Fonio

File:SEN_Village_Chief_Theodore.jpg of southern Senegal]]

Fonio, also sometimes called findi or acha, is the term for two cultivated grasses in the genus Digitaria that are important crops in parts of West Africa.{{cite book |title=Fonio (Acha) |url=https://www.nap.edu/read/2305/chapter/6 |publisher=In: Lost Crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains, Chapter 3, US National Academies Press |access-date=22 December 2019 |date=1996|doi=10.17226/2305 |isbn=978-0-309-04990-0 }} It is a vital food source in many rural areas, especially in the mountains of Fouta Djalon, Guinea, but it is also cultivated in Mali, Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, and Senegal. Cruz, Jean-François (2004). Magazine on Low External Input and Sustainable Agriculture. Vol. 20. Nr. 1. pp. 16–17.{{cite web |last=Levinson |first=Jessica |date=1 September 2018 |title=Whole grains: Fonio |url=https://www.todaysdietitian.com/newarchives/0918p12.shtml |access-date=22 December 2019 |publisher=Today's Dietitian}} The global fonio market was estimated at 721,400 tonnes in 2020.{{Cite web |title=2022 Fonio global market overview today |url=https://www.tridge.com/intelligences/fonio |website=Tridge}} Guinea annually produces the most fonio in the world, accounting for over 75% of the world's production in 2019.{{cite web|url=https://www.tridge.com/intelligences/fonio/production |title=Fonio global production and top producing countries |publisher=Tridge |date= |accessdate=2021-12-28}} The name fonio (borrowed into English from French) is from Wolof foño.{{Cite book |last1=Seignobos |first1=Christian |title=Le Nord-Cameroun à travers ses mots: Dictionnaire de termes anciens et modernes: Province de l'extrême-nord |last2=Tourneux |first2=Henry |date=2002 |publisher=Karthala Editions |isbn=2845862458 |page=107 |language=fr}} In West Africa, the species black fonio (Digitaria iburua) and white fonio (Digitaria exilis) are cultivated; the latter is the economically more important crop.{{Cite book |last1=Cruz |first1=Jean-François |title=Fonio, an African cereal |last2=Béavogui |first2=Famoï |last3=Dramé |first3=Djibril |last4=Diallo |first4=Thierno Alimou |date=2016 |publisher=Cirad [UMR Qualisud] IRAG, Institut de recherche agronomique de Guinée |isbn=978-2-87614-720-1 |location=Montpellier] [Conakry (Guinée)}}

Fonio is a glumaceous monocot belonging to the grass family Poaceae and the genus Digitaria. While hundreds of these crabgrass species exist, only a few of them are produced for their grains. It is a small annual herbaceous plant with an inflorescence containing two or three racemes. The racemes have spikelets grouped in twos, threes, or fours, with a sterile and a fertile flower producing the fonio grain. Fonio has a short growing season and is well adjusted to harsh environments. The size of its root system, which can extend down to more than one meter in depth, is advantageous in periods of drought and helps with its adaptation to poor soils. Once considered a humble and often overlooked grain commonly known as the "cereal of the poor," fonio is now gaining attention in urban West Africa. Its unique cooking properties and nutritional benefits are sparking renewed interest in this once underrated staple.

File:Winnowing fonio.jpg, Senegal]]

File:Acha (Fonio).jpg

Types

=White fonio=

White fonio, Digitaria exilis, also called "hungry rice" by Europeans, is the most common of a diverse group of wild and domesticated Digitaria species that are harvested in the savannas of West Africa. Fonio has the smallest seeds of all species of millet. It has potential to improve nutrition, boost food security,{{cite web | url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2022/jul/07/fonio-indigenous-crops-africa-food-security?CMP=Share_iOSApp_Other | title='Fonio just grows naturally': Could ancient indigenous crops ensure food security for Africa? | website=TheGuardian.com | date=7 July 2022 }} foster rural development, and support sustainable use of the land.

Nutritious, gluten-free, and high in dietary fiber,{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/voraciously/wp/2019/12/17/is-fonio-the-new-quinoa-one-chef-hopes-the-tiny-west-african-grain-will-be/|title=Is fonio the new quinoa? One chef hopes the tiny West African grain will be|last=Heil|first=Emily|date=December 17, 2019|newspaper=Washington Post|access-date=2019-12-21}} fonio is one of the world's fastest-growing cereals, reaching maturity in as little as six to eight weeks. The grains are used to make porridge, couscous, bread, and beer.

=Black fonio=

Black fonio, D. iburua, also known as iburu, is a similar crop grown in several countries of West Africa, particularly Nigeria, Togo, and Benin. Like white fonio, it is nutritious, fast-growing, and has the benefit of maturing before other grains, allowing for harvest during the "hungry season."{{Cite web |title=Black Fonio - Arca del Gusto |url=https://www.fondazioneslowfood.com/en/ark-of-taste-slow-food/black-fonio/ |access-date=2023-02-27 |website=Slow Food Foundation |language=en-US}} However, it contains considerably more protein compared to D. exilis.

Black fonio is mostly cultivated in rural communities and is rarely sold commercially, even in West African cities.

Cultivation and processing

File:Climate zone.jpg

=Climate and attributes=

Fonio is cultivated in all West Africa as a staple crop.{{Citation |last1=Adoukonou-Sagbadja |first1=H. |title=Indigenous knowledge and traditional conservation of fonio millet (Digitaria exilis, Digitaria iburua) in Togo |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-5283-5_4 |pages=39–55 |access-date=2023-12-06 |place=Dordrecht |publisher=Springer Netherlands |isbn=978-1-4020-5282-8 |last2=Dansi |first2=A. |last3=Vodouhè |first3=R. |last4=Akpagana |first4=K.|series=Topics in Biodiversity and Conservation |date=2006 |volume=3 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-5283-5_4 }} Guinea is the biggest producer of fonio with a production of {{convert|483,906|t|ST}} and a cultivated surface area of {{convert|590,129|ha|acre}} in 2021, followed by Nigeria ({{convert|86,609|t|ST}}) and Mali ({{convert|47,664|t|ST}}).{{Cite web |title=FAOSTAT |url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL |access-date=2023-12-06 |website=www.fao.org}}

Fonio grows in dry climates without irrigation, and is unlikely to be a successful crop in humid regions.{{Cite book |url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog/2305 |title=Lost Crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains |date=1996-02-14 |publisher=National Academies Press |isbn=978-0-309-04990-0 |location=Washington, D.C. |doi=10.17226/2305}} It is planted in light (sandy to stony) soils, and will grow in poor soil.{{Citation |last1=Abdul |first1=Suleiman Dangana |title=Fonio (Digitaria spp.) Breeding |date=2019 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23108-8_2 |work=Advances in Plant Breeding Strategies: Cereals |pages=47–81 |access-date=2023-12-06 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-030-23107-1 |last2=Jideani |first2=Afam I. O.|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-23108-8_2 }} Fonio is cultivated at sea level in Gambia, Sierra Leone and Guinea-Bissau,{{Cite web |title=AgriGuide - AgriGuide |url=http://agriguide.org/index.php?what=agriguide&id=185&language=en |access-date=2023-12-08 |website=agriguide.org}} but it is otherwise mostly cultivated in altitudes ranging between {{convert|400|and|1500|m|ft}}. The growth cycle ranges from 70–130 days, depending on variety. It is mostly grown in areas with an average annual rainfall of {{convert|900-1000|mm|in}}.{{Cite journal |last1=Kanlindogbe |first1=Cyrille |last2=Sekloka |first2=Emmanuel |last3=Zinsou |first3=Valérien Amégnikin |last4=Natta |first4=Armand |date=2020 |title=Diversité des techniques et pratiques culturales du fonio (Digitaria exilis S.) en Afrique de l'Ouest (synthèse bibliographique) |journal=BASE |pages=192–202 |doi=10.25518/1780-4507.18695 |issn=1780-4507|doi-access=free }}

Fonio plants are medium in height. Indeed, D. exilis can reach a height of {{convert|80|cm|in}}, and D. iburua a height of {{convert|150|cm|in}}. The ploidy level for the species ranges from diploid (2n), tetraploid (4n), to hexaploid (6n).{{Cite journal |last1=Adoukonou-Sagbadja |first1=H. |last2=Schubert |first2=V. |last3=Dansi |first3=A. |last4=Jovtchev |first4=G. |last5=Meister |first5=A. |last6=Pistrick |first6=K. |last7=Akpagana |first7=K. |last8=Friedt |first8=W. |date=2007-07-02 |title=Flow cytometric analysis reveals different nuclear DNA contents in cultivated Fonio (Digitaria spp.) and some wild relatives from West-Africa |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00606-007-0552-z |journal=Plant Systematics and Evolution |volume=267 |issue=1–4 |pages=163–176 |doi=10.1007/s00606-007-0552-z |issn=0378-2697}} Like many other grasses, fonio has a C₄ carbon fixation, which makes it drought tolerant.

=Ploughing and sowing=

The ploughing is done by the men by hand, animal traction or with tractors. The sowing is generally done by hand by the women, depending on the onset of the rainy season. The fonio plant grows quickly; some landrace reach maturity in 8 weeks. It is, however, a weak weed competitor at the beginning of its growth, so weeding is important in the first development stages.{{Cite journal |last1=Ballogou |first1=Vénérande Y. |last2=Soumanou |first2=Mohamed M. |last3=Toukourou |first3=Fatiou |last4=Hounhouigan |first4=Joseph D. |date=2014-06-02 |title=Indigenous Knowledge on Landraces and Fonio-Based Food in Benin |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03670244.2013.811388 |journal=Ecology of Food and Nutrition |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=390–409 |doi=10.1080/03670244.2013.811388 |pmid=24884554 |issn=0367-0244}}

=Harvest=

Fonio is labor-intensive to harvest and process. In some regions, the mature fonio plants are uprooted, but the most common method is to cut the straws with knives and sickles which often leads to wounds on the hands. Women then gather the sheaves into cylindrical stacks or horizontal beams to store the sheaves and allow them to dry before the threshing without overheating.{{Cite book |last1=Cruz |first1=Jean-François |url=https://www.quae-open.com/produit/35/9782759216352/le-fonio-une-cereale-africaine |title=Le fonio, une céréale africaine |last2=Beavogui |first2=Famoï |last3=Dramé |first3=Djibril |date=2011-06-15 |publisher=éditions Quae |isbn=978-2-7592-1040-4 |doi=10.35690/978-2-7592-1040-4}} The threshing is then done by trampling on the plants or by beating the plants with rigid rods or more flexible sticks

The fonio plants are prone to lodging in the soil, which makes potential mechanization of the harvest processes difficult.

=Dehusking=

After the threshing, the fonio grains are still in their husk and the small grains make husk removal difficult and time-consuming. Traditional methods include pounding it in a mortar with sand, and then separating the grains and sand, or "popping" it over a flame and then pounding it, which yields a toasted-color grain (a technique used among the Akposso). The invention of a simple fonio husking machine offers an easier mechanical way to dehusk.{{Cite journal |last1=David |first1=O.A. |last2=Jolayemi |first2=O.L. |last3=Akomolafe |first3=G.F. |last4=Olawuni |first4=I.J. |last5=Jimoh |first5=A |date=2019-03-04 |title=Phyto-extraction ability of <i>Digitaria exilis</i> (Fonio) to heavy metals |journal=Nigerian Journal of Biotechnology |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=43 |doi=10.4314/njb.v35i2.6 |issn=0189-1731|doi-access=free }}

= Gender role =

Gender role plays a big part in the cultivation of fonio; tasks are distributed differently between men and women. Women do the weeding, the threshing by trampling, the cleaning as well as the drying and processing, while men do the harvest and the threshing by beating. Women's role is predominant in fonio's production.{{Cite journal |last1=Diop |first1=Baye Magatte |last2=Gueye |first2=Mame Codou |last3=Agbangba |first3=Codjo Emile |last4=Cisse |first4=Ndiaga |last5=Deu |first5=Monique |last6=Diack |first6=Omar |last7=Fofana |first7=Amadou |last8=Kane |first8=Ndjido Ardo |last9=Ndir |first9=Khadidiatou Ndoye |last10=Ndoye |first10=Ibrahima |last11=Ngom |first11=Ablaye |last12=Leclerc |first12=Christian |last13=Piquet |first13=Marie |last14=Vigouroux |first14=Yves |last15=Zekraoui |first15=Leila |date=2018-08-05 |title=Fonio (Digitaria exilis (Kippist) Stapf): A Socially Embedded Cereal for Food and Nutrition Security in Senegal |journal=Ethnobiology Letters |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=150–165 |doi=10.14237/ebl.9.2.2018.1072 |issn=2159-8126|doi-access=free }} Half of the cultivation's tasks are exclusively done by women, against 14% for men. The tasks assigned to women require patience and meticulousness, while those assigned to men call for strength.

= Effect of processing methods on nutrient value =

Before consumption, fonio grains must be processed using mechanical (dehusking, milling) or thermal (precooking, parboiling, roasting) methods. Depending on the processing method, the nutrient value may be affected.{{Cite journal |last1=Koreissi-Dembélé |first1=Yara |last2=Fanou-Fogny |first2=Nadia |last3=Hulshof |first3=Paul J.M. |last4=Brouwer |first4=Inge D. |date=March 2013 |title=Fonio (Digitaria exilis) landraces in Mali: Nutrient and phytate content, genetic diversity and effect of processing |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0889157512001330 |journal=Journal of Food Composition and Analysis |language=en |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=134–143 |doi=10.1016/j.jfca.2012.07.010}}{{Cite journal |last1=Ballogou |first1=Vénérande Y. |last2=Sagbo |first2=Fresnellia S. |last3=Soumanou |first3=Mohamed M. |last4=Manful |first4=John T. |last5=Toukourou |first5=Fatiou |last6=Hounhouigan |first6=Joseph D. |date=March 2015 |title=Effect of processing method on physico-chemical and functional properties of two fonio (Digitaria exilis) landraces |journal=Journal of Food Science and Technology |language=en |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=1570–1577 |doi=10.1007/s13197-013-1150-4 |issn=0022-1155 |pmc=4348282 |pmid=25745226}}

Regarding the macronutrients, the carbohydrate content remains higher when the grains are precooked rather than roasted. The protein content is much lower after milling because the bran that gets removed contains a lot of protein. The highest protein content is achieved when parboiling. The lipid content is increased when roasted and decreased when milled or precooked.

Regarding micronutrients, the iron and zinc content remains the highest when parboiled while milling leads to a loss due to the removal of the bran. Phytate, an anti-nutritional factor that inhibits the absorption of minerals like iron and zinc, is reduced by washing and cooking but is still high enough to inhibit adequate mineral absorption.

Generally, parboiled fonio shows the best nutritional composition when compared to the other processing methods. However, parboiling fonio does not lead to as efficient redistribution of nutrients as is the case with parboiled rice. Additionally, the process of parboiling changes the color of the fonio grains which is disliked by some consumers.

Commercialization outside of Africa

File:Yolélé Fonio.jpg

Fonio has been relatively unknown outside the African continent until recently, when companies in Europe and the United States began to import the grain from West Africa, often citing its ecological and nutritional benefits in their marketing.{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/jul/06/fonio-beer-climate-friendly-grain|title=Could an ancient, climate-friendly crop be the future of beer?|first=Maria C.|last=Hunt|date=6 July 2023|newspaper=The Guardian}}

= United States =

In the United States, Yolélé Foods, led by Senegalese-American chef Pierre Thiam, started importing and selling fonio in 2017. Thiam hopes to introduce Americans to the grain while simultaneously supporting sustainable and traditional agriculture in Burkina Faso, Ghana, Mali and Senegal. What is considered to be a peasant's food in West Africa is now sold in luxury grocery stores in the United States.{{Cite web |last=le Cam |first=Morgane |title=Fonio, the 'seed of the universe' that could revolutionise African agriculture - Geneva Solutions |url=https://genevasolutions.news/explorations/11-african-solutions-for-the-future-world/fonio-the-seed-of-the-universe-that-could-revolutionise-african-agriculture |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=genevasolutions.news |date=28 August 2020 |language=en}}

However, Thiam positions his project as part of a larger movement to elevate the economic power of African farmers, who for centuries have been suppressed by Western hegemony in the global food system.

= European Union =

In December 2018, the European Commission approved commercialization of fonio as a novel food in the European Union, after submission by the Italian company Obà Food to manufacture and market new food products. These products include fonio pasta, revealing a desire to change fonio to be more recognizable to the European palate.{{Cite news |date=18 December 2018 |title=Fonio: EU Novel Food Approval |work=Official Journal of the European Union |publisher=European Commission |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32018R2016&from=EN}}{{Cite news |last=Michail |first=Niamh |date=18 June 2018 |title=Italian firm Obà brings Fonio to Europe |work=Foodnavigator.com |url=https://www.foodnavigator.com/Article/2018/07/16/Italian-firm-Oba-brings-ancient-grain-fonio-to-Europe |access-date=22 December 2019}}{{Cite web |last=Southey |first=Flora |date=November 4, 2019 |title='You cannot find fonio pasta elsewhere in the world': Obà Food claims industry first with gluten-free ancient grain |url=https://www.foodnavigator.com/Article/2019/11/04/Oba-develops-pasta-made-from-gluten-free-ancient-grain-fonio |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=foodnavigator.com |language=en-GB}}

Since this initial approval, fonio has gradually become more popular and more accessible in Europe. By 2021, the EU was importing 422 metric tonnes (465.2 tons) of fonio, a significant increase from the 172 metric tonnes (189.6 tons) imported in 2016.{{Cite web |title=The European market potential for fonio {{!}} CBI |url=https://www.cbi.eu/market-information/grains-pulses-oilseeds/fonio/market-potential |access-date=2023-04-20 |website=www.cbi.eu}}