Environmental impact of wind power#Impacts on people

Compared with other low-carbon power sources, wind turbines have one of the lowest global warming potentials per unit of electrical energy generated by any power source.{{cite journal |last1=Guezuraga |first1=Begoña |last2=Zauner |first2=Rudolf |last3=Pölz |first3=Werner |year=2012 |title=Life cycle assessment of two different 2 MW class wind turbines |journal=Renewable Energy |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=37–44 |doi=10.1016/j.renene.2011.05.008|bibcode=2012REne...37...37G }} According to the IPCC, in assessments of the life-cycle global warming potential of energy sources, wind turbines have a median value of between 15 and 11 (g{{CO2}}eq/kWh) depending on whether offshore or onshore turbines are being assessed.{{cite web |year=2014 |title=IPCC Working Group III – Mitigation of Climate Change, Annex II I: Technology – specific cost and performance parameters |url=http://report.mitigation2014.org/drafts/final-draft-postplenary/ipcc_wg3_ar5_final-draft_postplenary_annex-iii.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140616215117/http://report.mitigation2014.org/drafts/final-draft-postplenary/ipcc_wg3_ar5_final-draft_postplenary_annex-iii.pdf |archive-date=16 June 2014 |access-date=1 August 2014 |publisher=IPCC |page=10}}{{cite web |title=IPCC Working Group III – Mitigation of Climate Change, Annex II Metrics and Methodology. pp. 37–40, 41 |url=http://report.mitigation2014.org/drafts/final-draft-postplenary/ipcc_wg3_ar5_final-draft_postplenary_annex-ii.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140929140555/http://report.mitigation2014.org/drafts/final-draft-postplenary/ipcc_wg3_ar5_final-draft_postplenary_annex-ii.pdf |archive-date=2014-09-29}}

Wind power doesn't consume waterMielke, Erik. [http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/files/ETIP-DP-2010-15-final-4.pdf Water Consumption of Energy Resource Extraction, Processing, and Conversion] Harvard Kennedy School, October 2010. Accessed: 1 February 2011. for continuous operation and has near negligible emissions directly related to its electricity production. Wind turbines when isolated from the electric grid, produce negligible amounts of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, mercury and radioactive waste when in operation, unlike fossil fuel sources and nuclear energy station fuel production, respectively.

Wind power externality costs are negligible compared to the cost of electricity generation.{{Cite web |title=ExternE – Externel Costs of Energy {{!}} IER Institute of Energy Economics and Rational Energy Use {{!}} University of Stuttgart |url=https://www.ier.uni-stuttgart.de/en/research/projects/externe/ |access-date=2024-06-04 |website=www.ier.uni-stuttgart.de |page=37 |language=en}}

{{Update section|date=November 2022|reason=are permanent magnets still used? is neodymium still used?}}

The production of permanent magnets used in some wind turbines makes use of neodymium.{{cite news

| url= http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article6946038.ece

| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110629130336/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article6946038.ece

| url-status= dead

| archive-date= June 29, 2011

| title= Chinese pay toxic price for a green world

| last = Hilsum | first= Lindsey

| date= 6 December 2009

|publisher= The Sunday Times

| access-date = 2011-03-02

| location=London}} Neodymium is used for two main reasons. The first is it reduced the total weight of turbines, and the second is reducing the usage and extraction of other raw materials.{{Cite web |title=What is neodymium's role in the energy transition? |url=https://www.ief.org/news/what-is-neodymiums-role-in-the-energy-transition#:~:text=In%20recent%20times,%20neodymium%20magnets,competitive%20with%20fossil%20fuel%20counterparts. |access-date=2025-04-01 |website=International Energy Forum |language=en}} Pollution concerns associated with the extraction of this rare-earth element, which is primarily exported by China, have prompted government action in recent years,{{cite news

| url= https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/26/business/global/26rare.html?_r=1&hp=&pagewanted=all

| title= Earth-Friendly Elements Are Mined Destructively

| last = Bradsher | first = Keith

| date= 26 December 2009

| work= The New York Times

| access-date= 2011-03-02 }}{{cite web

| url= https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-01-05/china-rare-earths-leave-toxic-trail-to-toyota-prius-vestas-wind-turbines.html

| title= Rare Earths Leave Toxic Trail to Toyota Prius, Vestas Turbines

| last= Biggs | first = Stuart

| date= 6 January 2011

| publisher = Bloomberg L.P.

| access-date= 2011-03-02 }}{{Cite web |last=Canada |first=Natural Resources |date=2018-01-23 |title=Rare earth elements facts |url=https://natural-resources.canada.ca/minerals-mining/mining-data-statistics-analysis/minerals-metals-facts/rare-earth-elements-facts |access-date=2025-04-01 |website=natural-resources.canada.ca}} and international research attempts to refine the extraction process.Ingebretsen, Mark. [http://www.ameslab.gov/news/feature-stories/developing-greener-cheaper-magnets Developing greener, cheaper magnets] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110506020448/http://www.ameslab.gov/news/feature-stories/developing-greener-cheaper-magnets |date=2011-05-06 }} Ames Laboratory. Accessed: 10 March 2011. Research is currently underway to reduce the amount of neodymium mining worldwide. There are several different proposed solutions, including extracting dymium from devices to be reclaimed, or replacing it with more abundant and environmentally friendly metals such as Cerium. Additionally, the large wind turbine manufacturer Enercon GmbH chose very early not to use permanent magnets for its direct drive turbines, to avoid responsibility for the adverse environmental impact of rare-earth mining.[http://www.enercon.de/p/downloads/windblatt_02-2011_de_online_2.pdf Enercon explanation on p. 4 on avoidance of Neodymium use]

The Kleinman Center for Energy Policy at the University of Pennsylvania (May 2021) reports that neodymium, a critical rare-earth element, is used in manufacturing permanent magnets for wind turbines, which helps improve their efficiency and reduce maintenance needs. With China holding over 95% of global Rare Earth Element (REE) production, there are significant environmental and geopolitical concerns. The extraction of REEs, expected to double in demand by 2035 due to renewable energy needs, presents environmental risks, including radioactive waste. Sustainable mining practices, supply diversification, and recycling innovations are being considered to manage the increased demand and environmental risks associated with REE production.{{Cite web |title=Rare Earth Elements: A Resource Constraint of the Energy Transition |url=https://kleinmanenergy.upenn.edu/research/publications/rare-earth-elements-a-resource-constraint-of-the-energy-transition/ |access-date=2024-02-07 |website=Kleinman Center for Energy Policy |language=en-US}}

An International Energy Agency study projects the demand for mined resources such as lithium, graphite, cobalt, copper, nickel and rare earths will rise by four times by 2040 and notes insufficient supply of these materials to match demand imposed by expected large-scale deployments of decentralized technologies solar and wind power, and required grid upgrades.{{Cite web|date=2021-05-05|title=Renewable revolution will drive demand for critical minerals|url=https://reneweconomy.com.au/renewable-revolution-will-drive-demand-for-critical-minerals/|access-date=2021-05-05|website=RenewEconomy|language=en-AU}}{{Cite web |title=Clean energy demand for critical minerals set to soar as the world pursues net zero goals – News |url=https://www.iea.org/news/clean-energy-demand-for-critical-minerals-set-to-soar-as-the-world-pursues-net-zero-goals |access-date=2021-05-05 |website=IEA |date=5 May 2021 |language=en-GB}} According to a 2018 study, significant increase of wind power would require 1000% increase in supply of these metals by 2060, requiring significant increase in mining operations.{{Cite journal|date=2018-08-01|title=Global metal flows in the renewable energy transition: Exploring the effects of substitutes, technological mix and development|journal=Energy Policy|language=en|volume=119|pages=226–241|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.056 |doi-access=free|last1=Månberger|first1=André|last2=Stenqvist|first2=Björn|bibcode=2018EnPol.119..226M }}

Modern wind turbine blades are made from plastic/fiberglass composite designs that provide a service lifetime of less than about 20 years. {{As of|February 2018}}, there was no economical technology and market for recycling these old blades, and the most common disposal procedure is to truck them to landfills.{{cite news |last1=Kelley |first1=Rick |date=18 February 2018 |title=Retiring worn-out wind turbines could cost billions that nobody has |url=https://www.valleymorningstar.com/2017/02/18/retiring-worn-out-wind-turbines-could-cost-billions-that-nobody-has/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190905055951/https://www.valleymorningstar.com/2017/02/18/retiring-worn-out-wind-turbines-could-cost-billions-that-nobody-has/ |archive-date=5 September 2019 |access-date=5 September 2019 |work=Valley Morning Star |quote="The blades are composite, those are not recyclable, those can't be sold," Linowes said. "The landfills are going to be filled with blades in a matter of no time."}} Other options for disposing of the blades includes incinerating the material or grinding it up into powder, but both of these methods are not only expensive, but also inefficient and involves additional energy usage.{{Cite journal |last1=Yakovlev |first1=Grigory |last2=Khozin |first2=Vadim |last3=Abdrakhmanova |first3=Lyaila |last4=Maisuradze |first4=Natalia |last5=Medvedev |first5=Vladislav |last6=Grechkin |first6=Pavel |last7=Polyanskikh |first7=Irina |last8=Gordina |first8=Anastasiya |last9=Elrefai |first9=Ali Elsaed Mohamed Mohamed |last10=Zakirov |first10=M. F. |date=2021-11-01 |title=Sustainable Ways and Methods of Recycling Epoxy Fiberglass Waste |journal=IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering |volume=1203 |issue=3 |page=032024 |doi=10.1088/1757-899x/1203/3/032024 |bibcode=2021MS&E.1203c2024Y |doi-access=free }} Blade incineration can emit greenhouse gases if not recycled. A study of wind turbine blades in Canada found that "Incineration of blade waste increases GHG emissions in all provinces".{{cite journal |last1=Heng |first1=Herman |last2=Meng |first2=Fanran |last3=McKechnie |first3=Jon |date=September 2021 |title=Wind turbine blade wastes and the environmental impacts in Canada |url=https://nottingham-repository.worktribe.com/output/6675107 |journal=Waste Management |volume=133 |pages=59–70 |bibcode=2021WaMan.133...59H |doi=10.1016/j.wasman.2021.07.032 |pmid=34385121}} Due of their hollow design for less weight, blades can take up an enormous volume compared to their mass, making road transport difficult, expensive, and dangerous due to wide turning berths, extra safety vehicles, and longer flatbed trucks.{{Cite journal |last1=Deeney |first1=Peter |last2=Nagle |first2=Angela J. |last3=Gough |first3=Fergal |last4=Lemmertz |first4=Heloisa |last5=Delaney |first5=Emma L. |last6=McKinley |first6=Jennifer M. |last7=Graham |first7=Conor |last8=Leahy |first8=Paul G. |last9=Dunphy |first9=Niall P. |last10=Mullally |first10=Gerard |date=2021-08-01 |title=End-of-Life alternatives for wind turbine blades: Sustainability Indices based on the UN sustainable development goals |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |language=en |volume=171 |pages=105642 |bibcode=2021RCR...17105642D |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105642 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free |hdl=10468/11309}}

Since many blades are still trashed, landfill operators have started requiring blades to be cut to pieces and sometimes crushed before they can be landfilled, which consumes further energy.{{cite web |url=https://www.desmoinesregister.com/story/money/agriculture/2019/11/06/few-recycling-options-wind-turbine-blades-head-iowa-landfills/3942480002/ |title=With few recycling options, wind turbine blades head to Iowa landfills |first=Donnelle |last=Eller |publisher=Desmoines Register |date=2019-11-08 |quote="Disposing of turbine blades is an issue that will likely linger for years in Iowa. Large, investor-owned Iowa utilities are erecting new turbines and replacing blades to extend the life of older ones."}} However, as they can take a lot of weight they can be made into long lasting small bridges for walkers or cyclists.{{Cite news |date=2023-09-07 |title=Renewable energy: The upcycled wind turbines getting a second life |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-66735712 |access-date=2023-09-07}} Along with ongoing development work to extend the generating efficiency and service life of newer turbines, blade recycling solutions continue to be pursued that are economical, energy efficient, and market scalable.{{cite web |url=https://windeurope.org/wp-content/uploads/files/about-wind/reports/WindEurope-Accelerating-wind-turbine-blade-circularity.pdf |title=Accelerating Wind Turbine Blade Circularity |publisher=WindEurope – Cefic – EuCIA |date=2020-05-31}}

There may be as much as 45% additional waste resulting from processes that occur during the lifecycle of the turbine blades, and it is estimated that total annual blade waste of all countries may reach 2.9 million tons by 2050.{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Pu |last2=Barlow |first2=Claire Y. |title=Wind turbine blade waste in 2050 |journal=Waste Management |date=April 2017 |volume=62 |pages=229–240 |doi=10.1016/j.wasman.2017.02.007 |pmid=28215972 |bibcode=2017WaMan..62..229L }} In comparison, global solar photovoltaic cell waste is expected to reach about 78 million tons by 2050,{{Cite journal |last1=Chowdhury |first1=Md. Shahariar |last2=Rahman |first2=Kazi Sajedur |last3=Chowdhury |first3=Tanjia |last4=Nuthammachot |first4=Narissara |last5=Techato |first5=Kuaanan |last6=Akhtaruzzaman |first6=Md. |last7=Tiong |first7=Sieh Kiong |last8=Sopian |first8=Kamaruzzaman |last9=Amin |first9=Nowshad |date=2020-01-01 |title=An overview of solar photovoltaic panels' end-of-life material recycling |journal=Energy Strategy Reviews |language=en |volume=27 |pages=100431 |doi=10.1016/j.esr.2019.100431 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020EneSR..2700431C }} and 750 million tons of fly ash waste was produced by coal power in 2022.{{Cite web |title=Eco-efficient cement could pave the way to a greener future: Rice U. scientists 'flash' toxic heavy metals out of fly ash, make stronger concrete |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2023/03/230328145425.htm |access-date=2023-05-17 |website=ScienceDaily |language=en}}

File:Kładka_z_łopaty_turbiny_wiatrowej_w_Szprotawie.jpg

As much as 80% of the wind turbine structure can be recycled, though this does not include the foundation of the structure, which is typically made from reinforced concrete, or the blades.{{cite journal |last1=Guezuraga |first1=Begoña |last2=Zauner |first2=Rudolf |last3=Pölz |first3=Werner |title=Life cycle assessment of two different 2 MW class wind turbines |journal=Renewable Energy |date=January 2012 |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=37–44 |doi=10.1016/j.renene.2011.05.008 |bibcode=2012REne...37...37G }} Alternatively, these components of the turbine structure that are not easily recycled into new turbines can still be repurposed and used in other ways.{{cite journal |last1=Delaney |first1=Emma L. |last2=McKinley |first2=Jennifer M. |last3=Megarry |first3=William |last4=Graham |first4=Conor |last5=Leahy |first5=Paul G. |last6=Bank |first6=Lawrence C. |last7=Gentry |first7=Russell |title=An integrated geospatial approach for repurposing wind turbine blades |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |date=July 2021 |volume=170 |pages=105601 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105601 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2021RCR...17005601D }}

The large volume of the turbine blades, while difficult to handle, is advantageous in repurposing the blades as playground structures, bike shelters and footbridges. Other recycling methods include creating pellets for waterproof boards and injectable plastics, as well as pyrolysis for producing paints, glues, and both cement and concrete.{{cite web |url=https://essutility.co.uk/green-energy-wind-powers-recycling-dilemma/ |title=12 Feb Green energy: wind power's recycling dilemma |date=12 February 2020 |publisher=ESSUtility |access-date=15 December 2021}}{{cite web |url=https://www.evwind.es/2020/05/26/strategies-for-the-recycling-of-wind-turbine-blades/74876 |title=Strategies for the recycling of wind turbine blades |publisher=REVE |access-date=15 December 2021 |date=26 May 2020 |quote="Today around 85 to 90% of wind turbines' total mass can be recycled."}}{{cite web |url=https://markets.businessinsider.com/news/stocks/global-fiberglass-solutions-becomes-the-first-us-based-company-to-commercially-recycle-wind-turbine-blades-into-viable-products-1027906087 |publisher=Business Insider |title=Global Fiberglass Solutions Becomes the First US-Based Company to Commercially Recycle Wind Turbine Blades into Viable Products |access-date=15 December 2021 |date=29 January 2019}} Carbon fiber blades can now be recycled, the fiber first being separated from the epoxy resin binder, then chopped into small particles. After the separation, the resin is used as a fuel source for the next materials to be processed.{{cite web |url=https://www.windpowerengineering.com/tennessee-carbon-fiber-recycling-outfit-can-recycle-100-of-wind-turbine-blades/ |title=Tennessee Carbon Fiber Recycling Outfit Can Recycle 100% of Wind Turbine Blades |access-date=15 December 2021 |publisher=Windpower Engineering}} After pyrolysis, the resulting material can be further separated and the glass fibers extracted to be used in insulation or fiber reinforcement.{{Cite journal |last=Mishnaevsky |first=Leon |date=2021-02-27 |title=Sustainable End-of-Life Management of Wind Turbine Blades: Overview of Current and Coming Solutions |journal=Materials |language=en |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=1124 |doi=10.3390/ma14051124 |pmc=7957806 |pmid=33673684 |bibcode=2021Mate...14.1124M |doi-access=free }}

The blades may also be repurposed into building materials and structural components.{{Cite web |last=Lozanova |first=Sarah |date=2022-02-28 |title=Repurposing Used Wind Turbine Blades |url=https://earth911.com/eco-tech/repurposing-used-wind-turbine-blades/ |access-date=2022-09-20 |website=Earth911 |language=en-US}} Research indicates that turbine blades could successfully be repurposed as electrical transmission poles as their strength and structural stability was found to be comparable to the materials that are typically used.{{cite journal |last1=Alshannaq |first1=Ammar A. |last2=Bank |first2=Lawrence C. |last3=Scott |first3=David W. |last4=Gentry |first4=T. Russell |title=Structural Analysis of a Wind Turbine Blade Repurposed as an Electrical Transmission Pole |journal=Journal of Composites for Construction |date=August 2021 |volume=25 |issue=4 |doi=10.1061/(ASCE)CC.1943-5614.0001136 }} Sections of the blades have been adapted to create roofs for small houses and these structures meet the requirements of building codes and may prove to be a viable way to reuse blade materials without extensive processes needed to make the material usable.{{cite journal |last1=Gentry |first1=T. Russell |last2=Al-Haddad |first2=Tristan |last3=Bank |first3=Lawrence C. |last4=Arias |first4=Franco R. |last5=Nagle |first5=Angela |last6=Leahy |first6=Paul |title=Structural Analysis of a Roof Extracted from a Wind Turbine Blade |journal=Journal of Architectural Engineering |date=December 2020 |volume=26 |issue=4 |doi=10.1061/(ASCE)AE.1943-5568.0000440 |hdl=10468/11171 |hdl-access=free }} Components of the turbine could be reused by implementing segmentation, where the object is divided into different elements.{{Cite journal |last1=Joustra |first1=Jelle |last2=Flipsen |first2=Bas |last3=Balkenende |first3=Ruud |date=2021-07-01 |title=Structural reuse of wind turbine blades through segmentation |journal=Composites Part C |language=en |volume=5 |pages=100137 |doi=10.1016/j.jcomc.2021.100137 |doi-access=free }} Research on segmentation suggests that the resulting materials are better than conventional construction materials when measuring specific flexural stiffness and flexural strength.

Overall, there are several different avenues through which wind turbine components can be recycled, reused, or repurposed, all with their advantages and disadvantages, and there continues to be research conducted to determine even more ways that the materials can be economically used. While various methods for recycling or repurposing the turbine blades have been proven effective, they have not been implemented on a large enough scale to adequately address the rapidly rising amounts of turbine blade waste being produced.{{Cite journal |last1=Cooperman |first1=Aubryn |last2=Eberle |first2=Annika |last3=Lantz |first3=Eric |date=2021-05-01 |title=Wind turbine blade material in the United States: Quantities, costs, and end-of-life options |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |language=en |volume=168 |pages=105439 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105439 |osti=1765605 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2021RCR...16805439C }}

In addition to carbon fiber blades sometimes being installed due to lower weight and higher strength and durability compared to fiberglass-epoxy composites, there are wind turbines with a modular wooden structural support trunk, which is stronger, lighter, easier to recycle and transport, and more carbon-neutral than steel.{{Cite news |date=2023-12-28 |title=World's tallest wooden wind turbine starts turning |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-67718719 |access-date=2024-01-16 |language=en-GB}} These wooden towers would not need to be recycled as often as steel due to their fire-resistance and higher tolerance of metal-oxidizing chemicals.{{Cite journal |last=Mishnaevsky |first=Leon |date=27 February 2021 |title=Sustainable End-of-Life Management of Wind Turbine Blades: Overview of Current and Coming Solutions |journal=Materials |language=en |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=1124 |doi=10.3390/ma14051124 |pmc=7957806 |pmid=33673684|bibcode=2021Mate...14.1124M |doi-access=free }} Other alternative building materials include recyclable polymers (thermoplastic, recyclable thermosets, polyurethane), bamboo, natural fiber composites, biodegradable resins, and bio-based carbon fibers.

Research on wind turbine materials also focuses on how to make the turbine blades more resistant to damage as this would extend their lifespan and reduce the replacement turnover (frequency of replacements).{{Cite web|last1=Lusty |first1=Ariel F. |last2=Cairns |first2=Douglas A. |date=2021-10-01 |title=Alternative Damage Tolerant Materials for Wind Turbine Blades: An Overview |doi=10.2172/1825355 |osti=1825355 }} In addition to adapting the materials used in the blades to increase their resistance to damage, there are also potential methods of altering the turbine's activity during certain weather events in order to decrease any damage caused by wind or rain.{{cite journal |last1=Bech |first1=Jakob Ilsted |last2=Hasager |first2=Charlotte Bay |last3=Bak |first3=Christian |title=Extending the life of wind turbine blade leading edges by reducing the tip speed during extreme precipitation events |journal=Wind Energy Science |date=19 October 2018 |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=729–748 |doi=10.5194/wes-3-729-2018 |bibcode=2018WiEnS...3..729I |doi-access=free }}

Wind power has low life-cycle surface power density of 1.84 W/m² which is three orders of magnitude (10³ times, which is equivalent to 1,000x) less than nuclear or fossil fuel power and three times less than Photovoltaics.{{Cite journal|date=2018-12-01|title=The spatial extent of renewable and non-renewable power generation: A review and meta-analysis of power densities and their application in the U.S.|journal=Energy Policy|language=en|volume=123|pages=83–91|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.08.023 |doi-access=free|last1=Van Zalk|first1=John|last2=Behrens|first2=Paul|bibcode=2018EnPol.123...83V |hdl=1887/64883|hdl-access=free}}

Wind farms are often built on land that has already been impacted by land clearing. The vegetation clearing and ground disturbance required for wind farms are minimal compared with coal mines and coal-fired power stations. If wind farms are decommissioned, the landscape can be returned to its previous condition.New South Wales Government (Australia) (1 November 2010). [http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/climatechange/10923windfacts.pdf The wind energy fact sheet] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110320081659/http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/climatechange/10923windfacts.pdf|date=2011-03-20}} Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water, p. 13.

A study by the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory of US wind farms built between 2000 and 2009 found that, on average, 1.1 percent of the total wind farm area suffered surface disturbance, and 0.43 percent was permanently disturbed by wind power installations. On average, there were {{convert|63|ha|acre|abbr=off}} of total wind farm area per MW of capacity, but only {{convert|0.27|ha|acre|abbr=off}} of permanently disturbed area per MW of wind power capacity.Paul Denholm, Maureen Hand, Maddalena Jackson, and Sean Ong, [http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy09osti/45834.pdf Land-Use Requirements of Modern Wind Power Plants in the United States], National Renewable Energy Laboratory, NREL/TP-6A2-45834, August 2009.

In the UK many prime wind farm sites – locations with the best average wind speeds – are in upland areas that are frequently covered by blanket bog. This type of habitat exists in areas of relatively high rainfall where large areas of land remain permanently sodden. Construction work may create a risk of disruption to peatland hydrology which could cause localised areas of peat within the area of a wind farm to dry out, disintegrate, and so release their stored carbon. At the same time, the warming climate which renewable energy schemes seek to mitigate could itself pose an existential threat to peatlands throughout the UK.{{cite news |last=Prentice |first=Colin |date=19 December 2013 |title=Climate change poses serious threat to Britain's peat bogs |url=http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/newsandeventspggrp/imperialcollege/newssummary/news_12-12-2013-16-3-21 |access-date=2013-12-19 |publisher=Imperial College London |location=London, England}}{{cite journal

| last =Smith | first =Jo

| title = Renewable energy: Avoid constructing wind farms on peat

| journal =Nature

| volume =489

| issue =7414

| pages =33

| date =5 September 2012

|display-authors=etal| bibcode =2012Natur.489Q..33S

| doi =10.1038/489033d

| pmid =22955603

| doi-access =free

}} A Scottish MEP campaigned for a moratorium on wind developments on peatlands saying that "Damaging the peat causes the release of more carbon dioxide than wind farms save".{{cite news | url=http://www.sundayherald.com/news/heraldnews/display.var.2381294.0.bid_to_ban_peatland_wind_farms_comes_under_attack.php | title=Bid to ban peatland wind farms comes under attack | last=Stevenson | first=Tony Struan | date=20 May 2009 | work=Sunday Herald | publisher=newsquest (sunday herald) limited | access-date=20 May 2009 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090627090159/http://www.sundayherald.com/news/heraldnews/display.var.2381294.0.bid_to_ban_peatland_wind_farms_comes_under_attack.php | archive-date=27 June 2009 }} A 2014 report for the Northern Ireland Environment Agency noted that siting wind turbines on peatland could release considerable carbon dioxide from the peat, and also damage the peatland contributions to flood control and water quality: "The potential knock-on effects of using the peatland resource for wind turbines are considerable and it is arguable that the impacts on this facet of biodiversity will have the most noticeable and greatest financial implications for Northern Ireland."David Tosh, W. Ian Montgomery & Neil Reid [http://www.doeni.gov.uk/niea/a_review_of_the_impacts_of_onshore_wind_energy_for_publication_9.12.14.pdf A review of the impacts of onshore wind energy development on biodiversity] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150531205832/http://www.doeni.gov.uk/niea/a_review_of_the_impacts_of_onshore_wind_energy_for_publication_9.12.14.pdf|date=2015-05-31}}, Northern Ireland Environment Agency, Research and Development Series 14/02, 2014, p. 54. Wind farm construction near wetlands has been linked to several bog landslides in Ireland that have polluted rivers, such as at Derrybrien (2003) and Meenbog (2020).{{cite news |date=18 November 2020 |title=Fears Donegal landslide has devastated EU protected salmon site |work=RTÉ News |url=https://www.rte.ie/news/ulster/2020/1118/1178951-donegal-slide/ |access-date=18 January 2022}}{{cite news |date=18 November 2020 |title=Donegal: Peat landslide linked to wind farm raised in Dáil |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-foyle-west-54994865 |access-date=18 January 2022}} Such incidents could be prevented with stricter planning procedures and siting guidelines.{{cite web |last=Lindsay |first=Richard |date=2004 |title=Wind farms and blanket peat: A report on the Derrybrien bog slide |url=https://repository.uel.ac.uk/download/db46ae144c4d0dbc6a41cfe6252f4b75c4637f6c7c23bf70e46cf2b109c85ad2/4740267/Lindsay%2C%20R%20%282005%29%20Derrybrien%20bog%20slide.pdf |publisher=Derrybrien Development Cooperatve; University of East London}}

Wind-energy advocates contend that less than 1% of the land is used for foundations and access roads, the other 99% can still be used for farming. A wind turbine needs about 200–400 m² for the foundation. With the increasing size of the wind turbine the relative size of the foundation decreases.Erich Hau. Windkraftanlagen: Grundlagen, Technik, Einsatz, Wirtschaftlichkeit, Berlin, Germany: Heidelberg 2008, pp. 621–623. (in German). (For the english Edition see Erich Hau, Wind Turbines: Fundamentals, Technologies, Application, Economics, Springer 2005). Critics point out that on some locations in forests, the clearing of trees around tower bases may be necessary for installation sites on mountain ridges, such as in the northeastern U.S.[http://www.wind-watch.org/pix/displayimage.php?pid=26&fullsize=1 Forest clearance for Meyersdale, Pennsylvania, wind power facility]. This usually takes the clearing of 5,000 m² per wind turbine.[http://www.parldok.brandenburg.de/parladoku/w5/drs/ab_5400/5406.pdf Windkraftanlagen in Brandenburgs Wäldern], Statement of the Government of Brandenburg, Germany.

During construction of wind farms in Scotland in 2007–2008, over 3.4 million trees were removed on 6202 acres of forest, out of which 31.5% have been replanted.{{Cite web|title=Millions of trees chopped down to make way for Scottish wind farms|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/10546071/Millions-of-trees-chopped-down-to-make-way-for-Scottish-wind-farms.html|access-date=2021-03-30|website=The Daily Telegraph|date=2 January 2014 |language=en-GB}}

Turbines are not generally installed in urban areas. Buildings interfere with the wind, turbines must be sited a safe distance ("setback") from residences in case of failure, and the value of land is high. There are a few notable exceptions to this. The WindShare ExPlace wind turbine was erected in December 2002, on the grounds of Exhibition Place, in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It was the first wind turbine installed in a major North American urban city centre.{{cite web

|url=http://www.torontohydro.com/corporate/initiatives/green_power/wind_turbine/index.cfm

|title=Canada's First Urban Wind Turbine – Not Your Average Windmill

|access-date=2008-04-11

|date=2006-02-06

|publisher=Toronto Hydro

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080330064457/http://www.torontohydro.com/corporate/initiatives/green_power/wind_turbine/index.cfm

|archive-date=2008-03-30

|url-status=dead

}} Steel Winds also has a 20 MW urban project south of Buffalo, New York. Both of these projects are in urban locations, but benefit from being on uninhabited lakeshore property.

In Greece, wind turbine sites have been installed "on mountain peaks, in forests, near archaeological sites, on islands, in protected habitats" and in highly populated tourist areas, causing disruption to hospitality business and protests of residents.{{Cite web|title=Turbine 'torture' for Greek islanders as wind farms proliferate|url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/sustainability/greece-island-evia-wind-turbines-torture-residents-2492426|access-date=2022-02-14|website=CNA|language=en|archive-date=2022-02-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220213165052/https://www.channelnewsasia.com/sustainability/greece-island-evia-wind-turbines-torture-residents-2492426|url-status=dead}}{{Cite news|last=Koutantou|first=Angeliki|date=2021-05-26|title=Greek environmentalists fear windfarm scars on mountain forests|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/business/environment/greek-environmentalists-fear-windfarm-scars-mountain-forests-2021-05-26/|access-date=2022-02-14}}

The land can still be used for farming and cattle grazing. Livestock is unaffected by the presence of wind farms. International experience shows that livestock will "graze right up to the base of wind turbines and often use them as rubbing posts or for shade".

In 2014, a first of its kind veterinary study attempted to determine the effects of rearing livestock near a wind turbine, the study compared the health effects of a wind turbine on the development of two groups of growing geese, preliminary results found that geese raised within 50 meters of a wind turbine gained less weight and had a higher concentration of the stress hormone cortisol in their blood than geese at a distance of 500 meters.{{cite journal |last1=Mikołajczak |first1=J. |last2=Borowski |first2=S. |last3=Marć-Pieńkowska |first3=J. |last4=Odrowąż-Sypniewska |first4=G. |last5=Bernacki |first5=Z. |last6=Siódmiak |first6=J. |last7=Szterk |first7=P. |year=2013 |title=Preliminary studies on the reaction of growing geese (Anser anser f. Domestica) to the proximity of wind turbines |journal=Polish Journal of Veterinary Sciences |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=679–686 |doi=10.2478/pjvs-2013-0096 |pmid=24597302 |doi-access=free}}

Semi-domestic reindeer avoid the construction activity,{{cite journal |last1=Skarin |first1=Anna |last2=Nellemann |first2=Christian |last3=Rönnegård |first3=Lars |last4=Sandström |first4=Per |last5=Lundqvist |first5=Henrik |year=2015 |title=Wind farm construction impacts reindeer migration and movement corridors |journal=Landscape Ecology |volume=30 |issue=8 |pages=1527–1540 |doi=10.1007/s10980-015-0210-8 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2015LaEco..30.1527S }} but seem unaffected when the turbines are operating.{{cite journal | doi = 10.7557/2.24.2.301 | volume=24 | issue=2 | title=Effects of wind turbines on area use and behaviour of semi-domestic reindeer in enclosures | journal=Rangifer | pages=55| year=2004 | last1=Flydal | first1=Kjetil | last2=Eftestøl | first2=Sindre | last3=Reimers | first3=Eigil | last4=Colman | first4=Jonathan E. | doi-access=free }} [http://septentrio.uit.no/index.php/rangifer/article/viewFile/301/282 mirror]{{Cite web |url=https://wild.nrel.gov/search/site/reindeer?retain-filters=1 |title=Article list |access-date=2016-02-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920123920/https://wild.nrel.gov/search/site/reindeer?retain-filters=1 |archive-date=2018-09-20 |url-status=dead }}

Environmental assessments are routinely carried out for wind farm proposals, and potential impacts on the local environment (e.g. plants, animals, soils) are evaluated. Turbine locations and operations are often modified as part of the approval process to avoid or minimise impacts on threatened species and their habitats. Unavoidable impacts can be offset with conservation improvements of similar ecosystems which are unaffected by the proposal.

A research agenda from a coalition of researchers from universities, industry, and government, supported by the Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future, suggests modeling the spatiotemporal patterns of migratory and residential wildlife with respect to geographic features and weather, to provide a basis for science-based decisions about where to site new wind projects. More specifically, it suggests:

• Use existing data on migratory and other movements of wildlife to develop predictive models of risk.
• Use new and emerging technologies, including radar, acoustics, and thermal imaging, to fill gaps in knowledge of wildlife movements.
• Identify specific species or sets of species most at risk in areas of high potential wind resources.{{cite web |last1=Zehnder |first1=Alan |last2=Warhaft |first2=Zellman |title=University Collaboration on Wind Energy |url=http://www.sustainablefuture.cornell.edu/attachments/2011-UnivWindCollaboration.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110901005908/http://www.sustainablefuture.cornell.edu/attachments/2011-UnivWindCollaboration.pdf |archive-date=1 September 2011 |access-date=17 August 2011 |publisher=Cornell University}}

Wind turbines, like many other human activities and buildings, also increase the death rate of avian creatures such as birds and bats. A summary of the existing field studies compiled in 2010 from the [http://www.nationalwind.org/ National Wind Coordinating Collaborative] identified fewer than 14 and typically less than four bird deaths per installed megawatt per year, but a wider variation in the number of bat deaths.{{Cite web |date=31 March 2010 |title=Wind Turbine Interactions with Birds, Bats, and their Habitats:A Summary of Research Results and Priority Questions |url=https://www1.eere.energy.gov/wind/pdfs/birds_and_bats_fact_sheet.pdf |publisher=National Wind Coordinating Collaborative}}{{Globalize inline|date=September 2022}} Like other investigations, it concluded that some species (e.g. migrating bats and songbirds) are known to be harmed more than others and that factors such as turbine siting can be important.{{cite news |last=Eilperin |first=Juliet |author2=Steven Mufson |date=16 April 2009 |title=Renewable Energy's Environmental Paradox |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/04/15/AR2009041503622_2.html?hpid=topnews&sid=ST2009041602328 |access-date=17 April 2009}}

{{cite web |date=14 September 2005 |title=Wind farms |url=http://www.rspb.org.uk/ourwork/policy/windfarms/index.asp |access-date=6 December 2012 |publisher=Royal Society for the Protection of Birds}} The National Renewable Energy Laboratory maintains a [https://wild.nrel.gov/ database] of the scientific literature on the subject.{{Cite web |title=Wind-Wildlife Technology Research and Development |url=http://www.nrel.gov/wind/wildlife-technology-research-development.html |access-date=7 May 2019 |publisher=NREL National Wind Technology Center |archive-date=7 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190507200530/https://www.nrel.gov/wind/wildlife-technology-research-development.html |url-status=dead }}

File:Eidersperrw Sterna paradisaea colony.jpgs and a wind turbine at the Eider Barrage in Germany.]]

File:Causes of bird deaths.png

The impact of wind energy on birds, which can fly into turbines, or have their habitats degraded by wind development, is complex. Displacement is thought to be more of a threat to species than collisions.{{Cite web |date=2022-04-14 |title=Off the East Coast, a Massive Network of Wind Turbines Is Coming—Along With New Risks for Migrating Birds |url=https://www.audubon.org/magazine/spring-2022/off-east-coast-massive-network-wind-turbines |access-date=2022-09-23 |website=Audubon |language=en}} Habitat loss is highly variable between species.J. Ryan Zimmerling, Andrea C. Pomeroy, Marc V. d'Entremont and Charles M. Francis, [http://www.ace-eco.org/vol8/iss2/art10/#habitat "Canadian estimate of bird mortality due to collisions and direct habitat loss associated with wind turbine developments"], Avian Conservation & Ecology, 2013, v.8 n.2.Fitch, Davey. [http://www.rspb.org.uk/media/releases/details.aspx?id=tcm:9-230416 Upland birds face displacement threat from poorly sited wind turbines] (press release), Royal Society for the Protection of Birds website, September 26, 2009. Retrieved August 2, 2013. This press release in turn cites:

• {{Cite journal | last1 = Pearce-Higgins | first1 = J. W. | last2 = Stephen | first2 = L. | last3 = Langston | first3 = R. H. W. | last4 = Bainbridge | first4 = I. P. | last5 = Bullman | first5 = R. | title = The distribution of breeding birds around upland wind farms | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01715.x | journal = Journal of Applied Ecology | year = 2009 | volume = 46 | issue = 6 | pages = 1323–1331 | bibcode = 2009JApEc..46.1323P | doi-access = free }}

Hundreds of thousands of birds,{{cite journal |last1=Smallwood |first1=K. Shawn |title=Comparing bird and bat fatality-rate estimates among North American wind-energy projects |journal=Wildlife Society Bulletin |date=March 2013 |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=19–33 |doi=10.1002/wsb.260 |bibcode=2013WSBu...37...19S }}{{cite journal |last1=Loss |first1=Scott R. |last2=Will |first2=Tom |last3=Marra |first3=Peter P. |year=2013 |title=Estimates of bird collision mortality at wind facilities in the contiguous United States |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=168 |pages=201–209 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2013.10.007|bibcode=2013BCons.168..201L }}{{cite web |url=http://www.kcet.org/news/rewire/wind/study-california-wind-turbines-deadliest-in-us.html |title=Study: California Wind Power is the Worst For Wildlife, Chris Clarke, November 2013. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220060515/http://www.kcet.org/news/rewire/wind/study-california-wind-turbines-deadliest-in-us.html |archive-date=2014-02-20 }} including raptors and migrants,{{Cite web |last=abcadmin |date=2017-04-08 |title=Wind Energy and Birds FAQ — Part 1: Understanding the Threats |url=https://abcbirds.org/wind-energy-threatens-birds/ |access-date=2022-09-24 |website=American Bird Conservancy |language=en}}{{cite journal|last1=Thaxter|first1=Chris B.|last2=Buchanan|first2=Graeme B.|last3=Carr|first3=Jamie|last4=Butchart|first4=Stuart H. M.|last5=Newbold|first5=Tim|last6=Green|first6=Rhys E.|last7=Tobias|first7=Joseph A.|last8=Foden|first8=Wendy B.|last9=O'Brien|first9=Sue|last10=Pearce-Higgins|first10=James W.|date=13 September 2017|title=Bird and bat species' global vulnerability to collision mortality at wind farms revealed through a trait-based assessment|journal= Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=284|issue=1862|pages=10|doi=10.1098/rspb.2017.0829|pmid=28904135|pmc=5597824}}{{cite journal |last1=Welcker |first1=J. |last2=Liesenjohann |first2=M. |last3=Blew |first3=J. |last4=Nehls |first4=G. |last5=Grünkorn |first5=T. |year=2017 |title=Nocturnal migrants do not incur higher collision risk at wind turbines than diurnally active species |journal=Ibis |volume=159 |issue=2 |pages=366–373 |doi=10.1111/ibi.12456}} are killed each year because of wind turbines and their power lines, but this is less than the number killed (or not born) because of fossil fuel (coal and gas) infrastructure.{{Cite web |title=The impact of wind turbines on biodiversity and how to minimise it |date=22 March 2022 |url=https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/features/the-impact-of-wind-turbines-on-biodiversity-and-how-to-minimise-it/ |access-date=2022-09-24 |language=en-US}} Wind farms are estimated to be responsible for losing less than 0.4 birds per gigawatt-hour (GWh) of electricity generated, compared to over 5 birds per GWh for fossil fueled power stations.{{cite journal | last1 = Sovacool | first1 = B. K. | year = 2013 | title = The avian benefits of wind energy: A 2009 update | journal = Renewable Energy | volume = 49 | pages = 19–24 | doi=10.1016/j.renene.2012.01.074| bibcode = 2013REne...49...19S }} As well as threatening extinction,{{Cite web |last=Shepherd |first=Abby |date=2022-08-01 |title=Wind turbines and solar panels can hurt birds and bats. A Missouri group hopes to help |url=http://thebeacon.media/stories/2022/08/01/a-work-group-formed-in-2019-with-the-goal-of-creating-guidelines-for-renewable-energy-infrastructure-developers-to-ensure-that-birds-bats-and-their-habitats-are-protected/ |access-date=2022-09-24 |website=The Beacon |language=en-US}} one of the effects of climate change is to already cause a decline in bird population,{{Cite journal |title=The Effects of Climate Change on Birds and Approaches to Response |year=2022 |doi=10.1088/1755-1315/1011/1/012054|last1=Li |first1=Xiaohan |last2=Liu |first2=Yang |last3=Zhu |first3=Yuhui |journal=IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science |volume=1011 |issue=1 |page=012054 |bibcode=2022E&ES.1011a2054L |doi-access=free }} and this is the main cause of bird loss from fossil power.{{cite journal |last1=Sovacool |first1=Benjamin K. |year=2013 |title=The avian benefits of wind energy: A 2009 update |journal=Renewable Energy |volume=49 |pages=19–24 |doi=10.1016/j.renene.2012.01.074|bibcode=2013REne...49...19S }}{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Extreme heat a strain for birds already burdened by habitat loss |url=https://thenarwhal.ca/birds-bc-heatwave/ |access-date=2022-09-24 |website=The Narwhal |date= 28 July 2022|language=en}} A study comparing annually recorded bird populations in the United States from 2000 to 2020 to the spread of wind power infrastructure, found the presence of wind turbines had no significant effect on bird population numbers. This was directly compared to fracking infrastructure, whose presence causes a 15% decrease in the local bird populations.{{cite journal |last1=Katovich |first1=Erik |title=Quantifying the Effects of Energy Infrastructure on Bird Populations and Biodiversity |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |date=December 28, 2023 |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=323–332 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.3c03899 |pmid=38153963 |bibcode=2024EnST...58..323K }}

On some important migration routes turbines are banned, or birds may alter their flight paths to avoid them.{{cite web |author=Yirka |first=Bob |date=15 August 2012 |title=British researchers find geese alter course to avoid wind farm |url=http://phys.org/news/2012-08-british-geese-farm.html#jCp |access-date=6 December 2012 |work=Phys.org}} Biological surveys beforehand and correctly siting turbines is important, especially for birds of prey as they are slow to breed. Methods to help birds avoid turbines include painting of one of the turbine blades black,{{Cite web |date=2020-08-27 |title=Why are wind turbines being painted black? |url=https://www.euronews.com/green/2020/08/27/why-are-wind-turbines-being-painted-black |access-date=2024-06-04 |website=euronews |language=en}} and making ultrasonic noise.{{Cite web |title=Do Wind Turbines Kill Birds? (How, Statistics + Prevention) |url=https://birdfact.com/articles/do-wind-turbines-kill-birds |access-date=2022-09-24 |website=Birdfact |language=en}} Some approaching birds can be spotted, for example by avian radar,{{cite journal

| url = https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg18625045.500

| title = Wind Turbines A Breeze For Migrating Birds

| journal = New Scientist

| issue = 2504

| date =18 June 2005

| page = 21

| access-date = 6 December 2012}}{{cite journal

| last = Desholm | first = Mark

|author2=Johnny Kahlert

| title = Avian Collision Risk At An Offshore Wind Farm

| journal = Biology Letters

| volume = 1 | issue =3

| pages = 296–98

| date = 9 June 2005

| doi = 10.1098/rsbl.2005.0336

| pmid = 17148191

| pmc = 1617151}} in time for turbines to be slowed to a speed which is safe for them.{{Cite web |date=2022-09-20 |title=Can AI stop rare eagles flying into wind turbines in Germany? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/sep/20/germany-hopes-ai-can-stop-rare-eagles-flying-into-wind-turbines |access-date=2022-09-20 |website=The Guardian |language=en}} Wind farms may need more power lines, and lines may be made less damaging to compensate.{{cite web |date=18 January 2017 |title=Critical federal approvals for massive Wyoming wind project |url=https://apnews.com/0ae4fb9364a04199838f987c36dd428b/critical-federal-approvals-massive-wyoming-wind-project |access-date=29 October 2017 |publisher=Associated Press}}{{cite web |date=9 March 2016 |title=BLM Announces Major Milestone and FWS Issues Record of Decision for Potential Eagle Take Permit for Chokecherry and Sierra Madre Phase I Wind Energy Project |url=https://www.blm.gov/press-release/blm-announces-major-milestone-and-fws-issues-record-decision-potential-eagle-take |access-date=29 October 2017 |publisher=Bureau of Land Management |quote="take" (disturb, injure or kill).}} Making permits for the number of birds (such as eagles) killed tradeable has been suggested, in order to save the most birds at the least cost.{{Cite web |date=2022-07-26 |title=Using Markets to Limit Eagle Mortality from Wind Power |url=https://www.perc.org/2022/07/26/using-markets-to-limit-eagle-mortality-from-wind-power/ |access-date=2022-09-24 |website=PERC |language=en-US}}

Ecological surveys beforehand with full-spectrum detectors can ensure onshore wind turbines are sited to minimize the impact on bats,{{Cite web |title=Bats and onshore wind turbines - survey, assessment and mitigation |url=https://www.nature.scot/doc/bats-and-onshore-wind-turbines-survey-assessment-and-mitigation}} however as of 2024 more offshore bat research is needed.{{Cite web |last=Trust |first=Bat Conservation |title=Wind farms and wind turbines - Threats to bats |url=https://www.bats.org.uk/about-bats/threats-to-bats/wind-farms-and-wind-turbines |access-date=2024-06-04 |website=Bat Conservation Trust |language=en}} Bats may be injured by direct impact with turbine blades, towers, or transmission lines. Bats may also be killed when suddenly passing through a low air pressure region surrounding the turbine blade tips.{{cite journal

| last= Baerwald

| first= Erin F |author2=D'Amours, Genevieve H |author3=Klug, Brandon J |author4=Barclay, Robert MR

| date= 2008-08-26

| title = Barotrauma is a significant cause of bat fatalities at wind turbines

| journal = Current Biology

| volume = 18

| issue = 16

| pages = R695–R696

| doi = 10.1016/j.cub.2008.06.029

| oclc = 252616082

| pmid = 18727900

| doi-access = free

| bibcode= 2008CBio...18.R695B }}

• {{cite news |date=2008-09-20 |title=Broken Bats |work=Quirks & Quarks |publisher=CBC Radio |url=http://www.cbc.ca/quirks/archives/08-09/qq-2008-09-20.html}} includes audio podcast of interview with author. The numbers of bats killed by existing onshore and near-shore facilities have troubled bat enthusiasts.{{cite web

| url= http://vawind.org/Assets/Docs/BCI_ridgetop_advisory.pdf

| publisher=Bat Conservation International

| title=Caution Regarding Placement of Wind Turbines on Wooded Ridge Tops

| date=4 January 2005

| access-date=2006-04-21

}} Studies by the Bats and Wind Energy Cooperative show that bat fatalities can be reduced by stopping wind farm operations when wind speed is low during certain months, at times when bats are most active, and illuminating turbines with UV light is also a deterrent.{{Cite web |title=Curtailment and Deterrence {{!}} Bat and Wind Energy Cooperative |url=https://www.batsandwind.org/research/curtailment-deterrence |access-date=2024-06-04 |website=www.batsandwind.org |language=en}} Bats avoid radar transmitters, and placing microwave transmitters on wind turbine towers may reduce the number of bat collisions.{{cite news |last=Aron |first=Jacob |date=2009-07-17 |title=Radar beams could protect bats from wind turbines |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2009/jul/17/radar-bat-wind-turbine |access-date=2009-07-17 |work=The Guardian |location=London, England}}{{Cite journal

| title = Bats Avoid Radar Installations: Could Electromagnetic Fields Deter Bats from Colliding with Wind Turbines?

| last = Nicholls | first = Barry

|author2=Racey, Paul A.

| year = 2007

| journal = PLOS ONE

| doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0000297

| volume = 2

| pages = e297

| pmid = 17372629

| issue = 3

| pmc = 1808427

| bibcode = 2007PLoSO...2..297N

| editor1-last = Cresswell

| editor1-first = Will | doi-access = free }}

• {{cite news |author=Jacob Aron |date=2009-07-17 |title=Radar beams could protect bats from wind turbines |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2009/jul/17/radar-bat-wind-turbine}}

It is hypothesized that a portion of bat fatalities are attributed to the wind displacement caused by the wind turbine blades as they move through the air causing insects in the area to become disoriented making it a dense area of prey – an attractive hunting ground for bats.{{Cite journal|last1=Arnett|first1=Edward B.|last2=Hein|first2=Cris D.|last3=Schirmacher|first3=Michael R.|last4=Huso|first4=Manuela M. P.|last5=Szewczak|first5=Joseph M.|date=2013-09-10|title=Correction: Evaluating the Effectiveness of an Ultrasonic Acoustic Deterrent for Reducing Bat Fatalities at Wind Turbines|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=8|issue=9 |pages=10.1371/annotation/a81f59cb-0f82-4c84-a743-895acb4b2794 |doi=10.1371/annotation/a81f59cb-0f82-4c84-a743-895acb4b2794 |doi-access=free|pmc=3776886}} To combat this phenomenon, ultrasonic deterrents have been tested on select wind turbines and has been shown to reduce bat fatalities from collision and barotrauma. Testing of the ultrasonic deterrents has shown significantly reduced bat activity around wind turbines.

Each wind turbine is estimated to kill 6 to 20 bats per year.{{Cite web |last=Ritchie |first=Hannah |title=How many birds do wind farms kill? |url=https://www.sustainabilitybynumbers.com/p/wind-power-bird-deaths |access-date=2025-03-22 |website=www.sustainabilitybynumbers.com |language=en}} Mortality, specifically in migratory birds and bats, seems to be increased in locations where wind patterns seem to facilitate both migration paths and energy production.{{Cite web |title=Naturalist Traces The 'Astounding' Flyways Of Migratory Birds |url=https://www.npr.org/2021/03/29/982232107/naturalist-traces-the-astounding-flyways-of-migratory-birds |access-date=2021-03-30 |website=National Public Radio |language=en}} As of 2024 many countries lack laws to protect bats.{{Cite web |title=Toward solving the global green–green dilemma between wind energy production and bat conservation |url=https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/74/4/240/7639565#448655366 |access-date=2024-06-04 |journal=BioScience|date=2024 |doi=10.1093/biosci/biae023 |last1=Voigt |first1=Christian C. |last2=Bernard |first2=Enrico |last3=Huang |first3=Joe Chun-Chia |last4=Frick |first4=Winifred F. |last5=Kerbiriou |first5=Christian |last6=MacEwan |first6=Kate |last7=Mathews |first7=Fiona |last8=Rodríguez-Durán |first8=Armando |last9=Scholz |first9=Carolin |last10=Webala |first10=Paul W. |last11=Welbergen |first11=Justin |last12=Whitby |first12=Michael |volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=240–252 |pmid=38720909 |pmc=11075649 }}

Wind farms designed to be more efficient from lack of airflow-impeding obstacles, offshore wind farms, have altered marine ecosystems by providing refuge from humans in the form of fishing-restricted areas due to safety concerns of moving blades. Interestingly, the regions of refuge are not directly at the location of the wind turbines but rather slightly closer to shore. As an example, new colonies of Blue Mussels in the North Sea fed by phytoplankton are a food source for other predators, namely fish and crabs, and further up the food chain, seals. Blue Mussels also reduce turbidity in the ocean water, making for greater underwater visibility, and leave behind their shells as shelter, further altering possible inhabitants of their coastal domain.{{cite news |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/2017/09/22/149001/first-evidence-that-offshore-wind-farms-are-changing-the-oceans/ |publisher=MIT Technology Review |title=First Evidence That Offshore Wind Farms Are Changing the Oceans |access-date=15 December 2021 |date=22 September 2017}}{{cite journal |title=The large-scale impact of offshore wind farm structures on pelagic primary productivity in the southern North Sea |date=9 May 2018|arxiv=1709.02386 |last1=Slavik|first1=Kaela|last2=Lemmen|first2=Carsten|last3=Zhang|first3=Wenyan|last4=Kerimoglu|first4=Onur|last5=Klingbeil|first5=Knut|last6=Wirtz|first6=Kai W.|journal=Hydrobiologia |volume=845 |pages=35–53 |doi=10.1007/s10750-018-3653-5 }}

Wind farms may affect weather in their immediate vicinity. Turbulence from spinning wind turbine rotors increases vertical mixing of heat and water vapor that affects the meteorological conditions downwind, including rainfall.{{Cite web | url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/wind-power-found-to-affect-local-climate/ | title=Wind Power Found to Affect Local Climate| website=Scientific American}} Overall, wind farms lead to a slight warming at night and a slight cooling during the day time. This effect can be reduced by using more efficient rotors or placing wind farms in regions with high natural turbulence. Warming at night could "benefit agriculture by decreasing frost damage and extending the growing season. Many farmers already do this with air circulators".{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/4681001a|pmid=21179120|bibcode=2010Natur.468Q1001.|title=Turbines and turbulence|journal=Nature|volume=468|issue=7327|pages=1001|year=2010|doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1073/pnas.1000493107|pmid = 20921371|pmc = 2964241|bibcode = 2010PNAS..10717899B|title = Impacts of wind farms on surface air temperatures|journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume = 107|issue = 42|pages = 17899–904|last1 = Baidya Roy|first1 = Somnath|last2 = Traiteur|first2 = Justin J.|year = 2010|doi-access = free}}[https://www.sciencedaily.com/videos/2005/1012-wind_farms_impacting_weather.htm Wind farms impacting weather] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100906101845/https://www.sciencedaily.com/videos/2005/1012-wind_farms_impacting_weather.htm |date=2010-09-06 }}, Science Daily.

Another study by David Keith and Lee Miller on climactic impacts of wind power, which predicted warming when considering the area of the United States,{{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Lee M. |last2=Keith |first2=David W. |date=19 December 2018 |title=Climatic impacts of wind power |url=https://keith.seas.harvard.edu/files/tkg/files/climatic_impacts_of_wind_power.pdf |journal=Joule |volume=2 |issue=12 |pages=2618–2632 |doi=10.1016/j.joule.2018.09.009 |bibcode=2018Joule...2.2618M }} has been criticized by Mark Z. Jacobson on the grounds of its limited geographical scope, with the argument that a large-scale wind energy extraction would significantly lower global temperatures.{{cite journal |last1=Jacobson |first1=Mark Z. |date=2 October 2018 |title=Response to Miller and Keith "Climatic Impacts of Windpower"(Joule, 2018) |url=https://web.stanford.edu/group/efmh/jacobson/Articles/I/CombiningRenew/18-RespMK.pdf |journal=Renewable Energy |issue=123}}{{cite journal |last1=Jacobson |first1=Mark Z. |date=6 October 2018 |title=Response to Reply of Miller and Keith |url=https://web.stanford.edu/group/efmh/jacobson/Articles/I/CombiningRenew/18ResptoReplyMK.pdf |journal=Renewable Energy |issue=123}}{{cite journal |last1=Jacobson |first1=M. Z. |last2=Delucchi |first2=M. A. |last3=Cameron |first3=M. A. |last4=Mathiesen |first4=B. V. |date=2018 |title=Matching demand with supply at low cost among 139 countries within 20 world regions with 100% intermittent wind, water, and sunlight (WWS) for all purposes |url=https://web.stanford.edu/group/efmh/jacobson/Articles/I/CombiningRenew/WorldGridIntegration.pdf |journal=Renewable Energy |issue=123 |pages=236–248 |doi=10.1016/j.renene.2018.02.009 }}{{cite journal |last1=Jacobson |first1=M. Z. |last2=Delucchi |first2=M. A. |display-authors=etal |date=2017 |title=100% clean and renewable wind, water, and sunlight (WWS) all-sector energy roadmaps for 139 countries of the world |url=http://web.stanford.edu/group/efmh/jacobson/Articles/I/CountriesWWS.pdf |journal=Joule |volume=I |issue=1 |pages=108–121 |doi=10.1016/j.joule.2017.07.005|bibcode=2017Joule...1..108J }}{{cite journal |last1=Jacobson |first1=M. Z. |last2=Archer |first2=C. L. |date=2012 |title=Saturation wind power potential and its implications for wind energy |url=https://web.stanford.edu/group/efmh/jacobson/Articles/I/SatWindPot2012.pdf |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=109 |issue=39 |pages=15,679-15,684 |bibcode=2012PNAS..10915679J |doi=10.1073/pnas.1208993109 |pmc=3465402 |pmid=23019353 |doi-access=free}}

{{See also|Renewable energy debate#Community debate about wind farms|l1=Renewable energy debate – Community debate about wind farms}}

File:202307 Survey - comfortable with solar wind nuclear in my community.svg

{{See also|Wind turbines on public display|Windfall (2010 film)}}

File:MtStMichel avion.jpg at low tide. While windy coasts are good locations for wind farms, aesthetic considerations may preclude such developments in order to preserve historic views of cultural sites.]]

Aesthetic considerations of wind power stations often have a significant role in their evaluation process.Thomas Kirchhoff (2014): [http://www.naturphilosophie.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/Kirchhoff_2014_Energiewende-und-Landschaftsaesthetik.pdf Energiewende und Landschaftsästhetik. Versachlichung ästhetischer Bewertungen von Energieanlagen durch Bezugnahme auf drei intersubjektive Landschaftsideale], in: Naturschutz und Landschaftsplanung 46 (1), 10–16. To some, the perceived aesthetic aspects of wind power stations may conflict with the protection of historical sites.[http://shop.arl-net.de/media/direct/pdf/ab/ab_009/ab_009_gesamt.pdf Tourismus und Regionalentwicklung in Bayern], Diana Schödl, Windkraft und Tourismus – planerische Erfassung der Konfliktbereiche, in Marius Mayer, Hubert Job, 5 December 2013, Arbeitsgruppe "Tourismus und Regionalentwicklung" der Landesarbeitsgemeinschaft Bayern der ARL, p 125. ff Wind power stations are less likely to be perceived negatively in urbanized and industrial regions.Günter Ratzbor (2011): [http://www.dnr.de/downloads/thesenpapier-landschaftsbild.pdf Windenergieanlagen und Landschaftsbild. Zur Auswirkung von Windrädern auf das Landschaftsbild. Thesenpapier des Deutschen Naturschutzrings DNR] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116112802/http://www.dnr.de/downloads/thesenpapier-landschaftsbild.pdf|date=2014-01-16}}, pp. 17–19. Aesthetic issues are subjective and some people find wind farms pleasant or see them as symbols of energy independence and local prosperity.{{Cite news |last=Gourlay |first=Simon |date=2008-08-11 |title=Wind farms are not only beautiful, they're absolutely necessary |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2008/aug/12/windpower.alternativeenergy |access-date=2024-06-04 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB }} While studies in Scotland predict wind farms will damage tourism,{{cite news

| url=http://www.berwickshirenews.co.uk/news/local/all-news/tourism-blown-off-course-by-turbines-1-2859768

| title=Tourism blown off course by turbines

| publisher=The Berwickshire News

| access-date=2013-10-08

| date=2013-03-28

| location = Berwickshire }} in other countries some wind farms have themselves become tourist attractions,{{cite web

|url = http://www.canada.com/edmontonjournal/news/business/story.html?id=63a5438a-ae99-4b76-9629-b7b59d238932

|title = Canada wind farms blow away turbine tourists

|publisher = Edmonton Journal

|access-date = 2008-09-06

|last = Young

|date = 2007-08-03

|first = Kathryn

|url-status = dead

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090425064111/http://www2.canada.com/edmontonjournal/news/business/story.html?id=63a5438a-ae99-4b76-9629-b7b59d238932

|archive-date = 2009-04-25

}}{{cite web |last1=Zhou |first1=Renjie |last2=Wang |first2=Yadan |date=2007-08-14 |title=Residents of Inner Mongolia Find New Hope in the Desert |url=http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5286 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101109212125/https://www.worldwatch.org/node/5286 |archive-date=2010-11-09 |access-date=2008-11-04 |publisher=Worldwatch Institute}}{{cite web |title=Centre d'interprétation du cuivre de Murdochville |url=http://www.cicuivre.com/en/circuit.asp |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705020126/http://www.cicuivre.com/en/circuit.asp |archive-date=2008-07-05 |access-date=2008-11-19 |language=fr}} – The Copper Interpretation Centre of Murdochville, Canada features tours of a wind turbine on Miller Mountain. with several having visitor centers at ground level or even observation decks atop turbine towers.

In the 1980s, wind energy was being discussed as part of a soft energy path.Windenergie in Deutschland: Konstellationen, Dynamiken und Regulierungspotenziale Im Innovationsprozess, Bö Ohlhorst, Springer-Verlag, 2009, p. 90 ff. Renewable energy commercialization led to an increasing industrial image of wind power, which is being criticized by various stakeholders in the planning process, including nature protection associations.Windenergie in Deutschland: Konstellationen, Dynamiken und Regulierungspotenziale Im Innovationsprozess, Bö Ohlhorst, Springer-Verlag, 2009, p.163, "Kritik an zunehmend industrieller Charakter der Windenergienutzung". Newer wind farms have larger, more widely spaced turbines, and have a less cluttered appearance than older installations. Wind farms are often built on land that has already been impacted by land clearing and they coexist easily with other land uses.

Coastal areas and areas of higher altitude such as ridgelines are considered prime for wind farms, due to constant wind speeds. However, both locations tend to be areas of high visual impact and can be a contributing factor in local communities' resistance to some projects. Both the proximity to densely populated areas and the necessary wind speeds make coastal locations ideal for wind farms.Dipert, Brian. [http://www.edn.com/electronics-blogs/other/4316940/Cutting-the-carbon-energy-cord-Is-the-answer-blowin-in-the-wind- Cutting the carbon-energy cord: Is the answer blowin' in the wind?], EDN Network website, December 15, 2006.

File:Mittelrhein Burg Katz.jpg]]

Wind power stations can impact on important sight relations which are a key part of culturally important landscapes, such as in the Rhine Gorge or Moselle valley. Conflicts between the heritage status of certain areas and wind power projects have arisen in various countries. In 2011 UNESCO raised concerns regarding a proposed wind farm 17 kilometres away from the French island abbey of Mont-Saint-Michel.{{Cite news |last=Simons |first=Stefan |date=2011-02-09 |title=UNESCO's Wind Turbine Problem: Mont-Saint-Michel's World Heritage Status Under Threat |url=https://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/unesco-s-wind-turbine-problem-mont-saint-michel-s-world-heritage-status-under-threat-a-744555.html |access-date=2024-06-04 |work=Der Spiegel }} In Germany, the impact of wind farms on valuable cultural landscapes has implications on zoning and land-use planning.Sören Schöbel (2012): Windenergie und Landschaftsästhetik: Zur landschaftsgerechten Anordnung von Windfarmen, Jovis-Verlag, Berlin, Germany.Nohl, Werner (2009): [http://www.wanderforschung.de/files/nohl-windkraft1375881239.pdf Landschaftsästhetische Auswirkungen von Windkraftanlagen], pp. 2, 8. For example, sensitive parts of the Moselle valley and the background of the Hambach Castle, according to the plans of the state government, will be kept free of wind turbines.Fittkau, Ludger: [http://www.deutschlandfunk.de/aesthetik-und-windraeder.691.de.html?dram:article_id=255858 Ästhetik und Windräder], Neues Gutachten zu "Windenergienutzung und bedeutenden Kulturlandschaften" in Rheinland-Pfalz, Kultur heute, 30 July 2013.

Wind turbines require aircraft warning lights, which may create light pollution. Complaints about these lights have caused the US FAA to consider allowing fewer lights per turbine in certain areas.{{cite web |author=Thompson |first=Rod |date=20 May 2006 |title=Wind turbine lights have opponents seeing sparks |url=http://starbulletin.com/2006/05/20/news/story06.html |access-date=2008-01-15 |work=Honolulu Star-Bulletin |publication-place=Honolulu, Hawaii}} Residents near turbines may complain of "shadow flicker" caused by rotating turbine blades, when the sun passes behind the turbine. This can be avoided by locating the wind farm to avoid unacceptable shadow flicker, or by turning the turbine off for the time of the day when the sun is at the angle that causes flicker. If a turbine is poorly sited and adjacent to many homes, the duration of shadow flicker on a neighbourhood can last hours.New South Wales Government (Australia) (1 November 2010). [http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/climatechange/10923windfacts.pdf The wind energy fact sheet] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110320081659/http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/climatechange/10923windfacts.pdf|date=2011-03-20}}, Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water of New South Wales, p. 12.

{{See also|Health effects from noise}}

Loud or persistent noise increases stress which could then lead to diseases,{{cite journal |last1=Gohlke |first1=Julia M. |last2=Hrynkow |first2=Sharon H. |last3=Portier |first3=Christopher J. |year=2008 |title=Health, Economy, and Environment: Sustainable Energy Choices for a Nation |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=116 |issue=6 |pages=A236–A237 |doi=10.1289/ehp.11602 |pmc=2430245 |pmid=18560493}} and wind turbines do generate noise, though at typical setback distances, it is extremely low. For example, at a distance of {{convert|300|m}} the sound generated may be around 45 dB; however, at a distance of {{convert|1.5|km|abbr=on|0}}, most wind turbines become inaudible.{{Cite web |date=2014-08-03 |title=How Much Noise Does a Wind Turbine Make? |url=http://www.gereports.com/post/92442325225/how-loud-is-a-wind-turbine |access-date=2016-06-06 |archive-date=2014-12-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141215232603/http://www.gereports.com/post/92442325225/how-loud-is-a-wind-turbine |url-status=dead }}{{Cite book |last=Gipe |first=Paul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8itBNxBL4igC&dq=wind+power+noise+footprint&pg=PA376 |title=Wind Energy Comes of Age |date=1995-04-14 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-471-10924-2 |language=en}} Thus the noise generated by wind turbines does not affect human health when the turbines are properly placed.Professor Simon Chapman. "[http://ses.library.usyd.edu.au/handle/2123/10559 Summary of main conclusions reached in 25 reviews of the research literature on wind farms and health]" Sydney University School of Public Health, April 2015.{{cite news |last=Hamilton |first=Tyler |date=15 December 2009 |title=Wind Gets Clean Bill of Health |pages=B1–B2 |newspaper=Toronto Star |location=Toronto |url=https://www.thestar.com/business/article/738734--wind-gets-clean-bill-of-health |access-date=16 December 2009}}W. David Colby, Robert Dobie, Geoff Leventhall, David M. Lipscomb, Robert J. McCunney, Michael T. Seilo, Bo Søndergaard. [http://www.canwea.ca/pdf/talkwind/Wind_Turbine_Sound_and_Health_Effects.pdf "Wind Turbine Sound and Health Effects: An Expert Panel Review"], Canadian Wind Energy Association, December 2009.

A 2014 study by Health Canada{{Cite web|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/health-risks-safety/radiation/everyday-things-emit-radiation/wind-turbine-noise/wind-turbine-noise-health-study-summary-results.html|title=Wind Turbine Noise and Health Study: Summary of Results|date=17 December 2012}} involving 1238 households (representing 79 percent of the households in the geographic area studied) and 4000 hours of testing in Ontario and on Prince Edward Island includes the following supportive statements of wind turbine low frequency noise annoyance in its summary:

"Wind turbines emit low frequency noise, which can enter the home with little or no reduction in energy, potentially resulting in... annoyance."

Regarding the comparison of low frequency wind turbine noise annoyance to transportation noise annoyance, the Health Canada study summary states: "Studies have consistently shown.. that, in comparison to the scientific literature on noise annoyance to transportation noise sources such as rail or road traffic, community annoyance with (low frequency) wind turbine noise begins at a lower sound level and increases more rapidly with increasing wind turbine noise."

The summary also includes the following three findings of its own study:

• "Statistically significant exposure-response relationships were found between increasing wind turbine noise levels and the prevalence of reporting high annoyance. These associations were found with annoyance due to noise, vibrations, blinking lights, shadow and visual impacts from wind turbines. In all cases, annoyance increased with increasing exposure to wind turbine noise levels."

• "Community annoyance was observed to drop at distances between 1–2 kilometers (0.6 to 1.2 miles) in Ontario." (It dropped at 550 meters (1/3 mile) on Prince Edward Island.)

• "Annoyance was significantly lower among the 110 participants who received personal benefit, which could include rent, payments or other indirect benefits of having wind turbines in the area e.g., community improvements."

The above Health Canada summary states that "no statistically significant association was observed between measured blood pressure, resting heart rate, (hair cortisol concentrations) and wind turbine noise exposure."

Wind turbine syndrome, a psychosomatic disorder, refers to the belief that low-frequency wind turbine noise, either directly or through annoyance, causes or contributes to various measurable health effects related to anxiety, for which there is little general evidence.Committee on Environmental Impacts of Wind Energy Projects, National Research Council (2007). [http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11935&page=158 Environmental Impacts of Wind-Energy Projects, pp. 158–159].

Many offshore wind farms have contributed to electricity needs in Europe and Asia for years, and as of 2014 the first offshore wind farms were under development in U.S. waters. The offshore wind industry has grown dramatically over the last several decades, especially in Europe and China.

Traditional offshore wind turbines are attached to the seabed in shallower waters near the shore. As offshore wind technologies become more advanced, floating structures have begun to be used in deeper waters where more wind resources exist.

Common environmental concerns associated with offshore wind developments include:{{Cite web |title=Environmental Effects of Wind and Marine Renewable Energy |url=https://tethys.pnnl.gov/ |access-date=2022-09-20 |website=tethys.pnnl.gov}}{{Cite web |title=Wind energy and the environment - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) |url=https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/wind/wind-energy-and-the-environment.php#:~:text=Wind%20turbines%20have%20some%20negative,currently%20constructed,%20cannot%20be%20recycled. |access-date=2025-03-28 |website=www.eia.gov}}

• The risk to seabirds being struck by wind turbine blades or being displaced from critical habitats;
• The physical presence of offshore wind farms altering the behavior of marine mammals, fish, and seabirds by reasons of either attraction or avoidance;
• Physical changes of the marine environments from large offshore wind projects{{Cite journal |last1=Lu |first1=Zhengyu |last2=Li |first2=Guoqing |last3=Liu |first3=Zhe |last4=Wang |first4=Luyan |date=2022-10-11 |title=Offshore wind farms changed the spatial distribution of chlorophyll-a on the sea surface |journal=Frontiers in Marine Science |language=English |volume=9 |bibcode=2022FrMaS...908005L |doi=10.3389/fmars.2022.1008005 |issn=2296-7745 |doi-access=free}}
• Underwater vibration and noise during construction impacts marine life.{{Cite web |last=Hardach |first=Sophie |title=How bubble curtains protect porpoises from wind farm noise |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20231106-the-big-bubble-curtains-protecting-porpoises-from-wind-farm-noise |access-date=2023-11-10 |website=www.bbc.com |date=7 November 2023 |language=en}}

Research has shown that large off shore wind fams can impact wind velocities, ocean temperatures, turbidity, and oxygen levels. Turbines create a wind wake, that can alter reduce wind speed on the leeward side of turbines. A 2022 study on offshore wind farms in the North Sea, aimed to assess how these changes impact marine ecosystems. The research found that while wind turbines do not cause significant surface impacts, they do influence ocean stratification by reducing vertical mixing which could affect nutrient distribution. In addition, wind turbine wakes typically extend about 50-70km from the turbine hub. These wind wakes have the ability to change local wind patterns and overall energy dynamics, which could contribute to rising sea surface temperatures.{{Cite journal |last1=Christiansen |first1=Nils |last2=Daewel |first2=Ute |last3=Djath |first3=Bughsin |last4=Schrum |first4=Corinna |date=2022-02-03 |title=Emergence of Large-Scale Hydrodynamic Structures Due to Atmospheric Offshore Wind Farm Wakes |journal=Frontiers in Marine Science |language=English |volume=9 |doi=10.3389/fmars.2022.818501 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022FrMaS...918501C |issn=2296-7745}}

Offshore wind farms also have contributed to changing the amount of phytoplankton on the surface. Researchers have found that these turbines increase concentrations of these species, leading to the potential to impact primary productivity in surrounding ecosystems

Installation traditional offshore wind farm pilings changes the substrate of the ocean floor nearby. These areas change from sandy/muddy ocean floors to concrete hard surfaces. While there are some negatives to this, research has found that these new substrates can be the perfect home to help endangered species repopulate and expand. A study of blue mussels in Denmark found that these pilings were perfect artifical reefs to allow the population to rebound.{{Cite web |title=Local Effects of Blue Mussels Around Turbine Foundations in an Ecosystem Model of Nysted Off-Shore Wind Farm, Denmark {{!}} Tethys |url=https://tethys.pnnl.gov/publications/local-effects-blue-mussels-around-turbine-foundations-ecosystem-model-nysted-shore |access-date=2025-04-16 |website=tethys.pnnl.gov |language=en}} Articial reefs could also potentially lead to the doubling of species, helping endangered and threatened species in the area.{{Cite journal |last=Li |first=Chen |last2=Coolen |first2=Joop W. P. |last3=Scherer |first3=Laura |last4=Mogollón |first4=José M. |last5=Braeckman |first5=Ulrike |last6=Vanaverbeke |first6=Jan |last7=Tukker |first7=Arnold |last8=Steubing |first8=Bernhard |date=2023-04-25 |title=Offshore Wind Energy and Marine Biodiversity in the North Sea: Life Cycle Impact Assessment for Benthic Communities |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.2c07797 |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=57 |issue=16 |pages=6455–6464 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.2c07797 |issn=0013-936X |pmc=10134491 |pmid=37058594}}

Germany restricts underwater noise during pile driving to less than 160 dB.{{cite web |last=Pace |first=Federica |date=21 July 2015 |title=Did You Hear That? Reducing Construction Noise at Offshore Wind Farms |url=http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/print/volume-18/issue-4/features/wind/did-you-hear-that-reducing-construction-noise-at-offshore-wind-farms.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171030093547/http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/print/volume-18/issue-4/features/wind/did-you-hear-that-reducing-construction-noise-at-offshore-wind-farms.html |archive-date=30 October 2017 |access-date=29 October 2017 |work=www.renewableenergyworld.com |quote=an SEL limit of 160 dB re 1 μPa2 s outside a 750-meter radius for pile-driving operations appears in the licence conditions for offshore wind farms.}} During construction, heavy equipment generates noise and vibrations that are very well conducted through water and impacting marine life, such as harbour porpoise which rely on sound for navigation underwater. Attempts to partially mitigate the impact involve e.g. building air bubble curtains around the towers.

Due to the landscape protection status of large areas of the Wadden Sea, a major World Heritage Site with various national parks (e.g. Lower Saxon Wadden Sea National Park), German offshore installations are mostly restricted on areas outside the territorial waters.[http://www.offshore-windenergie.net/windparks Internationales Wirtschaftsforum Regenerative Energien (IWR), German wind power industry Offshore windpark website] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729045309/http://www.offshore-windenergie.net/windparks |date=2014-07-29 }}{{Better source needed|reason=The current source is old|date=June 2024}} Offshore capacity in Germany is therefore way behind the British or Danish near coast installments, which face much lower restrictions.

In 2009, a comprehensive government environmental study of coastal waters in the United Kingdom concluded that there is scope for between 5,000 and 7,000 offshore wind turbines to be installed without an adverse impact on the marine environment. The study{{snd}}which forms part of the Department of Energy and Climate Change's Offshore Energy Strategic Environmental Assessment{{snd}}is based on more than a year's research. It included analysis of seabed geology, as well as surveys of sea birds and marine mammals.{{Cite web |date=2009-01-26 |title=Study finds offshore wind farms can co-exist with marine environment |url=https://www.businessgreen.com/news/1805447/study-offshore-wind-farms-exist-marine-environment |access-date=2024-06-04 |website=www.businessgreen.com |language=en}}[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20090522203401/http%3A//www.offshore%2Dsea.org.uk/consultations/Offshore_Energy_SEA/OES_Non_Technical_Summary.pdf UK Offshore Energy: Strategic Environmental Assessment], UK Department of Energy and Climate Change, January 2009.

A study published in 2014 suggests that some seals prefer to hunt near turbines, likely due to the laid stones functioning as artificial reefs which attract invertebrates and fish.Warwicker, Michelle. "[https://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/28375794 Seals 'feed' at offshore wind farms, study shows]" BBC, 21 July 2014. Accessed: 22 July 2014. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KGE5yBNj-QQ Video of seal path]

The turbines are often scaled-up versions of existing land technologies. However, the foundations are unique to offshore wind and are listed below:

Monopile foundations are used in shallow depth applications (0–30 m) and consist of a pile being driven to varying depths into the seabed (10–40 m) depending on the soil conditions. The pile-driving construction process is an environmental concern as the noise produced is loud and propagates far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding. These foundations still create artificial reefs and "are vulnerable to the erosive process of scour, which can impact turbine operations"

Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used in transitional depth applications (20–80 m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, though less depth is necessary because of the wide foundation. This option is ideal for conditions that areas that have medium - stiff soils, and environmental effects are a combination of those for monopile and gravity foundations still requiring " Scour protection around the base of the tripod in areas with high bottom currents or easily erodible sediment" https://www.boem.gov/sites/default/files/documents/environment/Wind-Turbine-Foundations-White%20Paper-Final-White-Paper.pdf

Gravity foundations are used in shallow depth applications (0–30 m) and consist of a large and heavy base constructed of steel or concrete to rest on the seabed. The footprint is relatively large and may cause scouring, artificial reefs, or physical destruction of habitat upon introduction, as "the installation site must be flat and level, so the seabed is often dredged in preparation for foundation placement

Gravity tripod foundations are used in transitional depth applications (10–40 m) and consist of two heavy concrete structures connected by three legs, one structure sitting on the seabed while the other is above the water. As of 2013, no offshore windfarms were using this foundation. The environmental concerns are identical to those of gravity foundations, though the scouring effect may be less significant depending on the design.

Floating structure foundations are used in deep depth applications (40–900 m) and consist of a balanced floating structure moored to the seabed with fixed cables. The floating structure may be stabilized using buoyancy, the mooring lines, or a ballast. The mooring lines may cause minor scouring or a potential for collision.

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{{Reflist}}

• [https://rewi.org/guide/ Guide to Wind Energy & Wildlife], by the Renewable Energy Wildlife Institute
• {{Skeptoid | id= 4709| number= 709| title= Wind Turbines and Birds| date=January 7, 2020 }}

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Category:Bird mortality

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