Female body shape#Female shapes

Estrogens, which are primary female sex hormones, have a significant impact on a female's body shape. They are produced in both men and women, but their levels are significantly higher in women, especially in those of reproductive age. Besides other functions, estrogens promote the development of female secondary sexual characteristics, such as breasts and hips.{{cite journal | title = A role for estrogens in the male reproductive system | journal=Nature | volume = 390 | issue = 6659 | pages = 447–48 | year = 1997 | pmid = 9393999 | pmc=5719867 | doi = 10.1038/37352 | last1=Hess | first1=R. A. | last2=Bunick | first2=D | last3=Lee | first3=K. H. | last4=Bahr | first4=J | last5=Taylor | first5=J. A. | last6=Korach | first6=K. S. | last7=Lubahn | first7=D. B. | bibcode=1997Natur.390..509H }}{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc97/12_6_97/fob1.htm |title=Science News Online (12/6/97): Estrogen's Emerging Manly Alter Ego |access-date=4 March 2008 |author=Raloff, J. |date=6 December 1997 |publisher=Science News |archive-date=1 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801125427/http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc97/12_6_97/fob1.htm }}{{cite web | url = http://www.scienceblog.com/community/older/1997/B/199701564.html | title = Science Blog – Estrogen Linked To Sperm Count, Male Fertility | access-date = 4 March 2008 | publisher = Science Blog | archive-date = 7 May 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070507120938/http://www.scienceblog.com/community/older/1997/B/199701564.html | url-status = dead }} As a result of estrogens, during puberty, girls develop breasts and their hips widen. Working against estrogen, the presence of testosterone in a pubescent female inhibits breast development and promotes muscle and facial hair development.{{cite web | url=http://www.webmd.com/women/guide/normal-testosterone-and-estrogen-levels-in-women?page=2 | title=Normal Testosterone and Estrogen Levels in Women | publisher=WebMD | work=Website | access-date=28 October 2015}}

Estrogen levels also rise significantly during pregnancy. A number of other changes typically occur during pregnancy, including enlargement and increased firmness of the breasts, mainly due to hypertrophy of the mammary gland in response to the hormone prolactin. The size of the nipples may increase noticeably. These changes may continue during breastfeeding. Breasts generally revert to approximately their previous size after pregnancy, although there may be some increased sagging.{{Cite web |title=Physiologic changes of pregnancy: A review of the literature |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5715231/ |website=pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov}}{{Cite web |title=Anatomy and Physiology of the Breast during Pregnancy and Lactation |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32816256/ |website=pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov}}

Breasts can decrease in size at menopause if estrogen levels decline.{{cite web |title=How Menopause Affects Your Breasts |url=https://www.webmd.com/menopause/breasts-menopause |website=WebMD |access-date=29 September 2024 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161112145310/https://www.webmd.com/menopause/breasts-menopause |archive-date=November 12, 2016}}{{cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Eun Young |last2=Chang |first2=Yoosoo |last3=Ahn |first3=Jiin |last4=Yun |first4=Ji-Sup |last5=Park |first5=Yong Lai |last6=Park |first6=Chan Heun |last7=Shin |first7=Hocheol |last8=Ryu |first8=Seungho |title=Menopausal Transition, Body Mass Index, and Prevalence of Mammographic Dense Breasts in Middle-Aged Women |journal=Journal of Clinical Medicine |date=30 July 2020 |volume=9 |issue=8 |pages=2434 |doi=10.3390/jcm9082434 |doi-access=free |pmid=32751482 |pmc=7465213 }}

{{see also|Gynoid fat distribution}}

File:Vintage photo nude woman 2.jpg causes fat to be stored on a young woman's buttocks, hips and thighs, but not her waist.]]

Estrogens can also affect the female body shape in a number of other ways, including increasing fat stores, accelerating metabolism, reducing muscle mass, and increasing bone formation.{{Cite journal |last1=Bjune |first1=Jan-Inge |last2=Strømland |first2=Pouda Panahandeh |last3=Jersin |first3=Regine Åsen |last4=Mellgren |first4=Gunnar |last5=Dankel |first5=Simon Nitter |date=2022-02-22 |title=Metabolic and Epigenetic Regulation by Estrogen in Adipocytes |journal=Frontiers in Endocrinology |language=English |volume=13 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2022.828780 |doi-access=free |pmid=35273571 |pmc=8901598 |issn=1664-2392}}{{Cite journal |last=Hansen |first=Mette |date=2018-02-01 |title=Female hormones: do they influence muscle and tendon protein metabolism? |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/proceedings-of-the-nutrition-society/article/female-hormones-do-they-influence-muscle-and-tendon-protein-metabolism/0D0A155C16C4A640C1C9E6FDAFA973D6 |journal=Proceedings of the Nutrition Society |language=en |volume=77 |issue=1 |pages=32–41 |doi=10.1017/S0029665117001951 |issn=0029-6651}}

Estrogens cause higher levels of fat to be stored in a female body than in a male body.Estrogen activates fat storing enzymes and causes them to multiply: [https://web.archive.org/web/20090216195502/http://tanita.com/MessageForWomen.shtml Message for women]. tanita.com[https://web.archive.org/web/20110811051343/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-04-07/health/27999848_1_11percent-more-body-efficient-fat-storage-foetal-development-and-lactation "Sex hormone making women fat?"]. The Times of India. 2009-04-07 They also affect body fat distribution,{{cite journal|quote=body shape is determined by the nature of body fat distribution that, in turn, is significantly correlated with women's sex hormone profile|url=http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/JLS/JLS-02-0-000-10-Web/JLS-02-2-000-10-Abst-PDF/JLS-02-2-065-10-084-Mandal-A/JLS-2-2-65-10-084-Mandal-A-Tt.pdf|journal= J Life Sci|volume= 2|issue=2|pages= 65–71 |year=2010|title=Anthropometric - Hormonal Correlation: An Overview|author=Mandal, Arpita |author2=Das Chaudhuri, A.B.

|doi=10.1080/09751270.2010.11885154|s2cid=149016375}} causing fat to be stored in the buttocks, thighs, and hips in women,Estrogen causes fat to be stored around the pelvic region, hips, butt and thighs [http://www.annecollins.com/obesity/reduce-abdominal-fat.htm Reduce abdominal fat] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928032733/http://www.annecollins.com/obesity/reduce-abdominal-fat.htm |date=28 September 2011 }}; Anne Collins[http://www.healthywomen.org/columns/drpeekescolumn/dbcolumn/waistlineworriesturningapplesbackintopears "Ask the Expert | HealthyWomen"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808220801/http://www.healthywomen.org/columns/drpeekescolumn/dbcolumn/waistlineworriesturningapplesbackintopears |date=8 August 2007 }}. healthywomen.org. but generally not around their waists, which will remain about the same size as they were before puberty. The hormones produced by the thyroid gland regulate the rate of metabolism, controlling how quickly the body uses energy, and controls how sensitive the body should be to other hormones. Body fat distribution may change from time to time, depending on food habits, activity levels and hormone levels.{{Cite web |title=Thyroid Hormone Action and Energy Expenditure |url=https://academic.oup.com/jes/article/3/7/1345/5489459?login=false |access-date=2024-11-24 |website=academic.oup.com}}{{Cite journal |last1=Bjergved |first1=Lena |last2=Jørgensen |first2=Torben |last3=Perrild |first3=Hans |last4=Laurberg |first4=Peter |last5=Krejbjerg |first5=Anne |last6=Ovesen |first6=Lars |last7=Rasmussen |first7=Lone Banke |last8=Knudsen |first8=Nils |date=2014-04-11 |title=Thyroid Function and Body Weight: A Community-Based Longitudinal Study |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=e93515 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0093515 |doi-access=free |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=3984087 |pmid=24728291|bibcode=2014PLoSO...993515B }}{{Cite journal |last1=Karkhaneh |first1=Maryam |last2=Qorbani |first2=Mostafa |last3=Ataie-Jafari |first3=Asal |last4=Mohajeri-Tehrani |first4=Mohamad Reza |last5=Asayesh |first5=Hamid |last6=Hosseini |first6=Saeed |date=2019-10-25 |title=Association of thyroid hormones with resting energy expenditure and complement C3 in normal weight high body fat women |journal=Thyroid Research |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=9 |doi=10.1186/s13044-019-0070-4 |doi-access=free |issn=1756-6614 |pmc=6813955 |pmid=31666810}}

When women reach menopause and the estrogen produced by ovaries declines, fat migrates from their buttocks, hips and thighs to their waists;{{cite web|quote=Researchers think that the lack of estrogen at menopause plays a role in driving our fat northward |url=http://health.yahoo.com/topic/nutrition/overview/article/womens-health/26287 |title=A Matter of Fat |author=Andrews, Michelle |publisher=Yahoo |date=12 January 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071024193506/http://health.yahoo.com/topic/nutrition/overview/article/womens-health/26287 |archive-date=24 October 2007 }} later fat is stored at the abdomen.[http://www.health.harvard.edu/newsweek/Abdominal-fat-and-what-to-do-about-it.htm "Abdominal fat and what to do about it"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928081252/http://www.health.harvard.edu/newsweek/Abdominal-fat-and-what-to-do-about-it.htm |date=28 September 2011 }}. Harvard Health.

Body fat percentage recommendations are higher for females, as this fat may serve as an energy reserve for pregnancy. Males have less subcutaneous fat in their faces due to the effects of testosterone;"Subcutaneous fat in face decreases" – Advanced postnatal effects{{Cite web |last=Admin |date=2019-07-30 |title=Jawlines: Understanding Gender Differences, Facial Ageing and Defining |url=https://www.ifaas.co/single-post/jawlines-understanding-gender-differences-facial-ageing-and-defining-using-super-embossed-threads-an |access-date=2024-11-24 |website=ifaas |language=en}} testosterone also reduces fat by aiding fast metabolism. The lack of estrogen in males generally results in more fat being deposited around the waist and abdomen (producing an "apple shape").{{Cite web |date=2013-11-02 |title=What It Means to Have an Apple-Shaped Body |url=https://ninacheriefranklin.com/healthy-living/means-apple-shaped-body/ |access-date=2024-11-25 |website=Nina Cherie Franklin |language=en-US}}

Testosterone is a steroid hormone which helps build and maintain muscles for physical activity, such as exercise. The amount of testosterone produced varies from one individual to another, but, on average, an adult female produces around one-eighth of the testosterone of an adult male,{{cite journal | vauthors = Torjesen PA, Sandnes L | title = Serum testosterone in women as measured by an automated immunoassay and a RIA | journal = Clinical Chemistry | volume = 50 | issue = 3 | pages = 678; author reply 678–9 | date = Mar 2004 | pmid = 14981046 | doi = 10.1373/clinchem.2003.027565 | doi-access = free }} but females are more sensitive to the hormone.{{cite book |vauthors=Dabbs M, Dabbs JM | title = Heroes, rogues, and lovers: testosterone and behavior|url=https://archive.org/details/heroesrogueslove00jame |url-access=registration | publisher=McGraw-Hill | location = New York | year = 2000| isbn = 978-0-07-135739-5 }}

The aging process has an inevitable impact on a person's body shape. A woman's sex hormone levels will affect the fat distribution on her body. According to Dr. Devendra Singh, "Body shape is determined by the nature of body fat distribution that, in turn, is significantly correlated with women's sex hormone profile, risk for disease, and reproductive capability."{{cite journal |author1=Singh, Devendra |date=Spring 2006 |title=An Evolutionary Theory of Female Physical Attractiveness |journal=Eye on Psi Chi |location=Chattanooga, TN |publisher=Psi Chi |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=18–19, 28–31 |doi=10.24839/1092-0803.Eye10.3.18 |s2cid=31804468}} Concentrations of estrogen will influence where body fat is stored.

Before puberty both males and females have a similar waist–hip ratio. At puberty, a girl's sex hormones, mainly estrogen, will promote breast development and a wider pelvis that is tilted forward, and until menopause a woman's estrogen levels will cause her body to store excess fat in the buttocks, hips and thighs,{{cite web |author=Collins, Anne |url=http://www.annecollins.com/obesity/reduce-abdominal-fat.htm |title=Reduce Abdominal Fat |access-date=15 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928032733/http://www.annecollins.com/obesity/reduce-abdominal-fat.htm |archive-date=28 September 2011 |url-status=dead }}{{cite web|author=Peeke, Pamela M. |url=http://www.healthywomen.org/columns/drpeekescolumn/dbcolumn/waistlineworriesturningapplesbackintopears |title=Waistline Worries: Turning Apples Back into Pears |publisher=National Women's Health Resource Center |date=15 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808220801/http://www.healthywomen.org/columns/drpeekescolumn/dbcolumn/waistlineworriesturningapplesbackintopears |archive-date=8 August 2007 }} but generally not around her waist, which will remain about the same size as it was before puberty. These factors result in women's waist–hip ratio (WHR) being lower than for males, although males tend to have a greater upper-body to waist–hip ratio (WHR) giving them a V shape look because of their greater muscle mass (e.g., they generally have much larger, more muscular and broader shoulders, pectoral muscles, teres major muscles and latissimus dorsi muscles).

During and after pregnancy, a woman experiences body shape changes. After menopause, with the reduced production of estrogen by the ovaries, there is a tendency for fat to redistribute from a female's buttocks, hips and thighs to her waist or abdomen.

The breasts of girls and women in early stages of development commonly are "high" and rounded, dome- or cone-shaped, and protrude almost horizontally from a female's chest wall. Over time, the sag on breasts tends to increase due to their natural weight, the relaxation of support structures, and aging.

Body shapes are often categorised in the fashion industry into one of four elementary geometric shapes,{{cite web |author=McCormack, Helen |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/the-shape-of-things-to-wear-scientists-identify-how-womens-figures-have-changed-in-50-years-516259.html |title=The shape of things to wear: scientists identify how women's figures have changed in 50 years |work=The Independent |location=UK |date=21 November 2005}}
How female body shapes have changed over time. though there are very wide ranges of actual sizes within each shape:

Rectangular

: The waist is less than {{convert|9|in|cm}} smaller than the hips and bust. Body fat is distributed predominantly in the abdomen, buttocks, chest, and face. This overall fat distribution creates the typical ruler (straight) shape.

Inverted triangle

: The shoulders are broader than the hips. The legs and thighs tend to be slim, while the chest looks larger compared with the rest of the body. Fat is mainly distributed in the chest and face.

Spoon

: The hips are wider than the bust. The distribution of fat varies, with fat tending to deposit first in the buttocks, hips, and thighs. As body fat percentage increases, an increasing proportion of body fat is distributed around the waist and upper abdomen. The women of this body type tend to have a relatively larger rear, thicker thighs, and a small(er) bosom. Also known as a "pear" shape.

Hourglass

:{{main|Hourglass figure}}

:The hips and bust are almost of equal size, and the waist is narrower than both. Body fat distribution tends to be around both the upper body and lower body.

A study of the shapes of over 6,000 women, carried out by researchers at the North Carolina State University circa 2005,{{cite web|last1=Istook |first1=C |last2=Simmons |first2=K |last3=Devarajan |first3=P |title=Female Figure Identification Technique (FFIT) for Apparel |url=http://www.iffti.com/downloads/past_conferences/HKPU,%202002/A/147-173.pdf |publisher=International Foundation of Fashion Technology institutes |access-date=2014-11-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141112020558/http://www.iffti.com/downloads/past_conferences/HKPU%2C%202002/A/147-173.pdf |archive-date=12 November 2014}} for apparel, found that 46% were rectangular, just over 20% spoon, just under 14% inverted triangle, and 8% hourglass. Another study has found "that the average woman's waistline had expanded by six inches since the 1950s" and that women in 2004 were taller and had bigger busts and hips than those of the 1950s. Note however that a 2021 study found that slight changes in measurement placement definition can recategorise up to 40% of women into different body shapes, meaning cross-research comparisons may be flawed unless the exact measurement definitions are used.{{Cite journal|last1=Parker|first1=Christopher J.|last2=Hayes|first2=Steven George|last3=Brownbridge|first3=Kathryn|last4=Gill|first4=Simeon|date=2021-04-12|title=Assessing the female figure identification technique's reliability as a body shape classification system|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00140139.2021.1902572|journal=Ergonomics|volume=64|issue=8|language=en|pages=1035–1051|doi=10.1080/00140139.2021.1902572|pmid=33719914|s2cid=232231822|issn=0014-0139}}{{Cite web|title=Why you might not be the body shape you think|url=https://medicalxpress.com/news/2021-05-body.html|access-date=2021-05-18|website=medicalxpress.com|language=en}}

Several similar classifications of women's body shape exist. These include:{{cite web|last1=Sidberry|first1=Phillip Anthony|title=Effects of Body Shape on Body Cathexis and Dress Shape Preferences of Female Consumers: A Balancing Perspective|url=http://etd.auburn.edu/bitstream/handle/10415/2612/Phillip_Sidberry_Thesis_Corrected.pdf?sequence=4|website=auburn.edu|publisher=Auburn University|access-date=2014-11-11}}

• Sheldon: "Somatotype: {Plumper: Endomorph, Muscular: Mesomorph, Slender: Ectomorph}", 1940s
• Douty's "Body Build Scale: {1,2,3,4,5}", 1968
• Bonnie August's "Body I.D. Scale: {A,X,H,V,W,Y,T,O,b,d,i,r}", 1981
• Simmons, Istook, & Devarajan "Female Figure Identification Technique (FFIT): {Hourglass, Bottom Hourglass, Top Hourglass, Spoon, Rectangle, Diamond, Oval, Triangle, Inverted Triangle}", 2002
• Connell's "Body Shape Assessment Scale: {Hourglass, Pear, Rectangle, Inverted Triangle}", 2006
• Rasband: {Ideal, Triangular, Inverted Triangular, Rectangular, Hourglass, Diamond, Tubular, Rounded}, 2006
• Lee JY, Istook CL, Nam YJ, "Comparison of body shape between USA and Korean women: {Hourglass, Bottom Hourglass, Top Hourglass, Spoon, Triangle, Inverted Triangle, Rectangle}", 2007.

The "Female Figure Identification Technique for Apparel" uses the following formula to identify an individual's body type:{{cite journal |last1=Yim Lee |first1=Jeong |last2=Istook |first2=Cynthia L. |last3=Ja Nam |first3=Yun |last4=Mi Park |first4=Sun |title=Comparison of body shape between USA and Korean women |journal=International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology |date=1 January 2007 |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=374–391 |doi=10.1108/09556220710819555 |url=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/09556220710819555/full/html |issn=0955-6222|url-access=subscription }}

; Hourglass: If (bust − hips) ≤ {{convert|1|in|abbr=on}} AND (hips − bust) < {{convert|3.6|in|abbr=on}} AND ((bust − waist) ≥ {{convert|9|in|abbr=on}} OR (hips − waist) ≥ {{convert|10|in|abbr=on}} )

; Bottom hourglass: If (hips − bust) ≥ {{convert|3.6|in|abbr=on}} AND (hips − bust) < {{convert|10|in|abbr=on}} AND (hips − waist) ≥ {{convert|9|in|abbr=on}} AND (high hip/waist) < 1.193

; Top hourglass: If (bust − hips) > {{convert|1|in|abbr=on}} AND (bust − hips) < {{convert|10|in|abbr=on}} AND (bust − waist) ≥ {{convert|9|in|abbr=on}}

; Spoon: If (hips − bust) > {{convert|2|in|abbr=on}} AND (hips − waist) ≥ {{convert|7|in|abbr=on}} AND (high hip/waist) ≥ 1.193

; Triangle: If (hips − bust) ≥ {{convert|3.6|in|abbr=on}} AND (hips − waist) < {{convert|9|in|abbr=on}}

; Inverted triangle: If (bust − hips) ≥ {{convert|3.6|in|abbr=on}} AND (bust − waist) < {{convert|9|in|abbr=on}}

; Rectangle: If (hips − bust) < {{convert|3.6|in|abbr=on}} AND (bust − hips) < {{convert|3.6|in|abbr=on}} AND (bust − waist) < {{convert|9|in|abbr=on}} AND (hips − waist) < {{convert|10|in|abbr=on}}

Some clothing size standards define categories.{{cite journal |last1=Chun |first1=J. |title=10 - International apparel sizing systems and standardization of apparel sizes |journal=Anthropometry, Apparel Sizing and Design |series=Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles |date=1 January 2014 |pages=274–304 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780857096814500104 |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |doi=10.1533/9780857096890.2.274 |isbn=9780857096814 |language=en|url-access=subscription }}

The Chinese clothing size standards give codes to clothing designed for different ratios between chest and waist. They adapt for a linear scale between inverted triangle/hourglass and rectangular.

The Japanese and South Korean clothing size standards give codes to women's clothing designed for different ratios between hips and chest. The German standards similarly use hip and bust measures. They all adapt for a linear scale between rectangular and spoon shapes.

The German sizing system also has height categories for short, regular and tall women, which combine with the shape categories to produce 9 categories.

{{See also|Bust/waist/hip measurements |Body proportions |Anthropometry}}

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The circumferences of bust, waist, and hips (BWH) and the ratios between them are a widespread method of identifying different female body shapes. As noted above, descriptive terms used include "rectangle", "spoon", "inverted triangle", and "hourglass".

The waist is typically smaller than the bust and hips, unless there is a high proportion of body fat distributed around it. How much the bust or hips inflect inward, towards the waist, determines a woman's structural shape. The hourglass shape is present in only about 8% of women.

A woman's dimensions are often expressed by the circumference around the three inflection points. For example, "36–29–38" in US customary units would mean a {{convert|36|in|cm|abbr=on}} bust, {{convert|29|in|cm|abbr=on}} waist and {{convert|38|in|cm|abbr=on}} hips.

Height will also affect the appearance of the figure. A woman who is 36–24–36 (91–61–91 cm) at {{convert|5|ft|2|in|m|abbr=on|2}} height will look different from a woman who is 36–24–36 at {{convert|5|ft|8|in|m|abbr=on|2}} height. If both are the same weight, the taller woman has a much lower body mass index; if they have the same BMI, the weight is distributed around a greater volume.

A woman's bust measure is a combination of her rib cage and breast size. For convenience, a woman's bra measurements are often used as a proxy. Conventionally, measurement for the band of a bra is taken around the torso immediately below the breasts, with the tape measure parallel to the floor.{{cite web|title=Find Your Bra Size|url=http://www.barenecessities.com/fit_sizing.aspx|work=Bare Necessities|access-date=12 March 2011}}{{cite web|title=How to Measure Bra Size |url=http://www.womenshealthmag.com/beauty-and-style/bra-size |work=Women's Health Magazine (online) |access-date=12 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110225011832/http://www.womenshealthmag.com/beauty-and-style/bra-size |archive-date=25 February 2011}} Bra cup size is determined by measuring across the crest of the breasts and calculating the difference between that measurement and the band measurement.{{cite AV media |title=How to Measure for Bra |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5_h5-Ov5fm8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130224173429/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5_h5-Ov5fm8 |archive-date=2013-02-24 |url-status=dead|publisher=HerRoom.com |author=Edmark, Tomima |access-date=23 January 2011}} The waist is measured at the midpoint between the bottom of the rib cage and the top of the 'front' hip bones. The hips are measured at the largest circumference of the hips and buttocks.{{cite web |url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2011/9789241501491_eng.pdf |title=Waist Circumference and Waist–Hip Ratio, Report of a WHO Expert Consultation |date=8–11 December 2008 | publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=21 March 2012}}

{{see also|Size 0}}

The British Fashion Model Agents Association (BFMA) says that female models should be at least {{convert|5|ft|8|in|m|abbr=on|2}} tall and proportionately around 34–24–34" (86–61–86 cm).{{cite web |title= Do I have what it takes to be a model? |publisher= British Fashion Model Agents Association |url=https://bfma.fashion/what-it-takes/}} Laws "aimed at preventing anorexia by stopping the promotion of inaccessible ideals of beauty" have been introduced in a number of European countries, to regulate the minimum actual or apparent BMI of fashion models. "Under World Health Organisation guidelines an adult with a BMI below 18.5 is considered underweight, 18 malnourished, and 17 severely malnourished. The average model measuring 1.75m (5ft 9in) and weighing 50kg (7st 12lb) [110lb] has a BMI of 16".{{cite news |title=Fashion models in France need doctor's note before taking to catwalk | first=Damien |last=Gayle |date= 6 May 2017 |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2017/may/06/fashion-models-france-doctors-note-thin-health-photographs |access-date=18 January 2022}}

{{see also|Feminine beauty ideal}}

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| caption2 = Adam and Eve from the Vienna Diptych by Hugo van der Goes. Eve's protruding abdomen is typical of nudes in the 15th century.

}}

According to Camille Paglia, the ideal body type as envisioned by members of society has changed throughout history. She states that Stone Age Venus figurines show the earliest body type preference, dramatic steatopygia; and that the emphasis on protruding belly, breasts, and buttocks is likely a result of both the aesthetic of being well fed and aesthetic of being fertile, traits that were more difficult to achieve at the time. In sculptures from Classical Greece and Ancient Rome the female bodies are more tubular and regularly proportioned.{{cite journal|last=Paglia|first=Camille|title=The Cruel Mirror|journal=Art Documentation|volume=23|pages=4–7}}{{rp|5}} There is essentially no emphasis given to any particular body part, not the breasts, buttocks, or belly.

Moving forward there is more evidence that fashion somewhat dictated what people believed were the proper female body proportions. This is the case because the body is primarily seen through clothing, which always changes the way the underlying structures are conceived.{{rp|xii-xiii}} The first representations of truly fashionable women appear in the 14th century.{{rp|90}} Between the 14th and 16th centuries in northern Europe, bulging bellies were again desirable, however the stature of the rest of the figure was generally thin. This is most easily visible in paintings of nudes from the time. When looking at clothed images, the belly is often visible through a mass of otherwise concealing, billowing, loose robes. Since the stomach was the only visible anatomical feature, it became exaggerated in nude depictions while the rest of the body remained minimal.{{cite book|last=Hollander|first=Anne|title=Seeing Through Clothes|date=1993|publisher=University of California Press|location=California|pages=83–156}}{{rp|96–100, 106}} In southern Europe, around the time of the renaissance, this was also true. Though the classical aesthetic was being revived and very closely studied, the art produced in the time period was influenced by both factors. This resulted in a beauty standard that reconciled the two aesthetics by using classically proportioned figures who had non-classical amounts of flesh and soft, padded skin.{{rp|96–98,104}}

In the nude paintings of the 17th century, such as those by Rubens, the naked women appear quite plump. Upon closer inspection however, most of the women have fairly normal statures, Rubens has simply painted their flesh with rolls and ripples that otherwise would not be there. This may be a reflection of the female style of the day: a long, cylindrical, gown with rippling satin accents, tailored over a figure in stays. Thus Rubens' women have a tubular body with rippling embellishments.{{rp|106, 316}} While stays continued to be fashionable into the 18th century, they were shortened, became more conical, and consequently began to emphasize the waist. It also lifted and separated the breasts as opposed to the 17th century corsets which compressed and minimized the breasts. Consequently, depictions of nude women in the 18th century tend to have a very narrow waist and high, distinct breasts, almost as if they were wearing an invisible corset.{{rp|91, 112–116}} La maja desnuda is a clear example of this aesthetic. The 19th century maintained the general figure of the 18th century. Examples can be seen in the works of many contemporary artists, both academic artists, such as Cabanel, Ingres, and Bouguereau, and Impressionists, such as Degas, Renoir, and Toulouse-Lautrec. As the 20th century began, the rise of athletics resulted in a drastic slimming of the female figure. This culminated in the 1920s flapper look, which has informed modern fashion ever since.{{rp|4}}{{rp|152}}

The last 100 years envelop the time period in which that overall body type has been seen as attractive, though there have been small changes within the period as well. The 1920s was the time in which the overall silhouette of the ideal body slimmed down. There was dramatic flattening of the entire body resulting in a more youthful aesthetic.{{rp|150–153}} As the century progressed, the ideal size of both the breasts and buttocks increased. From the 1950s to 1960 that trend continued with the interesting twist of cone shaped breasts as a result of the popularity of the bullet bra. In the 1960s, the invention of the miniskirt as well as the increased acceptability of pants for women, prompted the idealization of the long leg that has lasted to this day.{{rp|93–95}} Following the invention of the push-up bra in the 1970s the ideal breast has been a rounded, fuller, and larger breast. In the past 20 years the average American bra size has increased from 34B to 34DD,{{cite news|last=Dicker|first=Ron|title=American Bra Size Average Increases From 34B to 34DD in Just 20 Years, Survey Says|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/07/24/bra-size-survey_n_3645267.html|access-date=14 April 2014|newspaper=HuffPost|date=2013-07-24}} although this may be due to the increase in obesity within the United States in recent years. Additionally, the ideal figure has favored an ever-lower waist–hip ratio, especially with the advent and progression of digital editing software such as Adobe Photoshop.{{rp|4, 6–7}}

Image:Rubens Venus at a Mirror c1615.jpg at a Mirror, Rubens, c. 1615]]

Each society develops a general perception of what an ideal female body shape would be like. These ideals are generally reflected in the art and literature produced by or for a society, as well as in popular media such as films and magazines. The ideal or preferred female body size and shape has varied over time and continues to vary among cultures;{{cite web |publisher=physorg.com |url=http://www.physorg.com/news112367616.html |title=Ideal weight varies across cultures, but body image dissatisfaction pervades |date=23 October 2007}}Rob Kemp. [http://www.vulture.com/2013/12/sir-mix-a-lot-baby-got-back-video-oral-history.html "Sir Mix-a-Lot 'Baby Got Back' Video Oral History – Vulture"]. Vulture. but a preference for a small waist has remained fairly constant throughout history.{{cite web| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/6247625.stm |title=Slim waist holds sway in history |work=BBC News |date=10 January 2007}} A low waist–hip ratio has often been seen as a sign of good health and reproductive potential.{{cite web |last=Khamsi |first=Roxanne |title=The hourglass figure is truly timeless |publisher=NewScientist.com news service |date=10 January 2007 |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn10927}}

A low waist–hip ratio has also often been regarded as an indicator of attractiveness of a woman, but recent research suggests that attractiveness is more correlated to body mass index than waist–hip ratio, contrary to previous belief.{{cite journal|author1=Tovee M.J. |author2=Maisey D.S. |author3=Emery J.L. |author4= Cornelissen P.L. |title=Visual cues to female physical attractiveness |journal=Proc Biol Sci |date=22 January 1999 |volume=266 |pages=211–18 |pmid=10097394|issue=1415|doi=10.1098/rspb.1999.0624|pmc=1689653}}{{cite journal|title=The relative contributions of waist-to-hip ratio and body mass index to judgments of attractiveness – Sexualities, Evolution & Gender |journal=Sexualities, Evolution & Gender |volume=7|date=3 December 2005 |pages=245–67| doi= 10.1080/14616660500238769 |issue=3|last1=Wilson |first1=Jan M. B. |last2=Tripp |first2=Dean A. |last3=Boland |first3=Fred J. }} According to Dr. Devendra Singh of the University of Texas, who studied the representations of women, historically found there was a trend for slightly overweight women in the 17th and 18th centuries, as typified by the paintings of Rubens, but that in general there has been a preference for a slimmer waist in Western culture. He notes that "The finding that the writers describe a small waist as beautiful suggests instead that this body part—a known marker of health and fertility—is a core feature of feminine beauty that transcends ethnic differences and cultures."

New research suggests that apple-shaped women have the highest risk of developing heart disease, while hourglass-shaped women have the lowest.{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4606011.stm |title=Curvier women 'will live longer |publisher=BCC News |date= 3 June 2005}} Diabetes professionals advise that a waist measurement for a woman of over {{convert|80|cm|in|abbr=on}} increases the risk of heart disease, but that ethnic background also plays a factor.{{cite book |title=Type 2 Diabetes – Your Questions Answered |author1=Walker, Rosemary |author2=Rodgers, Jill |isbn=978-1-74033-550-8 |page=66|year=2006 |publisher=Dorling Kindersley Australasia }}

{{Main|Waist–hip ratio}}

File:A young Sophia Loren, aged 15, at a beauty contest in Naples, Italy.jpg

Compared to males, females generally have relatively narrow waists and large buttocks,"Big butts are back"[http://www.buttsbymendieta.com/Cosmo_aug_2006.htm article] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110916062931/http://www.buttsbymendieta.com/Cosmo_aug_2006.htm |date=16 September 2011 }} Cosmopolitan and this along with wide hips make for a wider hip section and a lower waist–hip ratio.[https://web.archive.org/web/20120114055926/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-01-03/fitness/28370522_1_fat-cells-high-fat-diet-fat-tissue "Why men store fat in bellies, women on hips"]. The Times of India. Research shows that a waist–hip ratio (WHR) for a female very strongly correlates to the perception of attractiveness.{{cite book |last=Buss |first=David |title=The Evolution of Desire|url=https://archive.org/details/evolutionofdesir00buss |url-access=registration |orig-year=1994|type=hardcover |edition=second |year=2003|publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/evolutionofdesir00buss/page/55 55], 56 |isbn=978-0-465-07750-2}} Women with a 0.7 WHR (waist circumference that is 70% of the hip circumference) are rated more attractive by men in various cultures. Such diverse beauty icons as Marilyn Monroe, Sophia Loren and the Venus de Milo have ratios around 0.7;{{cite web |url=http://www.focused-on-fitness.com/health/bmi-waist-hip-ratio.php |title=BMI and Waist–hip Ratio: The Magic Number for Health and Beauty |url-status=dead |author=Million Dollar Body Club |website=Focused on Fitness |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071212053103/http://www.focused-on-fitness.com/health/bmi-waist-hip-ratio.php |archive-date=12 December 2007}} this is a typical ratio in Western art.{{cite journal | first1=Jeanne |last1=Bovet |first2=Michel |last2=Raymond | title=Preferred Women's Waist-to-Hip Ratio Variation over the Last 2,500 Years | journal=PLOS ONE |date=17 April 2015 |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=e0123284 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0123284| pmid= 25886537|pmc=4401783 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1023284B |doi-access=free }} cited in {{cite news| url= https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/28/arts/international/gleaning-new-perspectives-by-measuring-body-proportions-in-art.html | title= Gleaning New Perspectives by Measuring Body Proportions in Art | work = The New York Times | author = Stephen Heyman | date = May 27, 2015 | access-date= 10 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211101074022/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/28/arts/international/gleaning-new-perspectives-by-measuring-body-proportions-in-art.html |archive-date=1 November 2021}} In other cultures, preferences vary,{{cite journal|journal=J Cosmet Dermatol|date=June 2006|volume=5|issue=2|pages=190–94|title=The shape of beauty: determinants of female physical attractiveness|last=Fisher|first=M.L. |author2=Voracek M.|s2cid=25660426|pmid=17173598|doi=10.1111/j.1473-2165.2006.00249.x}} ranging from 0.6 in China,{{cite journal|journal=Am J Hum Biol|date=January 2007 |volume=19|issue=1|pages=88–95|pmid=17160976|title=Studies of human physique and sexual attractiveness: sexual preferences of men and women in China|last=Dixson |first=B.J.|author2=Dixson A.F. |author3=Li B. |author4=Anderson M.J. |doi=10.1002/ajhb.20584|s2cid=8868828 |doi-access=free}} to 0.8 or 0.9 in parts of South America and Africa,{{cite journal|journal=Personality and Individual Differences |last=Marlowe |first=F. |author2=Wetsman, A. |year=2001 |title=Preferred waist-to-hip ratio and ecology |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=481–89 |access-date=4 August 2007 |url=http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hbe-lab/acrobatfiles/preferred%20waist.pdf |doi=10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00039-8 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140630103616/http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hbe-lab/acrobatfiles/preferred%20waist.pdf |archive-date=30 June 2014 |citeseerx=10.1.1.489.4169 }}{{cite journal|journal=Evolution and Human Behavior |last1=Marlowe |first1=F.W. |last2=Apicella |first2=C.L. |last3=Reed |first3=D. |year=2005 |title=Men's Preferences for Women's Profile Waist–Hip-Ratio in Two Societies |volume=26 |pages=458–68 |access-date=4 August 2007 |url=http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hbe-lab/acrobatfiles/profilewhr.pdf |doi=10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2005.07.005 |issue=6 |bibcode=2005EHumB..26..458M |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140601070431/http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hbe-lab/acrobatfiles/profilewhr.pdf |archive-date=1 June 2014 }}{{cite journal|journal=Arch Sex Behav|date=June 2007|volume=36|issue=3|pages=369–75|title=Human physique and sexual attractiveness: sexual preferences of men and women in Bakossiland, Cameroon| last=Dixson |first=B.J.|author2=Dixson A.F. |author3=Morgan B. |author4=Anderson M.J. |pmid=17136587|doi=10.1007/s10508-006-9093-8|s2cid=40115821}} and divergent preferences based on ethnicity, rather than nationality, have also been noted.{{cite journal|journal=Eat Behav|date=August 2007|volume=8|issue=3|pages=319–33|title=Do men hold African-American and Caucasian women to different standards of beauty?| last=Freedman|first=R.E.|author2=Carter M.M. |author3=Sbrocco T. |author4=Gray JJ. |pmid=17606230|doi=10.1016/j.eatbeh.2006.11.008| pmc=3033406}}{{cite journal|journal=Eat Behav.|date=July 2004|volume=5|issue=3|pages=191–98|title=Ethnic differences in preferences for female weight and waist-to-hip ratio: a comparison of African-American and White American college and community samples|last=Freedman|first=R.E. |author2=Carter M.M. |author3=Sbrocco T. |author4=Gray J.J. |pmid=15135331|doi=10.1016/j.eatbeh.2004.01.002|url=https://figshare.com/articles/thesis/Ethnic_differences_in_preferences_for_female_weight_and_waist-to-hip_ratio_A_comparison_of_African_American_and_White_American_college_and_community_samples/23879001 }}

Anthropologists and behaviorists have discovered evidence that the WHR is a significant measure for female attractiveness.{{cite journal |author=Singh D |date=August 1993 |title=Adaptive significance of female physical attractiveness: role of waist-to-hip ratio |journal=J Pers Soc Psychol |volume=65 |issue=2 |pages=293–307 |citeseerx=10.1.1.492.9539 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.65.2.293 |pmid=8366421}}{{cite journal |last=Singh |first=Devendra |author2=Young, Robert K. |date=2001-06-27 |title=Body Weight, Waist-to-Hip Ratio, Breasts, and Hips: Role in Judgments of Female Attractiveness and Desirability for Relationships |url=http://web.missouri.edu/~rouderj/3010/readings/Singh.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Ethology and Sociobiology |volume=16 |issue=6 |pages=483–507 |doi=10.1016/0162-3095(95)00074-7 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111107191849/http://web.missouri.edu/~rouderj/3010/readings/Singh.pdf |archive-date=2011-11-07}}

Many studies indicate that WHR correlates with female fertility, leading some to speculate that its use as a sexual selection cue by men has an evolutionary basis.{{cite book |last=Buss |first=David |title=The Evolution of Desire|url=https://archive.org/details/evolutionofdesir00buss |url-access=registration |orig-year=1994|type=hardcover |edition=second |year=2003|publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/evolutionofdesir00buss/page/56 56] |isbn=978-0-465-07750-2}} However it is also suggested that the evident relationships between WHR-influencing hormones and survival-relevant traits such as competitiveness and stress tolerance may give a preference for higher waist–hip ratios its own evolutionary benefit. That, in turn, may account for the cross-cultural variation observed in actual average waist–hip ratios and culturally preferred waist-to-hip ratios for women.{{cite journal|journal= Current Anthropology|date=Dec 2008|volume=49|issue=6|pages=1099–1107|title=Waist-to-Hip Ratios Across Cultures: Trade-Offs Between Androgen- and Estrogen-Dependent Traits|last=Cashdan|first=Elizabeth|jstor=10.1086/593036|doi=10.1086/593036|s2cid=146460260}}

WHR has been found to be a more efficient predictor of mortality in older people than waist circumference or body mass index (BMI).{{cite journal|url=http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/medicalnews.php?newsid=49218 |title=Waist–hip Ratio Should Replace Body Mass Index As Indicator of Mortality Risk in Older People |journal=American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |date=12 August 2006}}

{{main|Waist-height ratio}}

A person's "waist-height ratio" (WHtR), is defined as their waist circumference divided by their height, both measured in the same units. It is used as a predictor of obesity-related cardiovascular disease. The WHtR is a measure of the distribution of body fat. Higher values of WHtR indicate higher risk of obesity-related cardiovascular diseases; it is correlated with abdominal obesity.{{cite journal | vauthors = Lee CM, Huxley RR, Wildman RP, Woodward M | title = Indices of abdominal obesity are better discriminators of cardiovascular risk factors than BMI: a meta-analysis | journal = Journal of Clinical Epidemiology | volume = 61 | issue = 7 | pages = 646–653 | date = July 2008 | pmid = 18359190 | doi = 10.1016/j.jclinepi.2007.08.012 | doi-access = free }} In September 2022, the UK's National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (a government body) announced new guidelines which suggested that all adults "ensure their waist size is less than half their height in order to help stave off serious health problems".{{cite news |title=Ensure waist size is less than half your height, health watchdog says |work=The Guardian | url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2022/apr/08/ensure-waist-size-is-less-than-half-your-height-health-watchdog-says | date=8 April 2022 | access-date=8 April 2022 | last = Gregory |first=Anderew }}{{cite web |title= Obesity: identification, assessment and management {{!}} Clinical guideline [CG189] | date=8 September 2022 |publisher=National Institute for Health and Care Excellence | url=https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg189 }} Recommendations 1.2.11 and 1.2.12 This guideline is independent of gender.

Over the past several hundred years, there has been a shift towards viewing the body as part of one's identity – not in a purely physical way, but as a means of deeper self-expression. David Gauntlett, in his 2008 book, recognizes the importance of malleability in physical identity, stating, "the body is the outer expression of our self, to be improved and worked upon".Gauntlett, p. 113 One of the more key factors in creating the desire for a particular body shape – most notably for females – is the media, which has promoted a number of so-called "ideal" body shapes.{{cite book|last=Holland|first=Samantha|title=Alternative femininities: body, age and identity|url=https://archive.org/details/alternativefemin0000holl|url-access=registration|year=2004|publisher=Berg Publishers, Ltd.|location=New York City}} Fashionable figures are often unrealistic and unattainable for much of the population, and their popularity tends to be short-lived due to their arbitrary nature.{{Cite journal |last=Ngo |first=Nealie Tan |date=2019-10-01 |title=What Historical Ideals of Women's Shapes Teach Us About Women's Self-Perception and Body Decisions Today |url=https://journalofethics.ama-assn.org/article/what-historical-ideals-womens-shapes-teach-us-about-womens-self-perception-and-body-decisions-today/2019-10 |journal=AMA Journal of Ethics |language=en |volume=21 |issue=10 |pages=879–901 |doi=10.1001/amajethics.2019.879 |issn=2376-6980|doi-access=free |pmid=31651388 }}{{Cite web |author-link=Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health |date=2022-10-07 |title=Unrealistic beauty standards cost U.S. economy billions each year |url=https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/hsph-in-the-news/unrealistic-beauty-standards-cost-u-s-economy-billions-each-year/ |access-date=2024-03-10 |website=News |language=en-us}}

File:Marilyn Monroe postcard.JPG

During the 1950s, the fashion model and celebrity were two separate entities, allowing the body image of the time to be shaped more by television and film rather than high fashion advertisements. While the fashion model of the 1950s, such as Jean Patchett and Dovima, were very thin, the ideal image of beauty was still a larger one. As the fashion houses in the early 1950s still catered to a specific, elite clientele, the image of the fashion model at that time was not as sought after or looked up to as was the image of the celebrity. While the models that graced the covers of Vogue Magazine and Harper's Bazaar in the 1950s were in line with the thin ideal of the day, the most prominent female icon was Marilyn Monroe. Monroe, who was more curvaceous, fell on the opposite end of the feminine ideal spectrum in comparison to high fashion models. Regardless of their sizes, however, both fashion of the time and depictions of Monroe emphasize a smaller waist and fuller bottom half. The late 1950s, however, brought about the rise of ready-to-wear fashion, which implemented a standardized sizing system for all mass-produced clothing. While fashion houses, such as Dior and Chanel, remained true to their couture, tailor-made garments, the rise of these rapidly-produced, standardized garments led to a shift in location from Europe to America as the epicenter of fashion. Along with that shift came the standardization of sizes, in which garments were not made to fit the body anymore, but instead the body must be altered to fit the garment.{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1002/eat.20039| pmid = 15478132| title = No longer just a pretty face: Fashion magazines' depictions of ideal female beauty from 1959 to 1999| journal = International Journal of Eating Disorders| volume = 36| issue = 3| pages = 342–7| year = 2004| last1 = Sypeck | first1 = M. F. | last2 = Gray | first2 = J. J. | last3 = Ahrens | first3 = A. H. }}

During the 1960s, the popularity of the model Twiggy meant that women favoured a thinner body, with long, slender limbs.MacDonald This was a drastic change from the former decade's ideal, which saw curvier icons, such as Marilyn Monroe, to be considered the epitome of beautiful. These shifts in what was seen to be the "fashionable body" at the time followed no logical pattern, and the changes occurred so quickly that one shape was never in vogue for more than a decade. As is the case with fashion itself in the post-modern world, the premise of the ever-evolving "ideal" shape relies on the fact that it will soon become obsolete, and thus must continue changing to prevent itself from becoming uninteresting.{{cite book|last=Miles|first=Steven|title=Consumerism as a Way of Life|year=1998|publisher=SAGE Publications Ltd.|location=London}}

An early example of the body used as an identity marker occurred in the Victorian era, when women wore corsets to help themselves attain the body they wished to possess.{{cite book|last=Bovey|first=Shelley|title=The Forbidden Body|url=https://archive.org/details/forbiddenbodywhy0000bove|url-access=registration|year=1994|publisher=Pandora Press|location=Glasgow|isbn=9780044408710}} Having a tiny waist was a sign of social status, as the wealthier women could afford to dress more extravagantly and sport items such as corsets to increase their physical attractiveness.{{cite news|last=Barford|first=Vanessa|title=The re-re-re-rise of the corset|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-18409752|publisher=BBC|access-date=3 November 2012|work=BBC News|date=2012-06-19}} By the 1920s, the cultural ideal had changed significantly as a result of the suffrage movement, and "the fashion was for cropped hair, flat (bound) breasts and a slim androgynous shape".{{cite book|last=Bovey|first=Shelley|title=The Forbidden Body|url=https://archive.org/details/forbiddenbodywhy0000bove|url-access=registration|year=1994|publisher=Pandora Press|location=Glasgow|pages=[https://archive.org/details/forbiddenbodywhy0000bove/page/176 176]|isbn=9780044408710}}

More recently, magazines and other popular media have been criticized for promoting an unrealistic trend of thinness. David Gauntlett states that the media's "repetitive celebration of a beauty 'ideal' which most women will not be able to match … will eat up readers' time and money—and perhaps good health—if they try".Gauntlett, p. 200 Additionally, the impact that this has on women and their self-esteem is often a very negative one,Gauntlett, p. 201 and resulted in the diet industry taking off in the 1960s – something that would not have occurred "had bodily appearance not been so closely associated with identity for women".MacDonald, p. 201 Melissa Oldman states, "Nowhere is the thin female ideal more evident than in popular media."{{cite web |last= Oldham |first= Melissa |title= How the media shapes our cultural ideals of body shape|year=2017 |publisher= Culture Matters |url= http://culturematters.org.uk/index.php/culture/tv/item/2524-how-the-media-shapes-our-cultural-ideals-of-body-shape}}

The importance of "the body as a work zone", as Myra MacDonald asserts, further perpetuates the link between fashion and identity, with the body being used as a means of creating a visible and unavoidable image for oneself.MacDonald, p. 202 The tools with which to create the final copy of such a project range from the extreme—plastic surgery—to the more tame, such as diet and exercise.Gauntlett

{{See also|Body image}}

A study at Brigham Young University using MRI technology suggested that women experience more anxiety about weight gain than do men,{{cite web |url=http://news.byu.edu/archive10-apr-bodyimage.aspx |title=Fear of getting fat seen in healthy women's brain scans |date=13 April 2010 |access-date=17 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513215424/http://news.byu.edu/archive10-apr-bodyimage.aspx |archive-date=13 May 2013 |url-status=dead }} while aggregated research has been used to claim that images of thin women in popular media may induce psychological stress.{{cite news|title=Skinny celebs a health hazard|url=http://www.smh.com.au/lifestyle/wellbeing/skinny-celebs-a-health-hazard-20101020-16t6h.html |work=The Sydney Morning Herald|date=20 October 2010 |access-date=20 October 2010}} A study of 52 older adults found that females may think more about their body shape and endorse thinner figures than men even into old age.{{cite journal |date=October 2008|title=Aging, Body Image, and Body Shape |journal=Journal of General Psychology|volume= 135|issue= 4|pages=379–392, 14p |pmid=18959228|doi=10.3200/GENP.135.4.379-392|last1=Ferraro |first1=F. Richard |last2=Muehlenkamp |first2=Jennifer J |last3=Paintner |first3=Ashley |last4=Wasson |first4=Kayla |last5=Hager |first5=Tracy |last6=Hoverson |first6=Fallon|s2cid=37023505 }}

Various strategies, including exercise, are sometimes employed in an attempt to temporarily or permanently alter the shape of a body. Dieting is also sometimes used, but is generally not effective in the long term.{{cite journal | vauthors = Mann T, Tomiyama AJ, Westling E, Lew AM, Samuels B, Chatman J | title = Medicare's search for effective obesity treatments: diets are not the answer | journal = The American Psychologist | volume = 62 | issue = 3 | pages = 220–233 | date = April 2007 | pmid = 17469900 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066x.62.3.220 | quote = In sum, there is little support for the notion that diets ["severely restricting one's calorie intake"] lead to lasting weight loss or health benefits. | citeseerx = 10.1.1.666.7484 }}

At times artificial devices are used or surgery is employed. In 2019, 92% of all cosmetic procedures in the US were undertaken by women, with the most popular being a breast augmentation.{{Cite web|title=Plastic Surgery Statistics|url=https://www.plasticsurgery.org/news/plastic-surgery-statistics|access-date=2021-04-14|website=American Society of Plastic Surgeons|language=en}} Breast size can be artificially increased or decreased. Falsies, breast prostheses or padded bras may be used to increase the apparent size of a woman's breasts, while minimiser bras may be used to reduce the apparent size. Breasts can be surgically enlarged using breast implants or reduced by the systematic removal of parts of the breasts. Hormonal breast enhancement may be another option.{{cite book|author1=Gunther Göretzlehner|author2=Christian Lauritzen|author3=Thomas Römer|author4=Winfried Rossmanith|title=Praktische Hormontherapie in der Gynäkologie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TIs2WhfYzZ4C&pg=PA385|year=2012|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-024568-4|pages=385–}}{{cite book|author1=R.E. Mansel|author2=Oystein Fodstad|author3=Wen G. Jiang|title=Metastasis of Breast Cancer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=14pb5b6gT-oC&pg=PA217|year=2007|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4020-5866-0|pages=217–}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Hartmann BW, Laml T, Kirchengast S, Albrecht AE, Huber JC | title = Hormonal breast augmentation: prognostic relevance of insulin-like growth factor-I | journal = Gynecol. Endocrinol. | volume = 12 | issue = 2 | pages = 123–27 | year = 1998 | pmid = 9610425 | doi = 10.3109/09513599809024960}}

Historically, boned corsets have been used to reduce waist sizes. The corset reached its climax during the Victorian era. In twentieth century these corsets were mostly replaced with more flexible/comfortable foundation garments. Where corsets are used for waist reduction, they may cause temporary reduction through occasional use or permanent reduction through constant and continuous use. Those who use corsets for permanent reduction are often referred to as tightlacers. Liposuction and liposculpture are common surgical methods for reducing the waist line.{{Cite web |title=Liposuction NYC {{!}} Mount Sinai - New York |url=https://www.mountsinai.org/care/surgery/services/plastic-surgery/aesthetic/body-contouring/liposuction |access-date=2024-03-10 |website=Mount Sinai Health System |language=en-US}}{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Yi Xin |last2=Lazzeri |first2=Davide |last3=Grassetti |first3=Luca |last4=Silvestri |first4=Alessandro |last5=Trisliana Perdanasari |first5=Aurelia |last6=Han |first6=Sheng |last7=Torresetti |first7=Matteo |last8=di Benedetto |first8=Giovanni |last9=Castello |first9=Manuel Francisco |date=2015-02-06 |title=Three-dimensional Superficial Liposculpture of the Hips, Flank, and Thighs |journal=Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery Global Open |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=e291 |doi=10.1097/GOX.0000000000000241 |issn=2169-7574 |pmc=4323395 |pmid=25674372}}

Padded control briefs or hip and buttock padding may be used to increase the apparent size of hips and buttocks. Buttock augmentation surgery may be used to increase the size of hips and buttocks to make them look more rounded.{{Cite web |title=Buttock Enhancement Procedures NYC {{!}} Mount Sinai - New York |url=https://www.mountsinai.org/care/surgery/services/plastic-surgery/aesthetic/buttock-enhancement |access-date=2024-03-10 |website=Mount Sinai Health System |language=en-US}}

In a 2012 experiment, researchers Crossley, Cornelissen, and Tovée asked men and women to depict an attractive female body, and the majority of them chose the same ideal.{{cite journal | journal= PLOS ONE |volume=7 |number=11 |date=29 November 2012 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0050601 |title=What Is an Attractive Body? Using an Interactive 3D Program to Create the Ideal Body for You and Your Partner |first1=Kara L. |last1=Crossley |first2=Piers L. |last2=Cornelissen |first3=Martin J. |last3=Tovée|pages=e50601 |pmid=23209791 |pmc=3510069 |bibcode=2012PLoSO...750601C |doi-access=free }} The women who participated in this experiment drew their ideal bodies with enlarged busts and narrowed the rest of their bodies. The male participants also depicted their ideal partner with the same image. The researchers state, "For both sexes, the primary predictor of female beauty is a relatively low BMI combined with a relatively curvaceous body". However, the generality of their conclusions was limited given their small sample size and single ethnicity of participants.

{{div col}}

• {{annotated link|Awoulaba}}
• {{anli|Body proportions}}
• {{anli|Artistic canons of body proportions}}
• {{annotated link|Chinese ideals of female beauty}}
• {{annotated link|Human variability}}
• List of artists focused on the female form
• {{annotated link|Physical attractiveness|Physical attractiveness}}
• {{annotated link|Sex differences in humans}}
• {{annotated link|Somatotype and constitutional psychology}}
• {{annotated link|Steatopygia}}

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{{Reflist|30em}}

• {{cite book|ref=Gauntlett|last=Gauntlett|first=David|title=Media, gender, and identity|url=https://archive.org/details/mediagenderident0000gaun|url-access=registration|year=2008|publisher=Routledge|location=Abingdon, UK|isbn=978-0415189606}}
• {{cite book|ref=MacDonald|last=MacDonald|first=Myra|title=Representing Women: Myths of Femininity in the Popular Media|year=1995|publisher=Edward Arnold|location=London|isbn=9780340632215}}

• [http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15324coll10/id/53033 Art and love in Renaissance Italy], Issued in connection with an exhibition held Nov 2008–Feb 2009, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (see Belle: Picturing Beautiful Women; pp. 246–254)

{{feminism}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Female Body Shape}}

Category:Body shape

Category:Female beauty

Category:Feminism and health

Category:Human body

Category:Physical attractiveness