Galerius

Galerius was born in the Danube provinces, either near Serdica"Maximianus Galerius in Dacia haud longe a Serdica natus", Eutropii Breviarum IX. 22. or at the place where he later built his palace named after his mother – Felix Romuliana (Gamzigrad), in the province later known as Dacia Ripensis."ortus Dacia Ripensi ibique sepultus est; quem locum Romulianam ex vocabulo Romulae matris appellarat", Epitome de Caesaribus 40.16.{{sfn|von Bülow|2023|p=575}} Under this palace, an older villa has been found that is sometimes interpreted as Galerius' birthplace.{{sfn|Kuhoff|2001|p=122}} His mother, Romula, had left Roman Dacia (today Romania) and settled in New Dacia south of the Danube because of the Carpians' attacks.{{citation | last = Lactantius | title = de Mortibus Persecutorum}}, chapter 9{{Cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0705.htm|title = Church Fathers: Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died (Lactantius)}}{{rp |19}} He originally followed his father's occupation, that of a herdsman, where he was nicknamed "Armentarius", herdsman ({{langx|la|armentum|lit=herd}}).{{sfn|PLRE|loc=Vol. 1|p= 574}} His original cognomen was "Maximinus", but he changed it to "Maximianus" after becoming Caesar.

File:Istanbul - Museo archeol. - Diocleziano (284-305 d.C.) - Foto G. Dall'Orto 28-5-2006.jpg

He served with distinction as a soldier under Emperors Aurelian and Probus, and in 293, at the establishment of the Tetrarchy, was designated Caesar along with Constantius Chlorus, receiving in marriage Diocletian's daughter Valeria (later known as Galeria Valeria), and at the same time being entrusted with the care of the Illyrian provinces. After a few years campaigning against Sarmatians and Goths on the Danube, he received command of the legions on the eastern imperial limits. Soon after his appointment, Galerius was dispatched to Egypt to fight the rebellious cities Busiris and Coptos.Rees, Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, p. 14, citing William Leadbetter, "Galerius and the Revolt of the Thebaid, 293/4," Antichthon 34 (2000) 82–94.

{{See also|Roman–Iranian relations|Roman–Persian Wars}}

In 294, Narseh, a son of Shapur I, who had been passed over for the Sassanid succession, came into power in Persia. Narseh probably moved to eliminate Bahram III, a young man installed by a noble named Vahunam in the wake of Bahram II's death in 293.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=292}}{{citation | last = Williams | title = Diocletian}}{{rp |69}} In early 294, Narseh sent Diocletian the customary package of gifts, but within Persia, he was destroying every trace of his immediate predecessors, erasing their names from public monuments. He sought to identify himself with the warlike reigns of Ardashir (r. 226–241) and Shapur (r. 241–272), who had sacked Roman Antioch and captured Emperor Valerian.{{rp |69–70}}

In 295 or 296, Narseh declared war on Rome. He appears to have first invaded western Armenia, retaking the lands delivered to Tiridates in the peace of 287. He occupied the lands there until the following year.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=292}}{{sfn|Southern|2001|p=149}}{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=17}}Ammianus Marcellinus 23.5.11. The historian Ammianus Marcellinus, circa 320–395, is the only source detailing the initial invasion of Armenia.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=651–652}} Southern (1999, 149) dates the invasion to 295; Barnes (1982, 17, 293) mentions an earlier, unsuccessful invasion by Narseh based on the fact that the title Persici Maximi was given to all four emperors; Odahl (2004, 59) concurs with Barnes and suggests that Saracen princes in the Syrian desert collaborated with Narseh's invasion. Narseh then moved south into Roman Mesopotamia, where he inflicted a severe defeat on Galerius, then commander of the eastern forces, in the region between Carrhae (Harran, Turkey) and Callinicum (Raqqa, Syria).{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=17}} Diocletian may or may not have been present at the battle,{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=652}} but presented himself soon afterwards at Antioch, issuing an official version of events which placed all the blame for the affair upon Galerius. In Antioch, Diocletian forced Galerius to walk a mile in advance of his imperial cart while still clad in the purple robes of an emperor.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=292–293}}{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=17}} David Stone Potter reads a symbolic message in the display: the loss at Carrhae was due not to the failings of the empire's soldiers, but to the failings of their commander, and Galerius' failures would not be accepted.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=293}} Another scholar, Roger Rees, suggests that Galerius' position at the head of the caravan was merely the conventional organization of an imperial progression, designed to show a Caesar's deference to his Augustus.{{sfn|Rees|2004|p=14}}

File:Arch-of-Galerius-1.jpg on the Arch of Galerius at Thessaloniki, Greece, the city where Galerius carried out most of his administrative actions.{{sfn|Southern|2001|p=151}}]]

Galerius' army was reinforced probably in the spring of 298 by new contingents collected from the empire's Danubian holdings.{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=18}} Narseh did not advance from Armenia and Mesopotamia leaving Galerius to lead the offensive in 298 with an attack on northern Mesopotamia via Armenia.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=293}} Diocletian may or may not have been present to assist the campaign.Lactantius (DMP 9.6) derides Diocletian for his absence from the front; Southern (1999, 151, 335–336), on the basis of a dating of the African campaigns one year earlier than that given by Barnes, places him at Galerius' southern flank. Southern sees the Persian campaign progressing along the lines of Marcus Aurelius' (r. 161–180) earlier, unsuccessful Parthian campaign, which also had an emperor manning the southern flank. Narseh retreated to Armenia to fight Galerius' force, putting himself at a disadvantage; the rugged Armenian terrain was favorable to Roman infantry, but not to Sassanid cavalry. Local aid gave Galerius the advantage of surprise over the Persian forces, and he defeated Narseh in two successive battles.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=293}}{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=18}} During the second encounter, the Battle of Satala in 298, Roman forces seized Narseh's camp, his treasury, his harem, and his wife.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=293}}{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=18}} Narseh's wife would live out the remainder of the war in Daphne, a suburb of Antioch, serving as a constant reminder to the Persians of the Roman victory.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=293}}

Galerius advanced into Media and Adiabene, winning continuous victories, most prominently near Theodosiopolis (Erzurum),{{sfn|Southern|2001|p=151}} and securing Nisibis (Nusaybin) before 1 October 298. The historian Timothy Barnes argues that he moved down the Tigris, taking Ctesiphon. Barnes' main argument for this is that Eusebius' biography of Constantine mentions that the later emperor had seen the ruins of Babylon according to this work.{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=18}} Patricia Southern also argues that he took Ctesiphon based on the uncertainty of the location where the seizure of Narseh's wife and harem took place. However, no source ever specifically claims that Ctesiphon was sacked and many other historians argue Diocletian prevented him from moving further into Sasanian territory.{{sfn|Southern|2001|p=150}}{{cite book |last1=Dignas |first1=Beate |last2=Winter |first2=Engelbert |title=Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity: Neighbours and Rivals |date=13 September 2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-84925-8 |pages=29–30 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MG2hqcRDvJgC&pg=PA51 |language=en}}

Narseh had previously sent an ambassador to Galerius to plead for the return of his wife and children, but Galerius had dismissed this ambassador, reminding him of how Shapur had treated Valerian.{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=18}} In any case, the Romans treated Narseh's captured family well, perhaps seeking to evoke comparisons to Alexander and his beneficent conduct towards the family of Darius III.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=293}} Peace negotiations began in the spring of 299, with both Diocletian and Galerius presiding. Their magister memoriae (secretary) Sicorius Probus was sent to Narseh to present terms.{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=18}}

The conditions of the Peace of Nisibis were heavy:{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=293}} Persia would give up territory to Rome, making the Tigris the boundary between the two empires. Further terms specified that Armenia was returned to Roman domination with the fort of Ziatha as its border; Caucasian Iberia would pay allegiance to Rome under a Roman appointee; Nisibis, now under Roman rule, would become the sole conduit for trade between Persia and Rome; and Rome would exercise control over the five satrapies between the Tigris and Armenia: Ingilene, Sophanene (Sophene), Arzanene (Aghdznik), Corduene, and Zabdicene (near modern Hakkâri, Turkey). These regions included the passage of the Tigris through the Anti-Taurus range; the Bitlis pass, the quickest southerly route into Persian Armenia; and access to the Tur Abdin plateau. With these territories, Rome would have an advance station north of Ctesiphon, and would be able to slow any future advance of Persian forces through the region.The acceptance of these terms by the Persians also meant that Syriac culture would earn long-term influence in the region on both sides of the Tigris. With the heavily Christian Syriac peoples so near their border, Armenia would also become susceptible to Christian influence in later years, leading to its eventual conversion under Tiridates. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay, p. 293. Under the terms of the peace, Tiridates would regain both his throne and the entirety of his ancestral claim, and Rome would secure a wide zone of cultural influence in the region.{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=18}} Because the empire was able to sustain such constant warfare on so many fronts, it has been taken as a sign of the essential efficacy of the Diocletianic system and the goodwill of the army towards the tetrarchic enterprise.{{sfn|Southern|2001|p=150}}

File:Rare aureus of Galerius Caesar.jpg of Galerius as Caesar. The reverse depicts the god Jupiter.{{efn|Emperor Maximian apparently never issued any coinage when he was Caesar, so coins with the name "Maximianus Caesar" must represent Galerius. The only source that refers to Maximian as having been Caesar is Eutropius.Nixon 2015, [https://books.google.com/books?id=lbQwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 p. 47]}}]]

After the abdication of Diocletian in 305 and the elevation of Constantius I and Galerius to the rank of Augustus, two new Caesars were required to take their place. Seeking to enhance his authority, Galerius gave the positions to men who were very much his creatures.{{citation | last = Gibbon | first = Edward | title = Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire | chapter = 14}} Maximinus Daza, a nephew of Galerius with little experience or formal education, was assigned the command of Egypt and Syria. Valerius Severus, Galerius' comrade in arms, was sent to govern Italy and Africa from a base in Mediolanum. Officially Severus reported to the western emperor, but he was absolutely devoted to the commands of his benefactor Galerius, whose power was thus established over three-quarters of the empire.

Constantius died at Eboracum in 306 and the legions elevated his son Constantine to the position of Augustus. Galerius only discovered this when he received a letter from Constantine, who apologized for the informal nature of his promotion but nonetheless treated it as valid. The first emotions of Galerius were surprise, disappointment, and rage, and as he could seldom restrain his passions, he threatened to burn both the letter and the messenger.{{sfn|Barnes|1981|pp=28–29}}Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62.Odahl, 79–80.{{sfn|Rees|2004|p=160}} Calmer consideration made him reluctant to open a civil war: Constantine had the devotion of Constantius' legions, and the young man's character had impressed Galerius during an encounter at Nicomedia. Galerius decided on a compromise position, allowing Constantine to rule the provinces beyond the Alps but giving him only the title of Caesar and the fourth rank among the Tetrarchs. Severus received the title of Augustus.

File:Гамзиград 04а.jpg in Zaječar, Serbia, today a UNESCO World Heritage Site]]

Soon afterward, Maxentius, son of Maximian and husband of Galerius' daughter Valeria Maximilla, rebelled in Italy.{{cite web|url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/maxentiu.htm|title=Maxentius (306–312 A.D.)|last=DiMaio|first=Michael Jr.|work=De Imperatoribus Romanis|access-date=20 July 2013|archive-date=4 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220304140124/http://www.roman-emperors.org/maxentiu.htm|url-status=bot: unknown}} A need for additional revenue had caused Galerius to disregard Italy's traditional exemption from any form of taxation, and Maxentius exploited local indignation to declare himself emperor. An army led by Severus hastened to Rome, hoping to catch the usurper by surprise, but Maximian, who had previously commanded many of the invading troops, came out of retirement in support of his son. The army switched sides, and Severus was arrested and later executed.

Leaving his long-time friend and military companion Licinius to guard the Danube, Galerius personally invaded Italy with a powerful army collected from Illyricum and the East. He forced his way as far as Narni, within sixty miles of Rome, but skillful preparations by Maximian prevented him from capturing any territory along the way.

File:Portrait of Galerius, Thessaloniki.jpg ]]

The strength of the enemy's position made Galerius send peace overtures to Rome, professing his fatherly affection for Maxentius and promising to be generous if the rebels cooperated. Maxentius refused the offer, and meanwhile compromised the loyalty of the invasion force by sending bribes to the Illyrian legions. Galerius was compelled to began a withdrawal from Italy, and it was only with great difficulty that he managed to stop his veterans deserting him. In frustration, Galerius allowed his legions to ravage the countryside as they passed northwards. Maxentius declined to make a general engagement.

With so many emperors now in existence, in 308 Galerius, together with the retired emperor Diocletian and the now active Maximian, called an imperial conference at Carnuntum on the River Danube to rectify the situation and bring some order back into the government. Here it was agreed that Licinius would become Augustus in the West, with Constantine as his Caesar. In the East, Galerius remained Augustus and Maximinus remained his Caesar. Maximian was to retire, and Maxentius was declared a usurper.

Galerius' plan soon failed. Envious of Licinius' promotion, Maximinus also claimed the title of Augustus. Maximian, still not willing to retire, declared himself emperor in Arles in opposition to Constantine, who was campaigning against the Franks. An additional usurper, Domitius Alexander, arose in Africa, bringing the number of claimants of imperial power up to seven. Galerius maintained his seniority and ceased trying to encroach on the other emperors' domains; he spent his later years in recreation and in public works, such as an extensive logging and drainage project at Lake Pelso (modern Lake Balaton).

{{Main|Diocletian Persecution}}

File:Thessaloniki-Arch of Galerius (detail).jpg in Thessaloniki.]]

Christians had lived pleasantly during most of the rule of Diocletian. The persecutions that began with an edict of 24 February 303, were credited by Christians to Galerius' work, as he was a fierce advocate of the old ways and old gods. Christian houses of assembly were destroyed, for fear of sedition in secret gatherings. Diocletian was not anti-Christian during the first part of his reign, and historians have claimed that Galerius decided to prod him into persecuting them by secretly burning the Imperial Palace and blaming it on Christian saboteurs. Regardless of who was at fault for the fire, Diocletian's rage was aroused and he began one of the last and greatest Christian persecutions in the history of the Roman Empire.{{citation needed|date=April 2019}}

It was at the insistence of Galerius that the last edicts of persecution against the Christians were published, beginning in 303, and this policy of repression was maintained by him until the appearance of the general edict of toleration, issued in Serdica{{cite book |first=Edward |last=Gibbon |author-link=Edward Gibbon |title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pksA7j6ZXLgC&pg=PA132 |year= 2008 |publisher=Cosimo, Inc. |isbn=978-1-60520-122-1 |page=132}}{{cite book |first1=Ramsay |last1=MacMullen |author-link=Ramsay MacMullen |first2=Eugene |last2=Lane |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q_lvnk-z5QUC&pg=PA219 |title=Paganism and Christianity, 100–425 C.E.: A Sourcebook |publisher=Fortress Press |date= 1992 |page=219 |isbn=9781451407853}}{{cite book |first1=Sarolta Anna |last1=Takacs |first2=Eric H. |last2=Cline |author2-link=Eric H. Cline |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SPcvCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA202 |title=The Ancient World |publisher=Routledge |date=2015 |page=202 |isbn=9781317458395}} in April 311, apparently during his last bout of illness (see Edict of Toleration by Galerius). Galerius's last request was that Christians should pray for him as he suffered with a painful and fatal illness.{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oOMkBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA338 |title=Birth of the Church: From Jesus to Constantine, AD 30–312 |first=J. |last=Davidson |publisher=Monarch Books |year=2005 |isbn=978-1854246585}}

Initially one of the leading figures in the persecutions, Galerius later admitted that the policy of trying to eradicate Christianity had failed, saying: "wherefore, for this our indulgence, they ought to pray to their God for our safety, for that of the republic, and for their own, that the republic may continue uninjured on every side, and that they may be able to live securely in their homes." Lactantius gives the text of the edict in his moralized chronicle of the bad ends to which all the persecutors came, De Mortibus Persecutorum.{{citation | last = Lactantius | title = De Mortibus Persecutorum |trans-title=On the Deaths of the Persecutors | chapter = 34, 35}} This marked the end of official persecution of Christians, which was officially legalized two years later by Constantine and Licinius in the Edict of Milan.

File:Bust of Galerius, Canellopoulos Museum.jpg – once part of an over life-sized statue, possibly Galerius.{{Cite book |last=Weitzmann |first=Kurt |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=efLuB7QPDm8C&pg=PA13 |title=Age of Spirituality: Late Antique and Early Christian Ar |date=1977 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |pages=13–14|isbn=9780870991790 }}{{Cite web |title=Marble portrait of Roman Emperor |url=https://camu.gr/en/item/portraito-tou-aftokratora-galeriou/ |website=Canellopoulos Museum |quote=}}]]

Galerius died in late April or early May 311{{citation | last = Corcoran | first = Simon | title = The empire of the tetrarchs: imperial pronouncements and government, AD 284–324 | page = 187}} from a horribly gruesome disease described by EusebiusEusebius, Historia Ecclesiae 352–356 and Lactantius,Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 33 possibly some form of bowel cancer, gangrene or Fournier gangrene.

Galerius was buried in his mausoleum at Gamzigrad-Romuliana, which was part of the palace he built at his birthplace, today's Zaječar in Serbia. Several lumps composed of corroded iron ring mail (lorica hamata) have been found at the site. This mail armour may have been worn by the wax figure of the emperor that was burned during the imperial funeral and apotheosis ceremony.RING MAIL FROM GALERIUS' BURIAL RITE AT GAMZIGRAD (ROMULIANA), ANTE PORTAM AUREAM : STUDIA IN HONOREM PROFESSORIS ALEKSANDAR JOVANOVIĆ, Belgrade 2017, 239–250. MIROSLAV B. VUJOVIĆ. The entire site has been inscribed into the World Heritage List in June 2007.

According to Lactantius, a Christian and adviser to Constantine, Galerius affirmed his Dacian identity and avowed himself the enemy of the Roman name once made emperor, even proposing that the empire should be called, not the Roman, but the Dacian Empire, much to the horror of the patricians and senators. Lactantius further states that Galerius exhibited anti-Roman attitude as soon as he had attained the highest power, treating the Roman citizens with ruthless cruelty, like the conquerors treated the conquered, all in the name of the same treatment that the victorious Trajan had applied to the conquered Dacians, forefathers of Galerius, two centuries before.Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 23

Galerius Peak in Antarctica is named after Emperor Galerius.[https://data.aad.gov.au/aadc/gaz/scar/display_name.cfm?gaz_id=139000 Galerius Peak.] SCAR Composite Gazetteer of Antarctica

{{Simplified Tetrarchs family tree}}

• Arch of Galerius and Rotunda
• Civil wars of the Tetrarchy

{{Notelist}}

{{reflist}}

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• {{cite book |last=Leadbetter |year=2010 |first=Bill |title=Galerius and the Will of Diocletian |publisher=Routledge |place=London |isbn=978-0-415-40488-4 |url={{googlebooks|QBBjy7l-NWQC|plainurl=y}} |ref={{sfnref|Leadbetter}} }}
• Lenski, Noel. "The Reign of Constantine." In The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine, edited by Noel Lenski, 59–90. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006b. Hardcover {{ISBN|0-521-81838-9}} Paperback {{ISBN|0-521-52157-2}}
• Mackay, Christopher S. "Lactantius and the Succession to Diocletian." Classical Philology 94:2 (1999): 198–209.
• Mathisen, Ralph W. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20220326091219/http://www.roman-emperors.org/dioclet.htm Diocletian (284–305 AD.)]." De Imperatoribus Romanis (1997). Accessed 16 February 2008.
• Odahl, Charles Matson. Constantine and the Christian Empire. New York: Routledge, 2004. Hardcover {{ISBN|0-415-17485-6}} Paperback {{ISBN|0-415-38655-1}}
• Pohlsander, Hans. The Emperor Constantine. London & New York: Routledge, 2004a. Hardcover {{ISBN|0-415-31937-4}} Paperback {{ISBN|0-415-31938-2}}
• Pohlsander, Hans. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20220317022900/http://www.roman-emperors.org/conniei.htm Constantine I (306 – 337 AD)]." De Imperatoribus Romanis (2004b). Accessed 16 December 2007.
• {{cite book |last=Potter |first=David S. |title=The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395 |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |isbn=0-415-10057-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/romanempireatbay0000pott }}
• {{Cite book|last=Rees|first=Roger|title=Diocletian and the Tetrarchy|year=2004|location=Edinburgh, UK|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=9780748616602|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wV5oAAAAMAAJ}}
• {{cite book |last=Southern|first=Pat. |title=The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |isbn=0-415-23944-3}}
• Rostovtzeff, Michael. The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1966. {{ISBN|978-0-19-814231-7}}
• Treadgold, Warren. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997. {{ISBN|0-8047-2630-2}}
• Williams, Stephen. Diocletian and the Roman Recovery. New York: Routledge, 1997. {{ISBN|0-415-91827-8}}

{{Refend}}

{{Commons}}

• [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/edict-milan.html Medieval Sourcebook]: Edict of Toleration by Galerius, 311.
• [http://www.roman-empire.net/decline/galerius.html Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus]
• [https://www.ucalgary.ca/~vandersp/Courses/texts/lactant/lactpers.html Lactantius about Galerius in his "De Mortibus Persecutorum" chapter XXIII & XXVII]
• [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06341a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia]

{{s-start}}

{{s-hou|||c. 258|May|311}}

{{s-reg}}

{{s-bef | before=Diocletian}}

{{s-ttl | title=Roman emperor

| years=305–311

| with=Constantius I, Severus II, Constantine I, Maxentius,
Licinius, Maximian and Maximinus II}}

{{s-aft | after=Maximinus Daza, Licinius
and Constantine I}}

{{s-off}}

{{s-bef | before= Diocletian |before2=Maximian}}

{{s-ttl | title=Roman consul| years=294 |regent1= Constantius Chlorus}}

{{s-aft | after= Nummius Tuscus |after2=G. Annius Anullinus}}

{{s-bef | before= Diocletian |before2=Constantius Chlorus}}

{{s-ttl | title=Roman consul | years=297 |regent1= Maximian}}

{{s-aft | after= Anicius Faustus Paulinus |after2=Virius Gallus}}

{{s-bef | before= Diocletian |before2=Maximian}}

{{s-ttl | title=Roman consul| years=300 |regent1= Constantius Chlorus}}

{{s-aft | after= T. Flavius Postumius Titianus |after2=Virius Nepotianus}}

{{s-bef | before= T. Flavius Postumius Titianus |before2=Virius Nepotianus}}

{{s-ttl | title=Roman consul| years=302 |regent1= Constantius Chlorus}}

{{s-aft | after= Diocletian |after2=Maximian}}

{{s-bef | before= Diocletian |before2=Maximian}}

{{s-ttl | title=Roman consul| years=305–308 |regent1= Constantius Chlorus,
Maximian,
Constantine I,
Valerius Severus,
Maximinus Daza,
Diocletian,
Maxentius,
Valerius Romulus}}

{{s-aft | after= Licinius |after2=Constantine I |after3=Maxentius |after4=Valerius Romulus}}

{{s-bef | before= Tatius Andronicus |before2=Pompeius Probus |before3=Maxentius}}

{{s-ttl | title=Roman consul| years=311 |regent1= Maximinus Daza ,
G. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus,
Aradius Rufinus}}

{{s-aft | after= Constantine I |after2=Licinius |after3=Maxentius}}

{{s-end}}

{{Roman emperors}}

{{Pharaohs}}

{{authority control}}

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