain curtain active ingredients from natural substances are an environmentally friendly alternative for toxic pesticides.{{Cite web |last=US EPA |first=OCSPP |date=2015-08-31 |title=What are Biopesticides? |url=https://www.epa.gov/ingredients-used-pesticide-products/what-are-biopesticides |access-date=2022-08-22 |website=www.epa.gov |language=en}} There are three categories of biopesticides; microbial pesticides, plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs), and biochemical biopesticides. The alternatives to pesticides include a range of genetic material introduction to plants that target a particular pest, and active ingredients that control the mating and reproduction of certain pests or kill target pests. Biopesticides are affective in small quantities and degrade quickly making them an eco-friendly alternative to pesticides.{{Cite journal |last1=Sharma |first1=Akanksha |last2=Shukla |first2=Ananya |last3=Attri |first3=Kriti |last4=Kumar |first4=Megha |last5=Kumar |first5=Puneet |last6=Suttee |first6=Ashish |last7=Singh |first7=Gurpal |last8=Barnwal |first8=Ravi Pratap |last9=Singla |first9=Neha |date=2020-09-15 |title=Global trends in pesticides: A looming threat and viable alternatives |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147651320306515 |journal=Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety |language=en |volume=201 |pages=110812 |doi=10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.110812 |pmid=32512419 |bibcode=2020EcoES.20110812S |s2cid=219549853 |issn=0147-6513|url-access=subscription }} They are often used in Integrated Pest Management (IPM) as well and has been an important component to the UK IPM strategy for its crop protection.{{Cite journal |last1=Chandler |first1=David |last2=Bailey |first2=Alastair S. |last3=Tatchell |first3=G. Mark |last4=Davidson |first4=Gill |last5=Greaves |first5=Justin |last6=Grant |first6=Wyn P. |date=2011-07-12 |title=The development, regulation and use of biopesticides for integrated pest management |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=366 |issue=1573 |pages=1987–1998 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0390 |issn=0962-8436 |pmc=3130386 |pmid=21624919}}

In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) suggests proper use of pesticides and disposal that follows federal or individual state guidance for farmers or commercial users.{{Cite web |last=US EPA |first=OCSPP |date=2015-05-22 |title=Requirements for Pesticide Disposal |url=https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-worker-safety/requirements-pesticide-disposal |access-date=2022-08-22 |website=www.epa.gov |language=en}} Commercial users of pesticides are told to follow the disposal instructions on the labels of the pesticides while using necessary safety measures for the disposal of hazardous waste. They are also advised to call for assistance by their local agencies in the disposal of unwanted or unused pesticides.

Still are there environmental problems that emerge from runoff and other negative effects of pesticides. Runoff of pesticides into wastewater and pesticide drift into other ecosystems has led to research in the removal and remediation of pesticides in the environment. Research has been done on different methods to treat pesticide pollution including the use of activated carbon absorption and advanced oxidation processes. Different methods of pesticide removal require different costs and can carry different removal outcomes. Some methods require low cost techniques but many result in byproducts that require an extra cost for removal or unwarranted environmental impacts.{{Cite journal |last1=Saleh |first1=Iman A. |last2=Zouari |first2=Nabil |last3=Al-Ghouti |first3=Mohammad A. |date=2020-08-01 |title=Removal of pesticides from water and wastewater: Chemical, physical and biological treatment approaches |journal=Environmental Technology & Innovation |language=en |volume=19 |pages=101026 |doi=10.1016/j.eti.2020.101026 |s2cid=225364636 |issn=2352-1864|doi-access=free |bibcode=2020EnvTI..1901026S }}

There is an ongoing research focused on pesticide removal, a 2022 study for example demonstrated excellent removal efficiency of 80% for often used pesticide chlorpyrifos through usage magnetic plant biobots.{{Cite web |last1=Chemistry |first1=University of |last2=Prague |first2=Technology |title=Magnetic plant biobots can be effectively used for pesticide and heavy metal removal |url=https://phys.org/news/2022-10-magnetic-biobots-effectively-pesticide-heavy.html |access-date=2022-10-24 |website=phys.org |language=en}}

Due to the properties of activated carbon, different types have been researched as potential treatment for absorbing different pesticide species.{{Cite journal |last1=Foo |first1=K. Y. |last2=Hameed |first2=B. H. |date=2010-03-15 |title=Detoxification of pesticide waste via activated carbon adsorption process |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304389409016525 |journal=Journal of Hazardous Materials |language=en |volume=175 |issue=1 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.10.014 |pmid=19879688 |issn=0304-3894|url-access=subscription }} Researchers found a use for activated carbon from tangerine seeds in the absorption of pesticides.{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Yue |last2=Wang |first2=Shu-ling |last3=Xie |first3=Tian |last4=Cao |first4=Jun |date=2020-11-01 |title=Activated carbon derived from waste tangerine seed for the high-performance adsorption of carbamate pesticides from water and plant |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960852420312013 |journal=Bioresource Technology |language=en |volume=316 |pages=123929 |doi=10.1016/j.biortech.2020.123929 |pmid=32763805 |bibcode=2020BiTec.31623929W |s2cid=221074896 |issn=0960-8524|url-access=subscription }} Researches are utilizing this tangerine seed activated carbon in the removal process of carbamate pesticides that have been linked to an increased risk of cancer and other health risks. Absorption by activated carbon has been found to be a successful and cost-efficient way of removing pesticides.

Advanced oxidation processes have been used to combat against the problem of pesticide residue on fruits and vegetables. AOP and its technologies have been used in the removal efforts of pesticide pollutants in wastewater using different chemical reactions to target different pollutants.{{Cite journal |last1=Comninellis |first1=Christos |last2=Kapalka |first2=Agnieszka |last3=Malato |first3=Sixto |last4=Parsons |first4=Simon A |last5=Poulios |first5=Ioannis |last6=Mantzavinos |first6=Dionissios |date=June 2008 |title=Advanced oxidation processes for water treatment: advances and trends for R&D |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jctb.1873 |journal=Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology |language=en |volume=83 |issue=6 |pages=769–776 |doi=10.1002/jctb.1873|bibcode=2008JCTB...83..769C |url-access=subscription }} Researchers have found this method of pesticide removal using coupled free chlorine/ultrasound to be successful at removing pesticide residue from vegetables.{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Laxiang |last2=Zhou |first2=Jieqiong |last3=Feng |first3=Yuxin |date=2021-12-23 |title=Removal of pesticide residues from fresh vegetables by the coupled free chlorine/ultrasound process |journal=Ultrasonics Sonochemistry |volume=82 |pages=105891 |doi=10.1016/j.ultsonch.2021.105891 |issn=1350-4177 |pmc=8799609 |pmid=34954630}}

While dubbed economic and ecologically sound practices by suppliers, the effects of agricultural pesticides can include toxicity, bioaccumulation, persistence, and physiological responses in humans and wildlife,{{Cite book|title=Handbook of ecotoxicology|date=2003|publisher=Lewis Publishers|isbn=1-56670-546-0|editor=David J. Hoffman|edition=2nd|location=Boca Raton|oclc=49952447|editor2=Barnett A. Rattner|editor3=G. Allen Burton Jr|editor4=John Cairns Jr}} and several international NGOs, such as Pesticide Action Network, have risen in response to the economic activities of these larger transnational corporations. Historically, PAN's contributions targeting the Dirty Dozen have resulted in treaties and global environmental law banning persistent organic pollutants (POPs), such as endosulfan, and their campaign work on Prior Informed Consent (PIC) for countries in the Global South to know what hazardous and banned chemicals they might be importing have contributed to the culmination of the Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent, which went into effect in 2004.{{Cite thesis|degree=Master of Laws|last=Barrios|first=Paula|date=2003|title=The Rotterdam convention on hazardous chemicals and pesticides: a meaningful step towards environmental protection?|language=en|doi=10.14288/1.0077646|doi-access=free}} PAN's work, according to their website, involves "shifting global aid away from pesticides", in addition to community monitoring and serving as a watchdog for the World Bank policy failures. Additionally, Pesticide Action Network members helped co-author the International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development (IAASTD), working to center agroecological knowledge and farming techniques as crucial to the future of agriculture.{{Cite web|title=Milestones {{!}} Pesticide Action Network|url=https://www.panna.org/milestones|access-date=2 August 2021|website=www.panna.org|date=24 March 2014 }}

• Pesticides in the United States
• Health effects of pesticides

• {{Cite journal |last1=Tudi |first1=Muyesaier |last2=Daniel Ruan |first2=Huada |last3=Wang |first3=Li |last4=Lyu |first4=Jia |last5=Sadler |first5=Ross |last6=Connell |first6=Des |last7=Chu |first7=Cordia |last8=Phung |first8=Dung Tri |date=January 2021 |title=Agriculture Development, Pesticide Application and Its Impact on the Environment |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |language=en |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=1112 |doi=10.3390/ijerph18031112 |doi-access=free |pmid=33513796 |pmc=7908628 |issn=1660-4601}}
• {{Cite journal |last1=Rajak |first1=Prem |last2=Roy |first2=Sumedha |last3=Ganguly |first3=Abhratanu |last4=Mandi |first4=Moutushi |last5=Dutta |first5=Anik |last6=Das |first6=Kanchana |last7=Nanda |first7=Sayantani |last8=Ghanty |first8=Siddhartha |last9=Biswas |first9=Gopal |date=May 2023 |title=Agricultural pesticides – friends or foes to biosphere? |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2772416623000359 |journal=Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances |volume=10 |doi=10.1016/j.hazadv.2023.100264 |via=Science Direct|doi-access=free }}

{{Reflist|2}}

• [http://npic.orst.edu/efate.html National Pesticide Information Center – What happens to pesticides released in the environment?]
• Streaming online video about efforts to reduce pesticide use in rice in Bangladesh. Windows Media Player [https://web.archive.org/web/20061102001739/http://www.irri.org/videos/LITE-research.wmv], RealPlayer [https://web.archive.org/web/20061102001718/http://www.irri.org/videos/LITE-research.rm]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20090210171452/http://alternatives2toxics.pointinspace.com/fmi/iwp/cgi?-db=A2T_HerpDB&-loadframes Reptile Amphibian & Pesticide (RAP) Database]
• [http://extoxnet.orst.edu/pips/ghindex.html EXtension TOXicology NETwork (Extoxnet)] – pesticide information profiles. Environmental and health information broken down by type of pesticide

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