Fenugreek

Fenugreek is believed to have been brought into cultivation in the Near East. Which wild strain of the genus Trigonella gave rise to domesticated fenugreek is uncertain. Charred fenugreek seeds have been recovered from Tell Halal, Iraq (carbon dated to 4000 BC), Bronze Age levels of Lachish, and desiccated seeds from the tomb of Tutankhamen.{{cite book |first1=Daniel |last1=Zohary |first2=Maria |last2=Hopf |first3=Ehud |last3=Weiss |title=Domestication of Plants in the Old World: The Origin and Spread of Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia, Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin |edition=4th |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012 |page=122 }} Cato the Elder lists fenugreek with clover and vetch as crops grown to feed cattle.{{cite book |title= De Agri Cultura |page=27 |author= Cato the Elder|title-link=De Agri Cultura |author-link=Cato the Elder }}

In one first-century AD recipe, the Romans flavoured wine with fenugreek.{{cite journal |vauthors=Curry A |date=February 2010 |title=A 9,000-Year Love Affair |journal=National Geographic |volume=231 |issue=2 |page=46}} In the 1st century AD, in Galilee, it was grown as a staple food, as Josephus mentions in his book, the Wars of the Jews.Josephus, De Bello Judaico, book 3, chapter 7, vs. 29. The prepared relish made from ground fenugreek seeds is very slimy and slippery, and was therefore poured over ladders as a stratagem to prevent the enemy's ascent. The plant is mentioned in the second-century compendium of Jewish Oral Law (Mishnah) under its Hebrew name tiltan.Commentators Maimonides and Ovadiah di Bertinoro on Mishnah Kil'ayim 2:5; Terumot 10:5; Orlah 3:6; ibid. 10:6; Ma'aserot 1:3, ibid. 4:6; Ma'aser Sheni 2:2–3; Niddah 2:6.

The English name derives via Middle French fenugrec from Latin faenugraecum, faenum Graecum meaning "Greek hay".{{Cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=fenugreek|title=Online Etymology Dictionary|website=www.etymonline.com|language=en|access-date=2017-02-07|archive-date=2016-12-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221005645/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=fenugreek|url-status=live}}

India is a major producer of fenugreek, and over 80% of India's output is from the state of Rajasthan.{{cite book|title=Organic Spices|editor=V. A. Parthasarathy, K. Kandinnan and V. Srinivasan|article=Fenugreek|pages=694|publisher=New India Publishing Agencies}}

File:2017 0102 fenugreek seeds.jpg

Fenugreek is used as a herb (dried or fresh leaves), spice (seeds), and vegetable (fresh leaves, sprouts, and microgreens). Sotolon is the chemical responsible for the distinctive maple-syrup smell of fenugreek.

Cuboid, yellow- to amber-coloured fenugreek seeds are frequently encountered in the cuisines of the Indian subcontinent, used both whole and powdered in the preparation of pickles, vegetable dishes, dal, and spice mixes such as panch phoron and sambar powder. They are often roasted to reduce inherent bitterness and to enhance flavour (Maillard browning).{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/fenugreek|title=BBC - Food - Fenugreek recipes|access-date=2017-02-07|archive-date=2017-01-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118063645/http://www.bbc.co.uk/food/fenugreek|url-status=live}}

{{Cookbook|Fenugreek}}{{refimprove|section|date=July 2018}}

Fresh fenugreek leaves are an ingredient in some curries, such as with potatoes in Indian cuisines to make aloo methi (potato fenugreek) curry.{{Cite book |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK501779/ |title=Fenugreek |date=2021-08-16 |publisher=National Library of Medicine (US) |language=en |pmid=30000838 |access-date=2022-06-07 |archive-date=2022-05-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521191832/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK501779/ |url-status=live }}

In Armenian cuisine, fenugreek seed powder is used to make a paste that is an important ingredient to cover dried and cured beef to make basturma.{{Cite journal |last1=Wani |first1=Sajad Ahmad |last2=Kumar |first2=Pradyuman |date=2018-04-01 |title=Fenugreek: A review on its nutraceutical properties and utilization in various food products |journal=Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences |language=en |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=97–106 |doi=10.1016/j.jssas.2016.01.007 |issn=1658-077X|doi-access=free }}

In Iranian cuisine, fenugreek leaves are called shambalileh. They are one of several greens incorporated into the herb stew ghormeh sabzi, the herb frittata kuku sabzi, and a soup known as eshkeneh.

In Georgian cuisine, a related species—Trigonella caerulea called "blue fenugreek"—is used.{{Cite web |title=Trigonella caerulea Sweet Trefoil, Blue fenugreek PFAF Plant Database |url=https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Trigonella+caerulea |access-date=2022-06-07 |website=pfaf.org |archive-date=2022-06-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220607094652/https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Trigonella+caerulea |url-status=live }}

In Egyptian cuisine, fenugreek is known by the Arabic name hilba or helba حلبة. Seeds are boiled to make a drink that is consumed at home, as well as in coffee shops. Peasants in Upper Egypt add fenugreek seeds and maize to their pita bread to produce aish merahrah, a staple of their diet. Basterma, a cured, dried beef, gets its distinctive flavour from the fenugreek used as a coating.

In the same way in Turkish cuisine, fenugreek seed powder, called çemen, is used to make a paste with paprika powder and garlic to cover dried and cured beef in making pastirma/basturma. (Its name comes from the Turkish verb bastırmak, meaning "to press").

In Palestinian cuisine, fenugreek is used as an ingredient in a cake called fenugreek cake or Hilbeh.{{cite web |last1=El-Haddad |first1=Laila |title=Fenugreek Olive Oil Cake (Saniyit Hulba) |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/recipes/fenugreek-olive-oil-cake-saniyit-hulba/ |website=The Washington Post |access-date=25 March 2025}}

In Moroccan cuisine, fenugreek is used in rfissa, a dish associated with the countryside.{{Cite web|last=Idrissi|first=Abdelbaar Mounadi|date=2018-12-18|title=Anny Gaul: "The Cuisine of the City of Tetouan"|url=https://legation.org/anny-gaul-the-cuisine-of-the-city-of-tetouan/|access-date=2021-10-28|website=Tangier American Legation Museum|language=en-US|archive-date=2022-05-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519093252/https://legation.org/anny-gaul-the-cuisine-of-the-city-of-tetouan/|url-status=live}}

Fenugreek is used in Eritrean and Ethiopian cuisines.{{Cite web | first=Alevtina | last=Gall | author2=Zerihun Shenkute | title=Ethiopian Traditional and Herbal Medications and their Interactions with Conventional Drugs | url=http://ethnomed.org/clinical/pharmacy/ethiopian-herb-drug-interactions | work=EthnoMed | publisher=University of Washington | date=November 3, 2009 | access-date=January 27, 2011 | archive-date=March 19, 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190319012225/http://ethnomed.org/clinical/pharmacy/ethiopian-herb-drug-interactions | url-status=live }} The word for fenugreek in Amharic is abesh (or abish), and the seed is used in Ethiopia as a natural herbal medicine in the treatment of diabetes.

Yemenite Jews following the interpretation of Rabbi Shelomo Yitzchak (Rashi) believe fenugreek, which they call hilbah, hilbeh, hilba, helba, or halba "חילבה", to be the Talmudic rubia.{{cn|date=June 2022}} When the seed kernels are ground and mixed with water, they greatly expand; hot spices, turmeric, and lemon juice are added to produce a frothy relish eaten with a sop. The relish is also called hilbeh; it is reminiscent of curry.{{cn|date=June 2022}} It is eaten daily and ceremonially during the meal of the first and/or second night of the Jewish New Year, Rosh Hashana.This is based on the assumption that the Aramaic name רוביא corresponds to it. (Karetot 6a; Horiyot 12a) Rabbenu Nissim at the end of Rosh Hashana, citing the custom of R Hai Gaon. This follows Rashi's translation of רוביא, cited as authoritative by Tur and Shulchan Aruch OC 583:1. But Abudirham interprets רוביא as black-eyed peas.

In Yemen, a small amount of oud al hilba (عود الحلبة), which appears to be the same as ashwagandha, is traditionally added to ground fenugreek seeds before they are mixed with water to prepare the hulbah paste. This is believed to aid in digestion and more importantly to prevent or lessen the maple-syrup smell that usually occurs when consuming fenugreek.

{{Infobox nutritional value

| name = Fenugreek seed

| kJ = 1352

| water = 8.8 g

| protein = 23 g

| fat = 6.4 g

| carbs = 58 g

| fiber = 25 g

| calcium_mg = 176

| iron_mg = 34

| magnesium_mg = 191

| phosphorus_mg = 296

| potassium_mg = 770

| sodium_mg = 67

| zinc_mg = 2.5

| manganese_mg = 1.23

| vitC_mg = 3

| thiamin_mg = 0.322

| riboflavin_mg = 0.366

| niacin_mg = 1.64

| vitB6_mg = 0.6

| folate_ug = 57

| source_usda = 1

| note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/171324/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]

}}

In a 100-gram reference amount, fenugreek seeds provide {{convert|323|kcal|kJ|order=flip}} of food energy and contain 9% water, 58% carbohydrates, 23% protein, and 6% fat. Fenugreek seeds provide calcium at 14% of the Daily Value (DV, table).{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}} Fenugreek seeds (per 100 grams) are a rich source of protein (46% DV), dietary fiber, B vitamins, and dietary minerals, particularly manganese (59% DV) and iron (262% DV) (table).

Fenugreek dietary supplements are manufactured from powdered seeds into capsules, loose powders, teas, and liquid extracts in many countries. No high-quality evidence supports that these products have any clinical effectiveness.

Fenugreek is sometimes used as animal feed. It provides a green fodder palatable to ruminants. The seeds are also used to feed fish and domestic rabbits.Heuzé V., Thiollet H., Tran G., Lebas F., 2018. Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum). Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/242 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180328231329/https://www.feedipedia.org/node/242 |date=2018-03-28 }}

Fenugreek seeds and leaves contain sotolone, which imparts the aroma of fenugreek and curry in high concentrations, and maple syrup or caramel in lower concentrations.{{cite web|title=3-Hydroxy-4,5-dimethylfuran-2(5H)-one; CID=62835|url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Sotolone|publisher=PubChem, US National Library of Medicine|date=3 March 2019|access-date=17 March 2019|archive-date=15 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615210917/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Sotolone|url-status=live}} Fenugreek is used as a flavoring agent in imitation maple syrup or tea, and as a dietary supplement.

Constituents of fenugreek seeds include flavonoids, alkaloids, coumarins, vitamins, and saponins; the most prevalent alkaloid is trigonelline and coumarins include cinnamic acid and scopoletin.{{cite journal|last1=Ouzir|first1=M|last2=El Bairi|first2=K|last3=Amzazi|first3=S|title=Toxicological properties of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum graecum)|journal=Food and Chemical Toxicology|year= 2016|volume=96|pages=145–54|pmid=27498339|doi=10.1016/j.fct.2016.08.003}} Research into whether fenugreek reduces biomarkers in people with diabetes and with prediabetic conditions is of limited quality.{{cite journal|last1=Gong|first1=J|last2=Fang|first2=K|last3=Dong|first3=H|last4=Wang|first4=D|last5=Hu|first5=M|last6=Lu|first6=F|title=Effect of Fenugreek on Hyperglycaemia and Hyperlipidemia in Diabetes and Prediabetes: a Meta-analysis|journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology|volume=194|pages=260–268|date=2 August 2016|pmid=27496582|doi=10.1016/j.jep.2016.08.003}}

As of 2023, no high-quality evidence has been found for whether fenugreek is safe and effective in relieving dysmenorrhea{{cite journal|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD002124.pub2|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|title=Dietary supplements for dysmenorrhoea|year=2016|volume=2016|page=CD002124|pmid=27000311|last1=Pattanittum|first1=Porjai|last2=Kunyanone|first2=Naowarat|last3=Brown|first3=Julie|last4=Sangkomkamhang|first4=Ussanee S|last5=Barnes|first5=Joanne|last6=Seyfoddin|first6=Vahid|last7=Marjoribanks|first7=Jane|issue=3|pmc=7387104}} or improving lactation during breastfeeding.{{cite journal | last1=Foong | first1=Siew Cheng | last2=Tan | first2=May Loong | last3=Foong | first3=Wai Cheng | last4=Marasco | first4=Lisa A | last5=Ho | first5=Jacqueline J | last6=Ong | first6=Joo Howe | title=Oral galactagogues (natural therapies or drugs) for increasing breast milk production in mothers of non-hospitalised term infants | journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume=2020 | issue=5 | date=2020-05-18 | pages=CD011505 | issn=1465-1858 | pmid=32421208 | pmc=7388198 | doi=10.1002/14651858.cd011505.pub2}} Studies of fenugreek are characterized as having variable, poor experimental design and quality, including small numbers of subjects, failure to describe methods, inconsistency and duration of dosing, and not recording adverse effects.

Because research on the potential biological effects of consuming fenugreek has provided no high-quality evidence for health or antidisease effect, fenugreek is not approved or recommended for clinical use by the United States Food and Drug Administration.

Although once a folk remedy for an insufficient milk supply when nursing, no good evidence indicates that fenugreek is effective or safe for this use, nor is it useful in traditional practices for treating dysmenorrhea, inflammation, diabetes, or any human disorder.

The use of fenugreek has the potential for serious adverse effects, as it may be unsafe for women with hormone-sensitive cancers. Fenugreek is not safe for use during pregnancy, as it has possible abortifacient effects and may induce preterm uterine contractions.

Some people are allergic to fenugreek, including those with peanut allergy or chickpea allergy. Fenugreek seeds can cause diarrhea, dyspepsia, abdominal distention, flatulence, and perspiration, and impart a maple-like smell to sweat, urine, or breast milk. A risk of hypoglycemia exists, particularly in people with diabetes, and it may interfere with the activity of antidiabetic drugs. Because of the high content of coumarin-like compounds in fenugreek, it may interfere with the activity and dosing of anticoagulants and antiplatelet drugs.

Fenugreek sprouts, cultivated from a single specific batch of seeds imported from Egypt into Germany in 2009, were implicated as the source of the 2011 outbreak of Escherichia coli O104:H4 in Germany and France.{{cite magazine| url=https://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2011/07/e-coli-3-years/ | magazine=Wired | first=Maryn | last=McKenna | title=E. coli: A Risk for 3 More Years From Who Knows Where | date=2011-07-07}} Identification of a common producer and a single batch of fenugreek seeds was evidence for the origin of the outbreaks.{{cite journal|display-authors=3|last1=King|first1=L. A.|last2=Nogareda|first2=F.|last3=Weill|first3=F.-X.|last4=Mariani-Kurkdjian|first4=P.|last5=Loukiadis|first5=E.|last6=Gault|first6=G.|last7=Jourdan-DaSilva|first7=N.|last8=Bingen|first8=E.|last9=Mace|first9=M.|last10=Thevenot|first10=D.|last11=Ong|first11=N.|last12=Castor|first12=C.|last13=Noel|first13=H.|last14=Van Cauteren|first14=D.|last15=Charron|first15=M.|last16=Vaillant|first16=V.|last17=Aldabe|first17=B.|last18=Goulet|first18=V.|last19=Delmas|first19=G.|last20=Couturier|first20=E.|last21=Le Strat|first21=Y.|last22=Combe|first22=C.|last23=Delmas|first23=Y.|last24=Terrier|first24=F.|last25=Vendrely|first25=B.|last26=Rolland|first26=P.|last27=de Valk|first27=H.|title=Outbreak of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli O104:H4 Associated With Organic Fenugreek Sprouts, France, June 2011|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=54|issue=11|year=2012|pages=1588–1594|issn=1058-4838|doi=10.1093/cid/cis255|pmid=22460976|doi-access=free}}

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