Fused quartz

File:Einstein gyro gravity probe b.jpg experiment. It is one of the most accurate spheres ever manufactured, deviating from a perfect sphere by no more than 40 atoms of thickness.

{{cite web|last=Hardwood |first=W.|title=Spacecraft launched to test Albert Einstein's theories|url=http://www.spaceflightnow.com/delta/d304/|work=Spaceflight Now|date=20 April 2004|access-date=14 May 2009}}]]

Fused quartz, fused silica or quartz glass is a glass consisting of almost pure silica (silicon dioxide, SiO₂) in amorphous (non-crystalline) form. This differs from all other commercial glasses, such as soda-lime glass, lead glass, or borosilicate glass, in which other ingredients are added which change the glasses' optical and physical properties, such as lowering the melt temperature, the spectral transmission range, or the mechanical strength. Fused quartz, therefore, has high working and melting temperatures, making it difficult to form and less desirable for most common applications, but is much stronger, more chemically resistant, and exhibits lower thermal expansion, making it more suitable for many specialized uses such as lighting and scientific applications.

The terms fused quartz and fused silica are used interchangeably but can refer to different manufacturing techniques, resulting in different trace impurities. However fused quartz, being in the glassy state, has quite different physical properties compared to crystalline quartz despite being made of the same substance.{{Cite news|url=http://www.swiftglass.com/quartz-vs-fused-silica-whats-the-difference/|title=Quartz vs. Fused Silica: What's the Difference?|date=2015-09-08|work=Swift Glass|access-date=2017-08-18|language=en-US}} Due to its physical properties it finds specialty uses in semiconductor fabrication and laboratory equipment, for instance.

Compared to other common glasses, the optical transmission of pure silica extends well into the ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, so is used to make lenses and other optics for these wavelengths. Depending on manufacturing processes, impurities will restrict the optical transmission, resulting in commercial grades of fused quartz optimized for use in the infrared, or in the ultraviolet. The low coefficient of thermal expansion of fused quartz makes it a useful material for precision mirror substrates or optical flats.{{cite book |doi=10.1002/14356007.a12_365 |chapter=Glass |title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry |year=2000 |last1=De Jong|first1=Bernard H. W. S. |last2=Beerkens |first2=Ruud G. C. |last3=Van Nijnatten|first3=Peter A. |isbn=3-527-30673-0}}

Manufacture

Fused quartz is produced by fusing (melting) high-purity silica sand, which consists of quartz crystals. There are four basic types of commercial silica glass:

Type I is produced by induction melting natural quartz in a vacuum or an inert atmosphere.
Type II is produced by fusing quartz crystal powder in a high-temperature flame.
Type III is produced by burning SiCl₄ in a hydrogen-oxygen flame.
Type IV is produced by burning SiCl₄ in a water vapor-free plasma flame.

Quartz contains only silicon and oxygen, although commercial quartz glass often contains impurities. Two dominant impurities are aluminium and titanium[https://www.heraeus.com/en/hqs/fused_silica_quartz_knowledge_base/properties/properties.aspx Chemical purity of fused quartz / fused silica], www.heraeus-quarzglas.com which affect the optical transmission at ultraviolet wavelengths. If water is present in the manufacturing process, hydroxyl (OH) groups may become embedded which reduces transmission in the infrared.

Fusion

Melting is effected at approximately 2200 °C (4000 °F) using either an electrically heated furnace (electrically fused) or a gas/oxygen-fuelled furnace (flame-fused).{{Cite book |last=Varshneya |first=Arun K. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1101101049 |title=Fundamentals of inorganic glasses |date=2019 |others=John C. Mauro |isbn=978-0-12-816226-2 |location=Amsterdam |oclc=1101101049}} Fused silica can be made from almost any silicon-rich chemical precursor, usually using a continuous process which involves flame oxidation of volatile silicon compounds to silicon dioxide, and thermal fusion of the resulting dust (although alternative processes are used). This results in a transparent glass with an ultra-high purity and improved optical transmission in the deep ultraviolet. One common method involves adding silicon tetrachloride to a hydrogen–oxygen flame.{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}

Product quality

Fused quartz is normally transparent. The material can, however, become translucent if small air bubbles are allowed to be trapped within. The water content (and therefore infrared transmission) of fused quartz is determined by the manufacturing process. Flame-fused material always has a higher water content due to the combination of the hydrocarbons and oxygen fueling the furnace, forming hydroxyl [OH] groups within the material. An IR grade material typically has an [OH] content below 10 ppm.{{Cite web |title=Fused quartz - Acemap |url=https://ddescholar.acemap.info/field/2009270740 |access-date=2023-07-04 |website=ddescholar.acemap.info}}

Applications

Many optical applications of fused quartz exploit its wide transparency range, which can extend well into the ultraviolet and into the near-mid infrared. Fused quartz is the key starting material for optical fiber, used for telecommunications.

Because of its strength and high melting point (compared to ordinary glass), fused quartz is used as an envelope for halogen lamps and high-intensity discharge lamps, which must operate at a high envelope temperature to achieve their combination of high brightness and long life. Some high-power vacuum tubes used silica envelopes whose good transmission at infrared wavelengths facilitated radiation cooling of their incandescent anodes.

Because of its physical strength, fused quartz was used in deep diving vessels such as the bathysphere and benthoscope and in the windows of crewed spacecraft, including the Space Shuttle and International Space Station.{{Cite web|url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1120&context=nasapub&sei-redir=1|title=Transparent Armor Ceramics as Spacecraft Windows|last=Salem|first=Jonathan|date=2012|website=Journal of the American Ceramic Society}} Fused quartz was used also in composite armour development.[http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=AD524050&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf Evaluation of Siliceous Cored Armor for the XM60 Tank] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605071506/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=AD524050&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf |date=June 5, 2011 }}

In the semiconductor industry, its combination of strength, thermal stability, and UV transparency makes it an excellent substrate for projection masks for photolithography. File:EPROM Intel C1702A.jpg with fused quartz window in the top of the package]] Its UV transparency also finds use as windows on EPROMs (erasable programmable read only memory), a type of non-volatile memory chip which is erased by exposure to strong ultraviolet light. EPROMs are recognizable by the transparent fused quartz (although some later models use UV-transparent resin) window which sits on top of the package, through which the silicon chip is visible, and which transmits UV light for erasing.{{Cite web|title=Intel 1702A 2K (256 x 8) UV Erasable PROM|url=http://kormus.cz/mvt/datasheety/C1702A.pdf}}{{Cite web|title=CPU History - EPROMs|url=http://www.cpushack.com/EPROM.html|access-date=2021-05-12|website=www.cpushack.com}}

Due to the thermal stability and composition, it is used in 5D optical data storage{{cite news|last1=Kazansky|first1=P.|title=Eternal 5D data storage via ultrafast-laser writing in glass|url=http://spie.org/newsroom/technical-articles/6365-eternal-5d-data-storage-via-ultrafast-laser-writing-in-glass|publisher=SPIE Newsroom|date=11 March 2016|display-authors=etal}} and in semiconductor fabrication furnaces.{{Cite web |title=Fused Quartz and Silica Plates for Semiconductor Applications |url=https://www.heraeus.com/en/hca/products_and_solutions_hca/products_by_geometry/plates_hca/plates_semiconductor.html |access-date=2022-08-07 |website=Heraeus Holding GmbH |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=Quartz Properties |url=https://finkenbeiner.com/gedata.html |access-date=2022-08-07 |website=finkenbeiner.com}}

Fused quartz has nearly ideal properties for fabricating first surface mirrors such as those used in telescopes. The material behaves in a predictable way and allows the optical fabricator to put a very smooth polish onto the surface and produce the desired figure with fewer testing iterations. In some instances, a high-purity UV grade of fused quartz has been used to make several of the individual uncoated lens elements of special-purpose lenses including the Zeiss 105 mm f/4.3 UV Sonnar, a lens formerly made for the Hasselblad camera, and the Nikon UV-Nikkor 105 mm f/4.5 (presently sold as the Nikon PF10545MF-UV) lens. These lenses are used for UV photography, as the quartz glass can be transparent at much shorter wavelengths than lenses made with more common flint or crown glass formulas.

Fused quartz can be metallised and etched for use as a substrate for high-precision microwave circuits, the thermal stability making it a good choice for narrowband filters and similar demanding applications. The lower dielectric constant than alumina allows higher impedance tracks or thinner substrates.

=Refractory material applications=

Fused quartz as an industrial raw material is used to make various refractory shapes such as crucibles, trays, shrouds, and rollers for many high-temperature thermal processes including steelmaking, investment casting, and glass manufacture. Refractory shapes made from fused quartz have excellent thermal shock resistance and are chemically inert to most elements and compounds, including virtually all acids, regardless of concentration, except hydrofluoric acid, which is very reactive even in fairly low concentrations. Translucent fused-quartz tubes are commonly used to sheathe electric elements in room heaters, industrial furnaces, and other similar applications.

Owing to its low mechanical damping at ordinary temperatures, it is used for high-Q resonators, in particular, for wine-glass resonator of hemispherical resonator gyro.[http://www.sensorsmag.com/sensors/acceleration-vibration/an-overview-mems-inertial-sensing-technology-970 An Overview of MEMS Inertial Sensing Technology], February 1, 2003{{cite journal|last1=Penn|first1=Steven D.|last2=Harry|first2=Gregory M.|last3=Gretarsson|first3=Andri M.|last4=Kittelberger|first4=Scott E.|last5=Saulson|first5=Peter R. |author-link5=Peter Saulson|last6=Schiller|first6=John J.|last7=Smith|first7=Joshua R.|last8=Swords|first8=Sol O.|title=High quality factor measured in fused silica|journal=Review of Scientific Instruments|volume=72|issue=9|pages=3670–3673|year=2001|doi=10.1063/1.1394183|arxiv=gr-qc/0009035|bibcode=2001RScI...72.3670P|s2cid=11630697}} For the same reason fused quartz is also the material used for modern glass instruments such as the glass harp and the verrophone, and is also used for new builds of the historical glass harmonica, giving these instruments a greater dynamic range and a clearer sound than with the historically used lead crystal.

Quartz glassware is occasionally used in chemistry laboratories when standard borosilicate glass cannot withstand high temperatures or when high UV transmission is required. The cost of production is significantly higher, limiting its use; it is usually found as a single basic element, such as a tube in a furnace, or as a flask, the elements in direct exposure to the heat.

Properties of fused quartz

The extremely low coefficient of thermal expansion, about {{val|5.5|e=-7|up=K}} (20–320 °C), accounts for its remarkable ability to undergo large, rapid temperature changes without cracking (see thermal shock).

File:Fused silica phosphorescence from a 24 million watt flash.jpg

Fused quartz is prone to phosphorescence and "solarisation" (purplish discoloration) under intense UV illumination, as is often seen in flashtubes. "UV grade" synthetic fused silica (sold under various tradenames including "HPFS", "Spectrosil", and "Suprasil") has a very low metallic impurity content making it transparent deeper into the ultraviolet. An optic with a thickness of 1 cm has a transmittance around 50% at a wavelength of 170 nm, which drops to only a few percent at 160 nm. However, its infrared transmission is limited by strong water absorptions at 2.2 μm and 2.7 μm.

"Infrared grade" fused quartz (tradenames "Infrasil", "Vitreosil IR", and others), which is electrically fused, has a greater presence of metallic impurities, limiting its UV transmittance wavelength to around 250 nm, but a much lower water content, leading to excellent infrared transmission up to 3.6 μm wavelength. All grades of transparent fused quartz/fused silica have nearly identical mechanical properties.

=Refractive index=

The optical dispersion of fused quartz can be approximated by the following Sellmeier equation:{{cite journal|last1=Malitson|first1=I. H.|title=Interspecimen Comparison of the Refractive Index of Fused Silica|journal=Journal of the Optical Society of America|volume=55|issue=10|pages=1205–1209|date=October 1965|doi=10.1364/JOSA.55.001205 |bibcode=1965JOSA...55.1205M|url=https://www.opticsinfobase.org/DirectPDFAccess/BF3D3BCC-E051-50FE-1CC45E714EE1496A_52806/josa-55-10-1205.pdf |access-date=2014-07-12}}

: $\varepsilon=n^2=1+\frac{0.6961663\lambda^2}{\lambda^2-0.0684043^2}+\frac{0.4079426\lambda^2}{\lambda^2-0.1162414^2} + \frac{0.8974794\lambda^2}{\lambda^2-9.896161^2},$

where the wavelength $\lambda$ is measured in micrometers. This equation is valid between 0.21 and 3.71 μm and at 20 °C. Its validity was confirmed for wavelengths up to 6.7 μm.{{cite journal |last1=Kitamura |first1=Rei |last2=Pilon |first2=Laurent |last3=Jonasz |first3=Miroslaw |title=Optical Constants of Silica Glass From Extreme Ultraviolet to Far Infrared at Near Room Temperatures |journal=Applied Optics |volume=46 |issue=33 |pages=8118–8133 |date=2007-11-19 |doi=10.1364/AO.46.008118 |pmid=18026551 |url=http://www.seas.ucla.edu/%7Epilon/Publications/AO2007-1.pdf |access-date=2014-07-12|bibcode=2007ApOpt..46.8118K |s2cid=17169097 }} Experimental data for the real (refractive index) and imaginary (absorption index) parts of the complex refractive index of fused quartz reported in the literature over the spectral range from 30 nm to 1000 μm have been reviewed by Kitamura et al. and are [http://www.seas.ucla.edu/~pilon/downloads.htm available online].

Its quite high Abbe Number of 67.8 makes it among the lowest dispersion glasses at visible wavelengths, as well as having an exceptionally low refractive index in the visible (n_d = 1.4585). Note that fused quartz has a very different and lower refractive index compared to crystalline quartz which is birefringent with refractive indices n_o = 1.5443 and n_e = 1.5534 at the same wavelength. Although these forms have the same chemical formula, their differing structures result in different optical and other physical properties.

=List of physical properties=

Density: 2.203 g/cm³
Hardness: 5.3–6.5 (Mohs scale), 8.8 GPa
Tensile strength: 48.3 MPa
Compressive strength: > 1.1 GPa
Bulk modulus: ~37 GPa
Rigidity modulus: 31 GPa
Young's modulus: 71.7 GPa
Poisson's ratio: 0.17
Lamé elastic constants: λ = 15.87 GPa, μ = 31.26 GPa
Coefficient of thermal expansion: 5.5 × 10⁻⁷/K (average 20–320 °C)
Thermal conductivity: 1.3 W/(m·K)
Specific heat capacity{{Broken anchor|date=2025-01-14|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=Heat capacity#Extensive and intensive quantities|reason= The anchor (Extensive and intensive quantities) has been deleted.}}: 45.3 J/(mol·K)
Softening point: ≈ 1665 °C
Annealing point: ≈ 1140 °C
Strain point: 1070 °C
Electrical resistivity: > 10¹⁸ Ω·m
Dielectric constant: 3.75 at 20 °C 1 MHz
Dielectric loss factor: less than 0.0004 at 20 °C 1 MHz typically 6 × 10⁻⁵ at 10 GHz{{Cite web|url=http://literature.cdn.keysight.com/litweb/pdf/5989-6424EN.pdf|title=Keysight Technologies GENESYS Concepts|website=Keysight Technologies}}
Dielectric strength: 250–400 kV/cm at 20 °C{{Cite web

| url = http://www.sciner.com/Opticsland/FS.htm

| title = Fused Silica

| website = OpticsLand

| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130602023507/http://www.sciner.com/Opticsland/FS.htm

| archive-date = 2013-06-02

| access-date = 2016-02-27

}}

Magnetic susceptibility: −11.28 × 10⁻⁶ (SI, 22 °C){{cite journal|last1=Wapler|first1=M. C.|last2=Leupold|first2=J.|last3=Dragonu|first3=I.|last4=von Elverfeldt|first4=D.|last5=Zaitsev|first5=M.|last6=Wallrabe|first6=U.|title=Magnetic properties of materials for MR engineering, micro-MR and beyond|journal=JMR|date=2014|volume=242|pages=233–242|doi=10.1016/j.jmr.2014.02.005|arxiv=1403.4760|bibcode=2014JMagR.242..233W|pmid=24705364|s2cid=11545416}}
Hamaker constant: A = 6.5 × 10⁻²⁰ J.
Surface tension: 0.300 N/m at 1800–2400 °C[http://www.opticsinfobase.org/ome/abstract.cfm?uri=ome-2-8-1101 Surface tension and viscosity measurement of optical glasses using a scanning CO₂ laser ]
Index of refraction: n_d = 1.4585 (at 587.6 nm)
Change of refractive index with temperature: 1.28 × 10⁻⁵/K (20–30 °C)
Transmission range: Cutoff – 160 to 5000 nm, with a deep absorption band at 2730 nm. Best transmittance – 180 to 2700 nm.Optical Engineering Science by Stephen Rolt - Wiley Publishing 2020 Page 211–213
Stress-optic coefficients: p₁₁ = 0.113, p₁₂ = 0.252.
Abbe number: Vd = 67.82{{Cite web|url=https://refractiveindex.info/?shelf=glass&book=fused_silica&page=Malitson|title=Refractive Index of Fused Silica (Fused Quartz)|website=Refractive Index|access-date=2017-08-18}}

References

External links

[https://books.google.com/books?id=4OIDAAAAMBAJ&dq=Popular+Science+1930+plane+%22Popular+Mechanics%22&pg=-PA97 "Frozen Eye to Bring New Worlds into View" Popular Mechanics, June 1931] General Electrics, West Lynn Massachusetts Labs work on large fuzed quartz blocks

Category:Glass types

Category:Low-expansion glass

Category:Chemical engineering

Category:Glass compositions

Category:Silicon dioxide

Category:Transparent materials

Category:Quartz